Research Project FINAL Paper

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING IN COMPRESSORS 1
How Additive Manufacturing of Aerofoils can Increase

Compressor Efficiency
Gonzalo Montenegro
Submitted in partial completion of the Nuffield Future Researchers Course on

Aug. 17, 2020.
Author’s contact details: gonza.montenegro2@gmail.com

Contents
Abstract ··············································································································· 3
1. Introduction ······································································································ 3
2. Methodology ······································································································ 4
2.1 Aerofoils ········································································································· 4
2.1.1 How lift is created in Aerofoils due to Aerodynamics ··············································· 4
2.1.2 Why is the “Equal Transit” theory incorrect? ························································· 6
2.1.3 Flying conditions of Aerofoils ············································································· 7
2.2 Materials used in Aerofoils ·················································································· 11
2.3 Compressors ··································································································· 13
2.3.1 Components of a Compressor ·········································································· 14
2.3.2 Forces inside the Compressor ·········································································· 15
2.3.3 Temperatures inside the Compressor ·································································
16
2.4 Additive manufacturing ······················································································· 16
2.4.1 Methods of AM ·······························································································
17
2.4.2 Best applications of AM for Aerofoils ·································································· 19
3. Results ············································································································· 21
4. Discussions ······································································································· 23
5. Conclusion ······································································································· 23
6. Evaluation ········································································································· 24
References ·········································································································· 24
Acknowledgements ······························································································· 27
Abstract
Engineers are always looking out for new technologies and processes that can improve on
previous methods. In the aerospace industry it is very important to evolve, improve and start to
take on board new emerging technologies that will provide beneficial factors in comparison to
current standing technologies. The jet engine is the most vital part of the aeroplane as it is
heavily relied upon, making it impossible to fly without this, and the most significant component
for development as it is the source of propulsion and internal power. There are many factors
that can be improved on a jet engine, and this research paper will look more in depth into how
efficiencies such as weight, cost, time and resources can be improved in jet engines using
additive manufacturing (AM), more specifically looking into aerofoils inside the compressor. This
new way of manufacturing compellingly promises to revolutionize the aerospace industry,
introducing us to new, simpler and cheaper processes where enhanced materials will be used in
high-demanding conditions.
Keywords: Additive Manufacturing, Jet Engine Compressors, Aerofoils.
1. Introduction
Jet engines can operate more efficiently when they produce thrust more effectively due to
aerodynamics and material properties of the compressor and turbine aerofoils. The
aerodynamic properties of a blade can be derived from the shape of this, that dictates the extent
to which the air is being bent - thus producing higher changes in pressure which due to
Bernoulli’s theorem would change the velocity of the air. The difference between pressures in
both the upper and lower cambers of an aerofoil produces lift. The materials that both stator
vanes and rotor blades are made from would provide different properties depending on what
part of the compressor this blade is designed to be used in - low pressure (LP) or high pressure
(HP). Inherent properties such as density and porosity can be the deciding factors from which a
material can be chosen - in some instances, AM can enhance the performance and
characteristics of the material. This augmentation of properties, combined with the “buy to fly”
ratios [1] as well as near-net shaped parts, improved lead times [2] and the ability to produce
complex parts [3] makes some AM methods one of the most suitable manufacturing techniques
to produce aerofoils for high-performance usage in jet engines.
Current companies that are at the heart of the industry for the future adoption of AM and have a
need to stay ahead of the game with emerging technologies are both General Electric and
Rolls-Royce (where I did two weeks of work experience and to which my interest in this field as
well as background knowledge is attributed to). A great amount of research presented in this
paper has been extracted from the intensive and in depth research carried out at the NASA
Glenn Research Center. Although it is certain that AM has a very compelling future ahead and
much potential, there is yet to be much more research put into it to be able to be regarded as
the standard manufacturing process for aerofoils.
Currently, the abstract shapes that aerofoils inside the jet engine have are usually made by
traditional methods such as turning, milling, and grinding material away from a piece of metal,
as well as other traditional methods such as casting and forging. Unfortunately, traditional
manufacturing processes cannot handle structures with internal substructures that are
sophisticated. More than 75% of all components in jet engines are suitable to be manufactured
with AM and this is the most convenient process due to the critical safety factor of
manufacturing, the primary aspect of efficiency and the vital aspect of cost reductions [2][4].
This paper looks further into the aerodynamics of an aerofoil and how the shape of it can be
altered to create more lift, these complex shapes can be all created with the use of AM which
will be explained in more detail. The materials that are used to manufacture aerofoils are also
heavily touched upon, with the suitability in different types of AM methods and processes, each
with their advantages and disadvantages. The pressures and temperatures inside the
compressor are also taken into consideration with different materials and how different AM
techniques can provide the properties required for an aerofoil to withstand the conditions that it
was designed to operate at. The conclusions derived from this research paper will be the factors
that can be improved in an engine and how additive manufacturing can help by allowing
aerofoils to be manufactured with enhanced properties that will allow them to improve
efficiencies.
2. Methodology
2.1 Aerofoils
An aerofoil is a cross-sectional shape of a wing but it is not limited to being at both sides of an
aeroplane. This shape is also used in compressor stator vanes and rotor blades as it helps to
create lift [5]. This shape is designed by engineers to make it aerodynamically efficient, meaning
that the airflow will provide more lift which therefore means that less fuel has to be consumed to
produce the thrust as this airflow will account for more lift to keep the aeroplane in the air.
2.1.1 How lift is created in Aerofoils due to Aerodynamics

