Review On Himalayan Springs: A Common Source of A Common Resource in Himalaya

International Journal of Environment, Ecology, Family
and Urban Studies (IJEEFUS)

ISSN(P): 2250–0065; ISSN(E): 2321–0109
Vol. 11, Issue 1, Jun 2021, 19–32
© TJPRC Pvt. Ltd.
REVIEW ON HIMALAYAN SPRINGS: A COMMON SOURCE OF A COMMON

RESOURCE IN HIMALAYA
RENU LATA1*, SHIVANI JOSHI2, SAYANTA GHOSH3, R. K. SINGHAND4 & KIREET KUMAR5
1,2,3,4
G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Himachal Regional Centre, Mohal-Kullu,
Himachal Pradesh, India
5
G. B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment, Kosi-Katarmat, Almora, Uttrakhand, India
ABSTRACT
Springs are the most important natural freshwater resource of the mountainous region. Being affected by rapid
urbanisation, changing land use and land cover pattern, changing climate, seismic activity and fluctuating precipitation;
their condition is vastly declining with rapid changes in their watershed and recharge zones. As per Niti Aayog report,
there are five million springs throughout India, of which almost three million are in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR)
alone. Recently, it appears that the drying or reduced spring discharge is more common due to different man made
activities and climate change. Apart from these quantitative problems, the quality of spring water has also been reported
to be declining due to manmade and other developmental activities especially in the recharge zones of spring water and
Original Article
therefore it needs to be treated before using it for household purposes. Perception based study indicated that changes in
rainfall patterns due to climate change, catchment degradation, unrestricted land use, ignorance and inadequate
regulations are adversely impacting the spring discharge and creating water scarcity to people of Himalayan regions.
Therefore, the present review discusses the status of springs and role of changing climate and urbanisation as significant
factors that controls the qualitative and quantitative aspect of springs in Himalayan regions. It also discusses the need
and significance of the springshed management study in Himalayan regions.
KEYWORDS: Springs, Mountainous Region, Climate Change & Recharge Zones
Received: Apr 03, 2021; Accepted: Apr 23, 2021; Published: Jun 11, 2021; Paper Id.: IJEEFUSJUN20213
INTRODUCTION
Spring water is one of the main lifelines of the Himalayan regions of India. Natural mountain springs from
unconfined aquifers are an important source of water for people living in the region (Kumar et.al., 2014). The
Himalayan aquifer system is very complex controlled by various climates, physiology, geological sequences,
structural disturbances, large geographical diversity in aquifer structures and human control that limits its
representation as a single phase (Panwar 2020). Springs thrive with rich biodiversity and a thick vegetation cover.
Settlement near the river bank is perilous in the mountains. The river being in its most violent stage can be a major
threat. Therefore, the mountainous settlements are at higher elevation where water sources like springs and first
order streams are available. Preliminary surveys indicate that 80% -90% of people in Meghalaya, Sikkim and
Uttarakhand rely on spring water (ICIMOD 2015; Panwar 2020). Spring water is one of the significant
environmental indicators as its quality varies according to the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of
the media through which water flows (Birami et. al., 2019; Jasik et.al., 2017). The variation in Land Use/Land Cover
(LULC) pattern is hindering the recharge of the groundwater sources and increasing the surface runoff leading to
the complete wastage of water. The overgrowing construction activities, population and climate change is leading
www.tjprc.org editor@tjprc.org
20 Renu Lata*, Shivani Joshi, Sayanta Ghosh, R. K. Singhand & Kireet Kumar
towards polluted and perennial springs. Dissolved elements in spring water are strongly impacted by geographical sources
like mineral deposits, leaching, hydrothermal activities, and weathering processes (Birami et.al., 2019; Samia et.al., 2014).
The groundwater sources declining in a country like India with lots of river system is due to the unscientific and overuse of
water without focussing on their recharge. Therefore, different actions have been initiated to protect and replenish the
mountain springs.
Different Spring Types
It is important to recognize the type of spring to know how they behave over time and space. The following are the types of
spring:
 Depression spring: It is a type of spring that mainly found in very low-lying areas when the water table reaches
the land surface due to the diversity of the soil. A local drainage system is created and a spring develops in the
local discharge area(Fig.1a).
