ENGG 103

Materials in Design

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Callister Chapter 6
 Announcement

PASS enrolments will open

20h54 on Tuesday 1 March
 Chapter 6
Mechanical Properties
Issues to address
• Stress and strain:
What are they and why are they used instead of load and deformation?

• Elastic behavior:
When loads are small, how much deformation occurs?
What materials deform least?

• Plastic behavior:
At what point does permanent deformation occur?
What materials are most resistant to permanent deformation?

• Toughness and ductility:

What are they and how do we measure them?

3
Stress and Strain
 Elastic Deformation
Reversible deformation that occurs when a load is applied

𝑭 = 𝒌∆𝒙
Force (F)

Slope = k

Distance ∆𝑥
5
 Elastic Deformation

𝑭 = 𝒌∆𝒙
Slope = k (solid)

The slope for a solid material is much

higher than that of a spring
Force (F)

Slope = k (spring)

Distance ∆𝑥 6
Normalise data for different cross-
sectional areas

σ = k1x Force
= Stress
Stress (σ)

Area
F
Slope = k1 =σ
A

Distance (x)
7
 Units of stress
𝐹 𝑁
𝜎 = = 2 = Pa
𝐴 𝑚

Typically, the value of Pa is so small that it is more

convenient to use kilo- mega- or giga-pascal

‒ 103 𝑃𝑃 = 1 𝑘𝑘𝑘 = 1 𝑘𝑘 𝑚−2

‒ 106 𝑃𝑃 = 1 𝑀𝑃𝑃 = 1 𝑀𝑁 𝑚−2
‒ 109 𝑃𝑃 = 1 𝐺𝑃𝑃 = 1 𝐺𝑁 𝑚−2

8
Normalise data for different
lengths

σ = k2ε
Distance
= Strain
Stress (σ)

Length
Slope = k2
x ∆l
= =ε
l l

Strain (ε)
9
 Different ways of expressing strain

𝜎 𝑃𝑃 25.5×106
 𝜀= [ ] = = 1.27 × 10−4
𝐸 𝑃𝑃 200×109

 Strain is normally unit-less 𝑚⁄

𝑚

 Strain is sometimes presented as a percentage

 % 𝜀 = 100 × 𝜀

 𝜀 = 1.27 × 10−4 = 0.0127 % 𝜀

10
 Measuring Strain

The Tensile Test

is used for ductile materials such as
most metals

The Compression Test

is used for brittle materials
such as concrete

Measure change in length

or
Measure change in cross-sectional diameter

11
 Engineering Stress
• Tensile stress, σ: • Shear stress, τ:
Ft Ft F

Area, Ao Fs
Area, Ao

Fs
Ft
Fs Ft
Ft N τ = F
σ= Ao
Ao m2
original cross-sectional area
∴ Stress has units:
before loading
N/m2
12
 Common States of Stress
For background information only

• Simple tension: cable

F F
A o = cross-sectional
area (when unloaded)
F
σ= σ σ
Ao
Ski lift (photo courtesy
• Torsion (a form of shear): drive shaft P.M. Anderson)

M Fs Ao τ
Ac
Fs
τ =
Ao
M
2R Note: τ = M/AcR here.
13
 Other common stress states
• Simple compression:

Ao

Canyon Bridge, Los Alamos, NM

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)

F Note: compressive
Balanced Rock, Arches σ= structure member
National Park
(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
Ao (σ < 0 here).

For background information only

14
 Other common stress states cont.
• Bi-axial tension: • Hydrostatic compression:

Pressurized tank Fish under water (photo courtesy

(photo courtesy P.M. Anderson)
P.M. Anderson)
σθ > 0

σz > 0 σh < 0
For background information only 15
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
δ/2
- δL
e= δ eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

δL /2
• Shear strain:
θ
∆x γ = Δx/y = tan θ

y 90º - θ Strain is always

90º dimensionless
16
Young’s Modulus
 σ
Young’s Modulus = E E=
ε
Young’s modulus is the
stiffness of a material under
uni-axial loading that has
been normalised for area
and length
Stress (σ)

Slope = E
N
σ m 2
E= = = N 2 = Pa
ε m m
m

Strain (ε)
18
The Three Point bend testing is often used to measure the
elastic modulus of brittle materials such as concrete or
glass
These materials would break if placed in the a tensile tester grips