Lift on an aerofoil is created by the change in pressure between the upper and lower camber.
Professor Holger Babinsky [7] says that the change in velocity of the air particles hitting the
leading edge is caused by the change in pressure and not vice versa. This change in pressure
is caused by the curvatures of the air as it hits the leading edge of the airfoil (Coanda effect) - in
a curve, the outside of this always has a higher pressure [6].
Fig. 1 [6]
So in Fig. 1, both circles in the left experience a decrease in pressure because the inner side of
the lines are being curved to wrap around the aerofoil whereas the one circle in the right it’s the
opposite so this experiences an increase in pressure (which causes a decrease in velocity) [6].
Lift is caused solely by the change in pressures and both flows do not meet at the trailing edge
as explained by the “Equal Transit” theory - because the flow in the upper camber goes faster
due to the low pressures experienced. A particle (moving left to right) that goes from high
pressure (left) to low pressure (right) will

experience a net force to the right which will make the particle accelerate - as shown in Fig. 2.
(Note: Flow of gas only accelerates until about half way through the upper camber and then
starts to decelerate - as shown in Fig. 3) [7].
Even in an aerofoil where both cambers are of equal side, lift can be produced by changing the
angle of attack, which will make the air hit the aerofoil at an angle which will create curvatures in
the air and this will thus cause lift. If an aerofoil where both cambers are of equal size sits at an
angle of attack of 0 degrees, this would produce no lift.
2.1.2 Why is the “Equal Transit” theory incorrect?

Fig 3. NB: The lowering of pressure near the tip of the lower
camber is negligible so it is ignored in this diagram [6].
This theory explains that an aerofoil that has its upper surface camber more pronounced than
compared to the one in the lower surface will result in a change of pressure - which up to this
point is correct. However, it also explains that as air hits the aerofoil, the flow is split up in two,
one going through the lower surface and the other one through the upper surface. As the fluid in
the upper surface has a longer distance to travel (as the camber is more pronounced) this
causes the flow in the upper surface to go faster than the one in
Fig. 2 [6]
the lower surface - due to the fact that when the flow split up they both must take the same time
to travel from the leading edge (tip) to the trailing edge (aft). This change in velocity (upper one
going faster) causes the pressure to go down - as per Bernoulli’s theorem. This change in
pressure (lower surface having a higher, upward, pressure in the air compared to upper surface)
accounts for some lift [8].
However, this theory is not correct. Although lift is created by the change in pressure, this
change in pressure is not caused by the velocity of the air particles in the upper camber. It is
vice versa, the change in velocity is caused by the change in pressure [6], but the change in
velocity is not sufficient to make both flows meet at the trailing edge, so the airflow on the upper
camber arrives at the leading edge first [7].
The reason why this theory is wrong:
● All aerofoils are designed to have the upper camber longer than the lower one: Incorrect.
There are many aerofoils which both cambers are of equal length and lift is still produced. Old
fashioned aerofoils used to be shaped with a longer upper camber along the top as well as
being curved. Such airfoils still produce a lot of lift and flow turning, but the distance is not the
cause of the production of lift, it is the turning of the air. This theory would also not explain how
planes can fly upside down as is the case in many air shows where the lower camber is longer.
● Air molecules on the upper camber move faster to then meet on the trailing edge:
Incorrect.
Although the speed of the air molecules on the upper camber does increase the flow of air is
travelling faster than the speed required to have the air particles meet up at the aft of the airfoil.
Two molecules starting at the tip of the airfoil will not end up meeting at the trailing edge.
Making the non-physical assumption that the particles meet at the trailing edge end is not
correct. We are able to derive a velocity founded on this (incorrect) assumption, using
Bernoulli's equation to calculate the pressure, and figure out the pressure-area relation and the
answer we get is not in line with the lift that we measure for a specific airfoil. The lift predicted by
the "Equal Transit" theory is much less than the observed lift, because the velocity is too low [8].
2.1.3 Flying conditions of Aerofoils