 Contact spring: This is a spring type that has developed in the areas where relatively permeable rocks covers low
permeability rocks. Lithological interaction is generally indicated by a line of springs. These springs are commonly
related with mountain-perched aquifers (Fig.1b).
 Joint/Fracture spring: The joint/fracture spring is a type of spring that occurs because of the existence of
articulated or permeable fracture areas in low permeability rocks. Groundwater movement in this type of source is
primarily due to fractures that can tap both shallow and deep aquifers. Springs develop when these fractures cross
the surface of the earth (Fig.1c).
 Fault spring: It is a type of source that occurs through faults that result in favourable conditions for spring formation
in the form of pre-hydrostatic ground water (Fig.1d). An impervious rock can be exposed to an unconfined aquifer
because of faults.
 Karst spring: Springs located in the region of the limestone belt areas are known as the karst spring (Fig.1e). Spring
in limestone areas can be interconnected to geographical depressions formed by sink holes – depressions on the
earth surface is due to the dissolving of limestone beneath. Enormous amounts of water travel through the pits,
channels, courses and different openings created in limestone.
a) b) c)
Impact Factor (JCC): 5.8083 NAAS Rating: 3.58

Review on Himalayan Springs: A Common Source of a Common Resource in Himalaya 21
d) e)
Figure 1: (a-e): Different Types of Springs.
The quality and quantity of springs are changing rapidly all around the world. The major factors may include the
changing climatic conditions and other anthropogenic activities. Majority of the countries lack a proper assessment and
management of water security. Few of the case studies have been mentioned in this review from different countries like Ale
et.al., (2020); Cantonati et.al., (2020); Faniran et.al., (2020); Post et.al., (2013); Springer et.al., (2015). Water analysis
carried out in the district of Zumbi dos Palmares, Rio de Janeiro Brazil demonstrates noncompliance with Brazilian
guidelines; in majority of the samples where low pH values were observed, depicting the presence of acidic water (Portal
et.al., 2019). The samples also consist of faecal coliforms which makes it unsuitable for drinking. One of the typical problems
for Brazilian rural areas is bacteriological pollution (Portal et.al., 2019). Physico-chemical characteristics of Isinuka springs
in South Africa were analysed by Faniran et.al., (2001). Analysed water is neutral with pH values from 6.87 to 8.33,
temporarily hard and pungent in a couple of springs. This work concludes that the Isinuka spring contains high salt contents
and the outcomes show that it is not recommended for drinking purposes without appropriate treatment. Birami et.al., (2019)
studied the status of water sources in Iran. As per physio-chemical analysis, two different types of water (Ca-HCO3 and Na-
Cl type) were found in the study area. High values of as, Mn, Hg, 226Ra, 232Th and Fe were also observed in the collected
water samples. The main causes of the high concentration of these elements are thought to be underground thermal processes
and blending of spring water with warm water in the region (Birami et.al., 2019).
Therefore, globally the conditions of springs are more or less similar. The quality and quantity of springs are
deteriorating due to organic contamination, improper waste management, fertilizers, land degradation, subsurface thermal
processes, etc. Proper mitigation and adaptation measures are to be taken in the coming years to improve the condition of
water sources.
STATUS OF SPRINGS IN HIMALAYAN REGIONS
Spring water in the hilly regions are the essential source of water especially for the rural population (Gupta and Kulkarni
2018). In both the rural and urban areas of himalayan regions, spring water constitutes about one third of the entire water
supplies for millions of people living in the region (Siddique et.al., 2019).