1 𝐹𝒍3
𝛿=
48 𝐸𝑰
19
 1 𝐹𝑙 3
𝛿=
3 𝐸𝐸

1 𝐹𝑙 3
𝛿=
8 𝐸𝐸
Formulae for
bending of beams

5 𝐹𝑙 3
𝛿=
384 𝐸𝐸

There is no need to remember these

formulae for the purposes of this course

20
 Young’s Moduli: Comparison
Graphite
Metals Composites
Ceramics Polymers
Alloys /fibers
Semicond
1200
10 00 Diamond
800
600
Si carbide
400 Tungsten Al oxide Carbon fibers only
Molybdenum Si nitride
E(GPa) 200
Steel, Ni
Tantalum <111>
C FRE(|| fibers)*
Platinum Si crystal
Cu alloys <100> Aramid fibers only
10 0 Zinc, Ti
80 Silver, Gold
Glass -soda A FRE(|| fibers)* Based on data in Table B.2,
Aluminum Glass fibers only
60
40
Magnesium,
Tin G FRE(|| fibers)* Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
Concrete Composite data based on
109 Pa 20 GFRE*
CFRE *
reinforced epoxy with 60 vol%
of aligned
G raphite G FRE( fibers)*
10 carbon (CFRE),
8 C FRE( fibers) *
6 AFRE( fibers) *
aramid (AFRE), or
Polyester glass (GFRE)
4 PET
PS fibers.
PC Epoxy only
2
PP
1 HDP E
0.8
0.6 Wood( grain)
PTF E
0.4

0.2 LDPE 21
 Young’s Modulus
Focus at the atomic level
Bonding between atoms
Primary bonds
– Ionic
– Covalent
– Metallic

Secondary bonds
– Van der Waals bonding
– Hydrogen bonds

• Interatomic forces
– Due to the balance between attractive
and repulsive forces, atoms position
themselves in ‘fixed’ positions
22
 Energy and Packing
• Non dense, random packing Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

• Dense, ordered packing Energy

typical neighbor
bond length

typical neighbor r
bond energy

Dense, ordered packed structures tend to have

lower energies
23
Young’s Modulus cont.
Remember
dF/dr at r = r0
is proportional to E
Force F = ma

Energy U = Fr

24
 Young’s Modulus cont.
Slope of stress strain plot
(which is proportional to the elastic modulus)
depends on bond strength of metal

Fig. 6.7, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

25
Packing of atoms in Crystalline
Solids
We will deal with this in more detail later on
 Simple Cubic Structure

Close-packed directions are cube edges.

Fig. 3.3, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

27
 Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Volume of atoms in unit cell*
APF =
Volume of unit cell
*assume hard spheres

APF for a simple cubic structure = 0.52

volume
atoms atom
4
unit cell 1 π (0.5a) 3
a 3
APF =
R = 0.5a a3 volume
unit cell
close-packed directions
contains 8 x 1/8 =
1 atom/unit cell 28
 Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC)
Atoms touch each other along cube diagonals
All atoms are identical; the center atom is shaded differently only for ease of viewing

Cr, W, Fe (α), Tantalum, Molybdenum

2 atoms/unit cell: 1 center + 8 corners x 1/8

29
 Atomic Packing Factor: BCC
APF for a body-centered cubic structure = 0.68

3a

2a

Close-packed directions:
R
a length = 4R = 3 a

atoms volume
4
unit cell 2 π ( 3a/4 ) 3
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell 30
Face Centered Cubic Structure (FCC)
Atoms touch each other along face diagonals

ex: Al, Cu, Au, Pb, Ni, Pt, Ag

4 atoms/unit cell: 6 face x 1/2 + 8 corners x 1/8

31
 Atomic Packing Factor: FCC
APF for a face-centered cubic structure = 0.74

Close-packed directions:
length = 4R = 2 a
2a
Unit cell contains:
6 x 1/2 + 8 x 1/8
a = 4 atoms/unit cell

atoms volume
4
unit cell 4 π ( 2a/4 ) 3
3 atom
APF =
3 volume
a
unit cell
32
 FCC Stacking Sequence
ABCABC... Stacking Sequence

B B
C
A
A sites B B B
C C
B sites B B
C sites

A
FCC Unit Cell B
C

33
 Example

A steel cable has a length of 30 m, and a diameter of 50 mm. What is

the change in length when a load of 100 kN is applied? 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝐺𝐺

𝐹 100 × 103
𝜎= = 2 = 51 𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐴 50 × 10−3
𝜋 2

𝜎 𝜎 51 × 106 −4
𝐸= 𝜀= = = 2.55 × 10
𝜀 𝐸 200 × 109

∆𝑙
𝜀= ∆𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙 = 2.55 × 10−4 × 30 m = 7.65 mm
𝑙

30m
34
Home Assignments
29 February 2016
1. Read through Chapter 6 pp.180
2. Watch the tutorial videos
3. Make sure that you fully understand the concepts of
 Engineering stress and engineering strain
 Hooke’s law
 What determines Hooke’s law at atomic level
 The meaning of Poison’s Ratio
4. Do Example problems 6.1 and 6.2
5. Do Problems 6.3 to 6.8
 ENGG 103
Materials in Design

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Callister Chapter 6

1 March 2016
 Announcement

PASS enrolments will open

20h54 on Tuesday 1 March
Brief Revision of Previous
Lecture
 Elastic Deformation
Reversible deformation that occurs when a load is applied

𝑭 = 𝒌∆𝒙
Force (F)

Slope = k

Distance ∆𝑥
40
 σ
Young’s Modulus = E E=
ε
Young’s modulus is the
stiffness of a material under
uni-axial loading that has
been normalised for area
and length
Stress (σ)

Slope = E
N
σ m 2
E= = = N 2 = Pa
ε m m
m

Strain (ε)
41
 Young’s Modulus cont.
Slope of stress strain plot
(which is proportional to the elastic modulus)
depends on bond strength of metal

Fig. 6.7, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

42
Young’s Modulus cont.
Remember
dF/dr at r = r0
is proportional to E
Force F = ma

Energy U = Fr

43
 Engineering Strain
• Tensile strain: • Lateral strain:
δ/2
- δL
e= δ eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

δL /2

Strain is always
dimensionless

44
 Example

A steel cable has a length of 30 m, and a diameter of 50 mm. What is

the change in length when a load of 100 kN is applied? 𝐸 = 200 𝐺𝐺𝐺

𝐹 100 × 103
𝜎= = 2 = 51 𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝐴 50 × 10−3
𝜋 2

𝜎 𝜎 51 × 106 −4
𝐸= 𝜀= = = 2.55 × 10
𝜀 𝐸 200 × 109

∆𝑙
𝜀= ∆𝑙 = 𝑙𝑙 = 2.55 × 10−4 × 30 m = 7.65 mm
𝑙

30m
45
Examples of resources that
Wiley Plus Offers

Chapter 6
CHAPTER RESOURCES
Reading Content

Chapter 06 Opener
Chapter 06 Learning Objectives
6.01 Introduction
6.02 Concepts of Stress and Strain
6.03 Stress-Strain Behavior
6.04 Anelasticity
6.05 Elastic Properties of Materials
6.06 Tensile Properties
6.07 True Stress and Strain
6.08 Elastic Recovery After Plastic Deformation
6.09 Compressive, Shear, and Torsional Deformations
6.10 Hardness
6.11 Variability of Material Properties
6.12 Design/Safety Factors
Chapter 06 Summary
Chapter 06 Equation Summary
Chapter 06 List of Symbols
Chapter 06 Processing/Structure/Properties/Performance Summary
Chapter 06 Important Terms and Concepts
Chapter 06 References
Chapter 06 Questions and Problems
Chapter 06 Design Problems
Chapter 06 Fundamentals of Engineering Questions and Problems
Virtual Materials Science and Engineering
Virtual Materials Science and Engineering

Tutorial Videos
Tutorial Video: Tensile Test
Tensile Test: Introduction
Tensile Test: What are the Differences between Stress and Strain?
Tensile Test: Modulus of Elasticity
Tensile Test: What Is toughness and how do I determine its value?
Tensile Test: How do I determine ductility in percent elongation and
percent reduction in area?
Tutorial Video: Tensile Test Calculations
Tensile Test Calculations: Introduction
Tensile Test Calculations: Calculating Elastic Modulus Using a Stress vs. Strain Cu
rve
Tensile Test Calculations: Finding Yield Strength Using a Stress vs. Strain Curve
Tensile Test Calculations: Finding Breaking Strength Using a Stress vs. Strain Curv
e
Tensile Test Calculations: Calculating Percent Elongation and
Fracture Length Using a Stress vs. Strain Curve
Tensile Test Calculations: Calculating Initial Cross Sectional Area
Tensile Test Calculations: Recap
Animated Graphs
Animated Graph: Figure 6.12: Stress-Strain Behavior
Animated Graph: Figure 6.19: Relationships Between Hardness and Tensile Str
ength
Animated Graph: Figure 6.22