Aerofoils are exposed to extreme conditions where there are very high temperatures, pressures
and speeds. The speed of an aircraft can affect the performance of an aerofoil. In many cases,
where aircraft are flying at supersonic speeds (Mach number - 1<M<3), the compressibility
effects of the air are very important, as well as taking into account that the engine might
experience some shock waves which will mean that the flow of air will get turbulent, as
supposed to laminar, and if a boundary layer is built up and then separated this could cause the
engine to stall.
Mach number
The Mach number is a ratio between the speed of sound through the fluid at that moment in
time and the speed of the object. The formula is as follows:
ratio = speed of object / speed of sound = Mach number
As an aircraft is moving through air, the air particles surrounding this are spread across the
whole aircraft. If this is passing at low speeds, usually below 250 mph, the density of the air
particles around it remains unchanged. On the other hand, for higher speeds, air is being
compressed and the density of the local air particles changes, this is carried with some energy
extracted from the moving aircraft. This compressibility effect changes the resultant force on an
aircraft. The effects of compressibility become more important as speed goes up [9]. Therefore,
if the aircraft is flying at high speeds, determining the magnitudes of compressibility effects
becomes vital for the engine to function properly. This is something that engineers take into
consideration and when the aerofoils are designed, the expectation is that the aerofoil will be
flying at very high speeds so the shape of this will be designed accordingly to allow for efficient
aerodynamic performance.
Reynolds number
Another factor that is taken into consideration is the Reynolds number (Re) that the air will be
travelling through. Re is a non dimensional number, a ratio, between the inertia force (resistant
to change or motion) that is applied to a fluid and the viscous forces (heavy and gluey). Re is
calculated using variables such as the density of the fluid, the volume of the fluid, the
acceleration of the object, the rate of change of acceleration and the coefficient of viscosity μ
(ratio of the shearing stress to the shear of the motion). It determines the flow of the fluid
(laminar or turbulent). The higher the Re number the more turbulent flow. [10]
Re formula: Re = ratio = Interia Force / Viscous Force
Inertia force being the force that is applied to a fluid with the intention to change the shape of
this or to set it in motion. An example of this would be the force (thrust) required by a submarine
to move through water by pushing this out of the way. Similarly, the force that you have to apply
to a spoon when scooping honey or any other fluid to make this move.
Viscous force is the resistant force that an object in motion experiences in the fluid in the
opposite direction of the motion of the object. For example, a boat in the water moving forward
will experience a force in the opposite direction by the particles in the bottom layer, this force
depends on the viscosity of the fluid. If a boat tries to move through oil this will have to generate
more thrust (thus more fuel consumed) to overcome the viscous forces compared to a boat
flowing through water as this has less viscosity.
The formula for Reynolds number is:

Re = (p v L) / μ
Where: Re = Reynolds number

p = density (kg m-3)
v = velocity (m s-1)
L = length (m)
μ = dynamic viscosity coefficient (kg m-1 s-1)
Re is a dimensionless quantity as it has no units. This is because all its units cancel out as
shown:
Re = (p v L) / μ → Re = (kg m-3 * m s-1 * m) / ((kg m-1 s-1)
The sum of units in the dividend gives us → (kg m-1 s-1), due to indices rules where:
m-3 * m1 * m1 = (-3) + 1 + 1 = (-1)