Out of a total of 5 million springs all over India, about 3 million springs are in Indian Himalayan Regions only
(Gupta and Kulkarni 2018). In spite of their important role in fulfilling the requirement of water, himalayan springs have not
gotten their due consideration and are confronting the risk of drying up. As per different studies, many springs and springfed
streams in the region has either been reduced or drying up. Some studies on springs were taken up focusing on functional
relationship between spring discharge, precipitation patterns and springshed degradation; and further quality of spring water
(Rai et.al.,1998; Kumar and Rawat 1996; Joshi and Kothyari 2003; Thakur et.al., 2018). The mountain aquifer system has
been affected by unpredictable precipitation, seismic action and environmental degradation linked with alteration of
landuse/landcover for infrastructural advancement over the period of years (Gupta and Kulkarni 2018). Impacts of changing
climatic conditions on rainfall pattern and intensity, and decrease in winterprecipitation, the issue of drying springs is being
observed in the many locations of the Himalayan region (Kumar et.al., 2014). Many researchers have carried out the detailed
studies on springs of IHR like, Valdiya and Bartaya (1989); Bhandari and Joshi (2013); Agarwal et.al., (2016); Gupta and
Kulkarni (2018); Jasrotia et.al., (2019); Dungri et.al., (2018); Rawat et.al., (2018); Vishwakarma et.al., (2018); Ezugwu
et.al., (2019); Kumar et.al., (2019); Siddique et.al., (2019); Husain et.al., (2020a, 2020b); Panwar (2020); Taloor et.al.,
(2020a, 2020b); Chauhan et.al., (2020). Their study analysed the geological conditions of the springs along with the climatic
and anthropogenic factors affecting the quality and quantity of springs.
The problem of drying of springs arising out of changing hydrological cycle, increasing and competing demands
for water are becoming more acute in terms of availability and quality (Singh 1997). In the last two decades, numerous
springs either have dried-up or become seasonal, mainly due to anthropogenic activities in the entire region of Himalaya
(ICIMOD 2015). As per IPCC (2001), alteration in the duration and amount of the available water for rural water supply and
irrigation can threaten water security and agricultural productivity. Drying of springs attributed to escalation in the demand
of water, altering land use patterns and ecological debasement of the area (NITI Aayog 2018). Further, this problem of drying
of springs or decreasing discharge from springs aggravated mostly due to lack of structures or management work to conserve
the discharge from the spring sources. If these springs are properly developed, they will serve as a permanent origin of
drinking water to the locals of the remote and fragile areas. Recent climate change affects the spatiotemporal rainfall pattern
in the Indian Himalayan region, which also manifested the problem arises due to drying of the springs and this increasingly
felt across the IHR (Tambe et.al., 2012). Therefore, drying of springs and issues related to scarcity of water underscore the
necessity to increase the understanding of spring hydrology, specifically in IHR (Chinnasamy and Prathapar 2016). Unlike
watershed, which is larger extent of geographical area, springs have smaller extent of geographical area through which it
receives water. Therefore, springs resources need to be studied and managed at springshed level. Endeavors to maintain and
protect these springs from drying up and consequently to recharge them are attaining momentum, but still lot more studies
are necessary to carry out detail inventory of the springs, understanding the hydrogeology of the spring, its recharge and
discharge pattern and recharging strategy pertaining to climatic change. Serious aspects regarding the water crisis are thought
to be the misconceptions about solutions, which are nowadays being proposed (Frederiksen 1996). Therefore, it is very
important to understand how springs function in order to address the problem of drying springs (Sharma et.al., 2016). Further,
in IHR, scarcity of continuous and reliable data on spring resources puts challenges to water resource managers. Information
on seasonal changes in flows and quality of spring water, elevation, geology, soil and land use in spring catchment provides
a major step towards understanding the characteristics of hydrological regime of spring and helps in preparing strategies to
sustain spring discharge (Rani et.al., 2018). Many springs are drying up due to the scarcity of water in hilly terrain. More
than 70% of the residents solely rely on the spring water for domestic uses, which increase the need for monitoring of quality
and discharge of the springs in the region.
A few state governments as well as Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) are actively working towards
different capacity building and create awareness programmes about the significance and protection of springs throughout the
country. Table 1 shows IHR states and their dependency on springs.