Flashcards
Flashcards Chapter 06

Student Lecture Notes

Student Lecture Notes(PPT Format): Chapter 06
Student Lecture Notes(PDF Format): Chapter 06

Concept Check Answers

Concept Check Answers Chapter 06

Extended Learning Objectives

Extended Learning Objectives Chapter 06

Index of Learning Styles

Index of Learning Styles
 Plastic Deformation
In Engineering Practice
 Elastic Deformation

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch

return to
initial
δ
F
F Linear-
elastic
Elastic means reversible! Non-Linear-
elastic
δ
51
 Plastic Deformation (Metals)
1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload
bonds
stretch planes
& planes still
shear sheared

δplastic
δelastic + plastic

F
F
Plastic means permanent! linear linear
elastic elastic
δ
δplastic
52
 Stress-Strain Testing
• Typical tensile test machine • Typical tensile specimen

Fig. 6.2,
extensometer specimen Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

gauge
length

53
 Linear Elastic Properties
Revision

• Modulus of Elasticity, E
(also known as Young's modulus)

• Hooke's Law
σ=Ee σ F
E

e
Linear-
elastic F
simple
tension
test

54
 Poisson’s Ratio, ν
Revision

When a material is elastically stretched

it normally increases in volume by a
small amount

Tensile strain
𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝝊=−
𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔

For most metallic materials 𝜐~0.33

Lateral
For rubber 𝜐~0.5 strain
For cork 𝜐~0

55
 Poisson's Ratio, ν
Revision

Poisson's ratio, ν eL

eL
ν=-
e
e
metals: ν ~ 0.33 -ν
ceramics: ν ~ 0.25
polymers: ν ~ 0.40

Units: ν > 0.50 density increases

E: [GPa]
ν < 0.50 density decreases
ν: dimensionless (voids form)

56
Microstructure of Cork

Normal to direction of growth

v<0

Parallel to direction of growth

v>0

57
 Other Elastic Properties
τ M
• Elastic Shear
modulus, G G simple
γ torsion
τ=Gγ test

M
• Elastic Bulk P P
modulus, K
ΔV ΔV P P
P = -K Vo
Vo K pressure
test: Init.
vol =Vo.
• Special relations for isotropic materials Vol chg.
= ΔV
E E
G= K=
2(1 + ν) 3(1 - 2ν)
58
59
 Useful Linear Elastic Relationships
• Simple tension • Simple torsion:
2ML o
δ = FL o δL = - ν Fw o α=
EA o EA o πr o4 G
F M = moment
δ/2 α = angle of twist
Ao
Lo Lo
wo

2ro
δL /2
Material, geometric, and loading parameters all contribute to deflection
Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection.

60
 Plastic (Permanent) Deformation
(at lower temperatures, i.e. T < Tmelt/3)

Simple tension test

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress,σ at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain Adapted from Fig. 6.10 (a),

Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

61
The Tensile Test
 Stress-Strain Testing- Revision
• Typical tensile test machine • Typical tensile specimen

Fig. 6.2,
extensometer specimen Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.

gauge
length

63
 Yield Strength, σy
Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred.

when ep = 0.002

tensile stress, σ
σy = yield strength
σy Note: for 2 inch sample
e = 0.002 = ∆z/z
∴ ∆z = 0.004 in

The reason why we define the

yield strength is because it is
difficult in a practical tensile test to
determine where the elastic region
engineering strain, e ends and plastic deformation
initiates
ep = 0.002
64
 Yield Strength : Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
2000
Steel (4140) qt

1000
Yield strength, σ y (MPa)

Ti (5Al-2.5Sn) a

in ceramic matrix and epoxy matrix composites, since

700 W (pure)

since in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

600

in tension, fracture usually occurs before yield.