As shown, the sum of the dividend and the divisor are equal, therefore, as any number divided
by itself equals ‘1’, Re has no units.
An Re number of <2,100 would indicate that the flow is laminar and Re > 4,000 would indicate
that the flow is turbulent. A value in between would be considered as transitional flow [11].
Turbulent vs Laminar Flow
Laminar:
In laminar flow the particles are moving regularly and smoothly along a path in a parallel manner
to each other in the same direction with no disruption between layers and with minimal lateral
mixing - as shown in Fig. 4. This type of flow can be expressed as streamline as this also
describes the flow because, in laminar flow, layers of water flowing on top of each other at
diverse velocities with virtually no mixing between layers, fluid molecules move in clear paths or
streamlines.
The flow along a pipe may differ depending on the velocity, viscosity and size of the pipe or on
the Reynolds number (which already takes viscosity and velocity into consideration). Laminar
flow in a fluid usually occurs at reduced speeds and high viscosities.
Turbulent:
In turbulent flow the fluid’s particles are moving irregularly and chaotically - as shown in Fig. 4.
Unlike laminar flow, air particles do not flow in parallel layers, the lateral mixing between layers
is very high, and there is a constant disruption of these. Turbulent flow is also distinguished by
its recirculation, and apparent randomness. In turbulent flow the speed of the fluid at a point is
continuously undergoing changes in both magnitude and direction [12].
Fig. 4 - Turbulent & Laminar Flow. Source: https://www.cfdsupport.com/OpenFOAM-Training-by-CFD-Support/node334.html
Boundary layer
The air particles just above the surface are reduced in speed in their collisions with the other
particles that are sticking to the surface - as shown in Fig. 5. These molecules of air, thus, slow
down the flow that is directly on top of them. The farther you move away from the surface of the
object, the fewer the collisions affected by the object surface - which results in higher velocities.
This creates a thin layer of molecules just above the surface in which the velocity changes from
zero at the surface to the free stream (normal) value away from the surface. Engineers decided
to name this layer of molecules ‘the boundary layer’ as it takes place on the boundary of the
fluid.
The specifics of what goes on within the boundary layer are key to solving some problems in
aerodynamics, including: the skin friction drag on an object, wing stall and the heat transfer that
occurs in high speed flight. The amount of this displacement can be defined by the thickness of
the boundary layer - which is highly dependent on the Reynolds number.
Fig. 5 - Boundary Layer. Source: https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/boundlay.html
Boundary layers could be: laminar (streamline - layers of fluid parallel to each other), or
turbulent (chaotic and random changes in magnitude and direction) - dependent on the
Reynolds number for that fluid. For low Reynolds numbers, the boundary layer would be laminar
and the stream velocity varies uniformly as you move away from the surface of the object, as
shown on the left side of Fig. 5. For higher Reynolds numbers, the boundary layer is turbulent
and the stream velocity is distinguished by unsteady (varying in direction with time) spiral flows
inside the boundary layer. The outside flow reacts to the edge of the boundary layer the same to
the physical surface of an object. So the boundary layer gives any object an "effective" shape
which generally differs slightly to its physical shape. This boundary layer could lift off or
"separate" from the object, hence creating an effective shape much different from the physical
shape. This could happen if the flow in the boundary has very low amounts of energy (relative to
the free stream flow) and is more easily driven by changes in pressure. Flow separation is the
reason for wing stall at high angles of attack. The effects of the boundary layer on lift are
contained in the lift coefficient and the effects on drag are contained in the drag coefficient [13].
2.2 Materials used in Aerofoils
There are different materials used in different parts of the compressor as each material has its
own special and unique properties that makes it more suitable for different applications. Some
of the material properties that differ are things such as: toughness, density, porosity, strength,
weight and melting point. The most commonly used alloy materials in aerospace applications
are titanium, magnesium, aluminium and nickel-chromium (Inconel).
Titanium Alloys
Ti6Al4V alloy, also known as Ti64, is an α + β titanium alloy. It is the most popular titanium alloy
and occupies over half of the market. It was originally developed in the 1950’s for aircraft
applications as it saves weight in highly loaded structures, thus being suitable for use in
components of jet engines - such as compressor aerofoils.
Its benefits are that it saves weight in highly loaded structures while still having high strength,
low density, high fracture toughness and excellent corrosion resistance.
The disadvantage of this is that its manufacturing conditions are challenging due to the low
thermal conductivity, the tendency to strain hardening and the highly active chemical reactivity
to oxygen - thus inert shielded atmospheres with low oxygen are required which drives costs of
machining up.
In AM applications, the benefits of titanium in AM is its “buy-to-fly” ratio (the mass ratio between
the raw material used to produce a component and the mass of the component) is roughly
about 12–25:1 for aircraft titanium products made by traditional manufacturing methods, while it
drops to 3–12:1 for a typical titanium component manufactured by AM processes and that it
allows for AM to have high flexibility on feedstock (raw) material types, and unconsumed
powders can be reused, making it more cost-efficient.
Whereas its drawback is the large temperature gradients and high cooling rates are present
which results in high residual stress which in turn, governs their macroscopic performances.
This could cause deterioration of the product’s mechanical and fatigue properties [1].
Nickel-chromium Alloys (Inconel)