Table 1: Dependency of Inhabitants on Springs in IHR

Percentage (%) of
No. of Villages with Total Number of
States Villages with
Springs Villages
Springs
Eastern Himalayan States
Arunachal Pradesh 2,086 5,589 37.3
Assam 2,997 26,395 11.4
Manipur 1,405 2,581 54.4
Meghalaya 3,810 6,839 55.7
Mizoram 453 830 54.6
Nagaland 639 1,428 44.7
Sikkim 425 451 94.2
Tripura 141 875 16.1
West Bengal(Darjeeling) 221 688 32.1
Western Himalayan States
Himachal Pradesh 2,597 20,690 12.6
Jammu & Kashmir 3,313 6,553 50.6
Uttarakhand 594 16,793 3.5
(Source: Gupta and Kulkarni 2018)
STATUS OF SPRINGS IN HIMACHAL PRADESH
Himachal Pradesh lies in the western Himalayan region of India. It is covered by Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh from its
north, Punjab from its west, Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh from its south and Tibet Autonomous Region from its east
(Figure. 2). The state is blessed with picturesque hilly terrain with various rivers flowing through them. It is enriched in
surface water and is quite deficient in groundwater resources due to the coarse geology of the region. There are many hot
springs along with cold springs in various places. The irrigation sector contributes most towards the major consumptive use
of water in the state. High altitude villages get the supply of water only from springs for household agricultural and other
purposed, specifically during the dry periods when the supply from rivers/streams is limited (Kumar et, al., 2014). Several
studies have been carried out on the qualitative and quantitative approaches of spring in Himachal Pradesh by different
researchers like, Gibbenbach et al., (1983); Singh et al., (2010); Naresh et.al., (2013); Bhardwaj (2014); Kumar et. al., (2014);
Thakur et. al., (2018); Anil (2020); Husain et.al., (2020a); Thakur et. al., (2020a, 2020b).
Figure 2: District Map of Himachal Pradesh.
According to the survey conducted by Bhardwaj (2014) in 169 Panchayat of 7 districts of Himachal Pradesh, out of
total, only 30.41% sources were in working conditions whereas, 69.59% were not working and were on the verge of drying
in future. More than 99% of the springs were in poor condition in Chamba district and only less than 1% of sources were
found working properly (Bhardwaj 2014). The conditions of the spring sources in Sirmour district shows slightly better than
Chamba district (Bhardwaj 2014). Comparatively in Solan District, the conditions of the spring sources (more than 53 %)
were quite good (Bhardwaj 2014). Table 2 shows the district wise data of the water resources of the seven districts of
Himachal Pradesh.
Table 2: Details on the Traditional Water Sources in Himachal Pradesh

Name of No. of Condition
Springs Ponds Wells Baories Others Total
Distt. Panchayats Good Poor
Sirmour 43 53 55 19 167 292 27 265
Hamirpur 10 2 58 60 120 54 66
Kullu 11 5 1 4 73 5 88 43 45
Kangra 42 9 20 116 338 141 624 237 387
Chamba 16 177 1 1 7 1 186 1 185
Shimla 29 5 10 22 108 1 146 38 108
Solan 18 23 16 15 133 1 188 100 88
(Source: Bhardwaj 2014)
Kumar et.al., (2014) studied the drying springs of Sirmour districts and their intervention methods through isotopic,
hydrologic and geomorphologic approach. Five spring samples were analysed from Dhouli Rao valley and four spring
samples were analysed from Kandela valley. According to them, the geomorphological setting of the valley showed either

check dam, contour bunding with gabion structure of rainwater conservation can be implemented to enhance the recharge of
springs in the region. Qualitative assessment of the water resources in Kullu valley was carried out by Thakur et.al., (2018).
Various factors influencing the changes in water sources are alteration of land use land cover pattern, changing climatic
conditions, change in precipitation pattern, developmental activities and absence of decentralised sewage treatment facilities.
The water in the Kullu valley is suitable for domestic purposes with few samples of comparatively high NO 3-, F-, Cl- and
TDS. These contaminants are the result of improper sewage treatment and geothermal activities. Periodic monitoring and
proper intervention measures have been suggested by Thakur et.al., (2018).
Husain et.al., (2020a) carried out the comparative study of springs by focussing on the hydrogeochemical
characteristics of cold & hot springs and other groundwater samples from Beas and Parbati valley. They divided the springs
according to their major ions present. The concentrations of Na + and Cl- have been found in excess in the samples of hot
springs. The dominance of HCO3-, Ca2+, Na+, Mg2+ have been observed in the samples of cold springs. The groundwater
samples did not show any anomalous ionic concentrations, therefore, considered suitable for drinking. Thakur et.al., (2020a)
carried out the study on spring water in Kullu valley for both domestic and agricultural purposes. About 14% of the spring
sample resulted in high nitrate. The quality of spring water is dependent on the sewage treatment, fertilizer and animal waste
of that region, thus the high nitrate content.