Cu (71500) cw
500 Mo (pure)
400 Steel (4140) a
Steel (1020) cd Room temperature
300
Hard to measure ,

values

Hard to measure,
Al (6061) ag
200 Steel (1020) hr
¨
Ti (pure) a
Ta (pure)
Cu (71500) hr Based on data in Table B.4,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
100
a = annealed
dry
70 PC
hr = hot rolled
60 Nylon 6,6 ag = aged
50 Al (6061) a PET
cd = cold drawn
40 PVC humid
cw = cold worked
PP
30 HDPE qt = quenched & tempered
20

LDPE
Tin (pure) 65
10
 Tensile Strength, TS
Maximum stress on engineering stress-strain curve.
Adapted from Fig. 6.11,
Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
TS
F = fracture or
σy
engineering

ultimate
strength
stress

Typical response of a metal

Neck – acts
as stress
concentrator
strain
engineering strain
Metals: tensile strength occurs when noticeable necking starts
Polymers: tensile strength occurs when polymer backbone chains are
aligned and about to break
66
 Tensile Strength: Comparison
Graphite/
Metals/ Composites/
Ceramics/ Polymers
Alloys fibers
Semicond
5000 C fibers
Aramid fib
3000 E-glass fib
Tensile strength, TS (MPa)

2000 Steel (4140) qt

A FRE(|| fiber)
1000 W (pure) Diamond GFRE(|| fiber)
Ti (5Al-2.5Sn)aa CFRE(|| fiber)
Steel (4140)cw
Cu (71500) Si nitride
Cu (71500) hr Al oxide
300
Steel (1020)
Al (6061) ag
Ti (pure) a
Room temperature
200 Ta (pure)
values
Al (6061) a
100 Si crystal wood(|| fiber) Based on data in Table B4,
<100> Nylon 6,6
Glass-soda PC PET Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
40 PVC GFRE( fiber) a = annealed
Concrete PP
30 CFRE( fiber) hr = hot rolled
A FRE( fiber)
HDPE ag = aged
20 Graphite
LDPE cd = cold drawn
cw = cold worked
10 qt = quenched & tempered
AFRE, GFRE, & CFRE =
aramid, glass, & carbon
fiber-reinforced epoxy
wood ( fiber)
composites, with 60 vol%
fibers.
1 67
 Ductility
Lf - Lo
• Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = x 100
Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
tensile
stress, σ larger %EL Ao
Lo Af Lf

Engineering tensile strain, e

• Another ductility measure: Ao - A f

%RA = x 100
Ao

68
 Toughness
• Energy to break a unit volume of material
• Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

Engineering small toughness (ceramics)

tensile large toughness (metals)
stress, σ
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)

Engineering tensile strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
69
 Resilience, Ur
• Ability of a material to store energy
– Energy stored best in elastic region

If we assume a linear
stress-strain curve this
simplifies to

1
Ur ≅ σy ey
ey 2
70
 Elastic Strain Recovery

σyi D

σyo
2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain
Elastic strain
recovery
71
 ENGG 103
Materials in Design

Mechanical Properties of Materials

Callister Chapter 6

7 March 2016
 True Stress & Strain

• True stress
• True strain

73
 Note

The engineering stress decreases beyond necking, not because

the material becomes weaker, but because the load is not
carried by the original cross sectional area, but by the actual
area, which is smaller once necking has occurred

Original area Area carrying the

load after necking
 Nominal versus True
The relationships between nominal stress and strain vs. true
stress and strain shown in the figure below

This is straightforward algebra.

Please ensure that you can derive these equations by yourself

These equations are

valid only if the
volume is constant

Hence only up to the

point where necking
occurs
 Strain Hardening
• An increase in σy due to plastic deformation.
σ
large hardening
σy
1
σy small hardening
0

e
• Curve fit to the stress-strain response:
Strain hardening exponent
n n = 0.15 (some steels)
( )
σ T = K eT n = 0.5 (some coppers)
“true” stress (F/A) “true” strain: ln(/o)
76
 The Power Law

𝝈 = 𝑲𝜺𝒏

This relationship between true-stress and true strain is often referred to

as The Power Law

It is a very important relationship because, if we knew the values of K

and n, we can calculate the stress required to cause a given strain or
vice versa

In other words, his relationship describes strain hardening quantitatively

Strain hardening
The Hardness Test
 Hardness
Resistance to permanently indenting the surface
Large hardness means
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression
-- better wear properties.

apply known force measure size

e.g., of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
80
 Hardness: Measurement

• Rockwell
– No major sample damage
– Each scale runs to 130 but only useful in range 20-100.
– Minor load 10 kg
– Major load 60 (A), 100 (B) & 150 (C) kg
• A = diamond, B = 1/16 in. ball, C = diamond

• HB = Brinell Hardness
– TS (psia) = 500 x HB
– TS (MPa) = 3.45 x HB

81
Hugh M. Rockwell (1890–1957) and Stanley P. Rockwell (1886–1940) from
Connecticut in the United States co-invented the "Rockwell hardness tester,"
a differential-depth machine.