A pilot project on hydrogeological studies to identify recharge areas of 5 springs in Thanakasoga Gram Panchayat,
Sirmour district in Himachal Pradesh was implemented by People’s Science Institute (PSI) (Niti Ayog 2018). Spring sources
are located in 3 villages namely Luhali, Dhyali and Thanakasoga. The spring interventions work was carried out using
physical, vegetative and social measures (Gupta and Kulkarni 2018) which led to an increase in discharge of the spring water
and which further led to a more equitable water distribution mechanism amongst locals (Gupta and Kulkarni 2018). Improved
spring discharge enabled increased water availability for agricultural and other purposes and the social fencing helped in
decreasing bacteriological pollution within spring water.
HYDROGEOLOGY OF HIMACHAL PRADESH
Most of Himachal Pradesh is mountainous terrain with few small valleys covering approximately 15% of the total
geographical area. These valleys are consisting of alluvial deposits, which produce extensive aquifers and consequently
represents the porous formations. Kangra- Palampur and Indora-Nurpur valleys in Kangra district, Una valley in district Una,
Balh valley in Mandi district, Nalagarh valley in district Solan and Paonta valley in Sirmaur district are the widespread
valleys in Himachal Pradesh. The Siwalik and Sirmaur group indicates the tertiary formation in Himachal Pradesh.
Occurrence of those groups commonly observed in the western part of Himachal Pradesh and have northwest to southeast
trend. The Siwalik consists of conglomerate, sandstone, boulder and clay while the Sirmaur organization contains of shale,
sandstone and clay. Primary porosity and permeability withinside the tertiary formation is low to moderate and hence, these
aquifers do now no longer form high yielding aquifers.
The older rock formations of Proterozoic to Mesozoic eras formed of igneous and metamorphic rocks like slate,
granite, schist, gneiss, quartzite, phyllite, etc. These rock formations serve as poor aquifers due to their consolidated nature.
However, because of tectonic movements, they had been traversed through faults, thrust and joints, that have added to their
ground water potential. The groundwater quality in hard rocks and alluvial regions are good and suitable for household and
agricultural purposes. The yield potential of the hydrogeological formations is specified below in table -3 and the map is
shown in figure 3.
Table-3: Yield Potential of the Hydrogeological Formations in Himachal Pradesh

Hydrogeological
Age Rock Formation Districts
Characteristics
Porous Formations
Recent to sub Boulder, Cobble, Pebble, Kangra, Una, Solan, High Yield
Recent Sand, Silt, Clay, Sirmaur, Mandi and Kullu 30-75 m3 /hr
Fissured Formations
Conglomerate, Boulder Sandstone, Mandi, Bilaspur, Hamirpur, Moderate to Low Yield
Tertiary
Clay Kangra, Sirmaur, Solan, and Una. < 30 m3 /hr
Quartzite, Shale, Schist, Slate, Kullu, Mandi, Kinnaur, Lahaul &
Proterozoic to Moderate to Low Yield
Limestone, phyllite, dolomite, Spiti, Chamba, Kangra, Simla,
Mesozoic < 5 to 30 m3 /hr
Granite, Sandstone Solan, and Sirmaur.
Figure 3: Hydrogeological Map of Himachal Pradesh (Adopted from CGWB, NHR, Dharamsala).
NEED OF THE SPRINGSHED MANAGEMENT STUDY
The well-being of the current and the generations to come is dependent on maintaining the integrity of mountain ecosystems.
Yet, Mountains have low resilience and high vulnerability and are, therefore; under serious threat of drying springs and
streams on which the local population depends. Soil degradation, siltation and climate change are the other challenges faced
by the mountain regions. The maintenance and restoration of mountain ecosystem require long term micro-level monitoring
and action. Stream conservation or springshed management approach is one of the vital ways of maintenance and restoration.
Springhead approach basically implies that the conservation and proper maintenance of the natural springs for long
sustainability of spring water in order to enhance the water security of many people residing in fragile hilly regions.
Springshed management is an integral part to look in the development of such mountainous regions. The first systematic step
was undertaken by the Rural Management and Development Department, RM&DD, Government of Sikkim through the
Dhara Vikas Programme, even as smaller, deeply incisive pilots using the same concept were being undertaken in

Uttarakhand, Nagaland and Himachal Pradesh.
The need is to initiate a project on rejuvenating drying springs through environmentally friendly engineering tested
water recharge techniques which recharge ground water through rainfalls, control floods, check sedimentation and provide
regular water supply for consumption and for irrigation purposes to the local villagers.
DISCUSSIONS
Springs are symbolic of life, fertility, and vitality. The underground sources of the life-giving waters have naturally attracted
a religious significance for those living around them (Anil 2020). Cultures from various countries of the world including
India, in a broad sense, do share a belief in a special relationship with nature. Springs have a huge impact on our daily lives
for fulfilling the daily water requirement. But due to the mismanagement and ignorance, the condition of the springs are
deteriorating over time and the perennial springs have become seasonal and the seasonal become dry. The Indian government
has initiated different management programme for springs focussing specifically on the springs of Indian Himalayan Region.
Therefore, there is a need for proper data collection and inventory of springs for their better and regular monitoring. Regular
sampling and assessment of springs focussing on the Himalayan region for better examination of water quality monitoring
and discharge rate. The information regarding the geolocation of springs, the LULC pattern in its vicinity, its use and
conservation method should be duly gathered and collected in the common geodatabase for easy assessing and monitoring
of spring sources. There is also a need to understand and identify the recharge zones and aquifers of the respective springs.
Isotopic study is considered useful for the identification of the recharge zones. It will also aid in understanding the water
chemistry and quality of the springs. Proper assessment of the LULC pattern is also the need of the hour. The soil moisture
content, evapotranspiration and hydrological characteristics of a watershed are highly sensitive to spatio-temporal changes
in the natural cover (Panwar 2020). Therefore, hydrological models need to be implemented for understanding the land use
and cover changes. Government authorities autonomous institutions and NGOs are now working on the spring intervention
methods to effectively replenish the springs and hinder them from getting perennial or drying out. Government of Sikkim
initiated a programme, Dhara Vikas for assessing, managing and conserving the springs in the state. They did magnificent
work by implementing effective springshed methods and rejuvenated 50 springs and 5 lakes. The programme has ensued
about 900 million litres of annual groundwater recharge, apart from improving water availability for household and
agricultural purposes (Gupta and Kulkarni 2018). Therefore, such effective intervention methods should be implemented to
enhance the water quantity and quality of springs.
CONCLUSIONS
The freshwater in the earth is only 3% out of which only 0.5% is accessible to us. With a global population of 7.8 billion
people, it might be possible that after a while the water will become precious as well as rare like a gemstone. Therefore,
proper conservation methods have to be initiated at the regional level to improve the condition of groundwater and of springs.
Springs are the lifeline of the Himalayan region. Majority of the villages and towns of IHR is dependent on spring sources
for their daily needs of water, irrigation and livestock. But due to the global change in climate, land use and land cover and
population, the quality and quantity of water are declining rapidly. For a state like Himachal Pradesh whose major source of
water is dependent on springs, the management and conservation methods have to be taken into account. In terms of quality,
the condition of springs in Himachal Pradesh can be considered satisfactory but the quantity is rapidly declining. The
discharge rate of many springs has been reduced to half. Many of them have become perennial and functions only in the
monsoon period. The impact of changing climate, urbanisation, tourism and erratic rainfall has been significant in the
condition of springs. The source of water in springs in Himachal Pradesh is either through snow, rainfall or both. In spite of
these natural sources getting wasted in the form of runoff, they should get conserved. The methods like rainwater harvesting
and other artificial recharge methods like trenching, pits and bunding need to be implemented at the regional level to increase
the groundwater quantity as well as the quality. The awareness programme regarding the importance of springs is crucial for
the people who are utilising the spring sources.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to the Director, G.B. Pant National Institute of Himalayan Environment (NIHE), Kosi-Katarmal,
Almora, Uttarakhand for providing necessary facilities in the Himachal Regional Centre of the Institute which could make
this study possible.
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