The determination of the Rockwell hardness of a material involves the

application of a minor load followed by a major load. The minor load
establishes the zero position.

The depth of penetration from the zero datum is measured from a dial, on
which a harder material gives a higher number.

That is, the penetration depth and hardness are inversely proportional.

The chief advantage of Rockwell hardness is its ability to display hardness

values directly, thus obviating tedious calculations involved in other
hardness measurement techniques.
 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

83
 Variability in Material Properties
• Elastic modulus is material property
• Critical properties depend largely on sample flaws

• Statistics

– Mean

– Standard Deviation

where n is the number of data points

84
 Design or Safety Factors
Design uncertainties mean we do not push the limit
Often N is
Factor of safety, N between
1.2 and 4

Example
Calculate a diameter, d, to ensure that yield does not occur in the 1045 carbon
steel rod below. Use a factor of safety of 5.
d
1045 plain
carbon steel:
σy = 310 MPa Lo
5 TS = 565 MPa

F = 220,000N
d = 0.067 m = 6.7 cm
85
 Summary
• Stress and strain
These are size-independent measures of load and displacement, respectively.

• Elastic behavior
This reversible behavior often shows a linear relation between stress and strain.
To minimize deformation, select a material with a large elastic modulus (E or G).

• Plastic behavior
This permanent deformation behavior occurs when the tensile (or compressive)
uniaxial stress reaches σy.

• Toughness
The energy needed to break a unit volume of material.

• Ductility
The plastic strain at failure.

86
Example Problems
A cylindrical specimen of a metal alloy 10 mm (0.4 in.) in diameter is stressed elastically in tension.
A force of 15,000 N (3,370 lbf) produces a reduction in specimen diameter of 7 × 10–3 mm
Compute Poisson’s ratio for this material if its elastic modulus is 100 GPa

This problem asks that we compute Poisson's ratio for the metal alloy. From
Solution Equations 6.5 and 6.1

Since the transverse strain ex is equal to

and Poisson's ratio is defined by Equation 6.8, then

Now, incorporating values of d0, Dd, E and F from the problem statement yields the
following value for Poisson's ratio
A tensile test is performed on a metal specimen, and it is found that a true plastic strain of 0.16 is
produced when a true stress of 500 MPa is applied; for the same metal, the value of K in Equation
6.19 is 825 MPa. Calculate the true strain that results from the application of a true stress of 600 MPa

Solution
We are asked to compute the true strain that results from the application of a true stress of 600 MPa.
Other true stress-strain data are also given.

It first becomes necessary to solve for n in Equation 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛

Taking logarithms of this expression leads to

Next we rearrange this equation such that n

is the dependent variable

We now solve for n using the following data given in the problem statement:
σT = 500 MPa
εT = 0.16
K = 825 MPa
We now rearrange Equation 𝜎 = 𝐾𝜀 𝑛
such that ε T is the dependent variable; we first divide both sides of the Equation by K, which leads to
the following expression:

ε T becomes the dependent variable by taking the 1/n root of both sides of this expression

Finally, using values of K and n, we solve for the true strain at a true stress of 600 MPa
Calculated
Given

Given
Home Assignments
7 March 2016
 Read PP. 180 to 190

 Watch the tutorial videos

 Review the material covered thus far

 Do Example Problems 6.3 to 6.7

 Do Problems 6.26 to 6.29; 6.32

 Read pages 191 to199

 Become familiar with the Rockwell, Brinell and Vickers

hardness tests

 Understand the conversion of hardness to tensile

strength

 Understand the concept Safety Factors

 Do Example problem 6.6

 Do Problems 6.54, 6.56, 6.67

 Study the summary on pp. 201 and 204.

 Ensure that you are familiar and comfortable with all the
concepts covered in this chapter of the textbook