Carnot, French mechanical engineer, said: “operating engines hotter improves energy
efficiency, thereby, fuel efficiency. To do so, aerospace engineers rely on super-alloys for the
hot sections of turbo reactors. Also known as "heat-resistant super-alloys" or "high-temperature
alloys", they can withstand severe mechanical stresses and strains in extreme environments
while remaining stable, corrosion and creep resistant.”
Advantages of Inconel 718, the most commonly used Inconel, include: nickel-iron based
superalloys are generally suitable for use in high-temperature conditions. Desired properties
include corrosion, thermal shock and creep resistances. Generally, its strength can be
enhanced by precipitation of intermetallic compounds within the metal matrix or solid solution
strengthening. Furthermore, Inconel 718 houses great quantities of Iron, decreasing its price per
kilogram while equipped with precipitation hardening effects.
The drawbacks of this material is that the high mechanical stiffness limits its flexibility, even at
hot temperatures. Since it has spots of local isolation (mostly Niobium) it produces regions of
increased local hardness while treating it at elevated temperatures. These regions can cause
tool wear or even catastrophic tool failure and contamination which increases manufacturing
costs (for deviant or scrap parts in the case of tool failure).
Inconel 718 is suitable for AM as the inherited material properties are not sacrificed. The
processing of Inconel 718 can be made more straightforward, convenient and able to preserve
material properties through additive manufacturing methods with metal (SLM/DMLS). In some
situations it has been shown that AM of Inconel 718 equates or exceeds its mechanical
properties compared to traditional manufacturing methods.
However, during machining, very high temperatures must be attained on the cutting edge of the
insert due to the low thermal conductivity of the alloy and abrasive elements in its material
composition which results in higher costs of machines [2].
Aluminium Alloys
Aluminium alloys are utilised in various industries. Due to their convenient combination between
density and strength as well as generally being in the cheaper spectrum of materials - they are
used in situations where both performance and light materials are needed.
Aluminium, unlike previous materials, has a high thermal conductivity which allows for easier
working conditions and better manipulation of the component when working on it.
Although Aluminium cast alloys may be beneficial their tensile strength is modest and their
ductility is low (~4%).
An advantage for processing aluminium cast alloys with SLM is the microstructural
enhancement. Cast alloys enhance their strength through the addition of chemical modifiers
during casting which causes a change in its microstructure. Elevated cooling rates in SLM allow
for the refinement of the microstructure of the material during manufacture by also leaving its
chemical composition intact. Thus, processing aluminum cast alloys using SLM can satisfy the
production of complex structures while maintaining refined microstructures.
On the other hand, the drawbacks of SLM with any material is the porosity of the finished part.
Most material qualification studies start with the objective of minimising porosity in the fabricated
parts. Aluminium parts built with SLM suffer from extensive porosity, which is attributed to the
material’s low laser absorptivity in the SLM wave-length range, which affects the melt efficiency
during processing [3].
Magnesium Alloys
Selective Laser Melting (SLM) of magnesium alloys is a method that is being highly researched
due to its benefits. The results obtained show potential, making manufacturing defect-free parts
a possibility - in comparison with traditional manufacturing methods [14]. Magnesium alloys are
currently being used in applications where their lightweight properties are required - since they
have low density. The design and manufacture of complex shaped components made of
magnesium with good quality are in high demand in the aerospace industry (more applications
inside the aircraft). Selective laser melting (SLM) is becoming a powerful additive manufacturing
technology, enabling the manufacture of customized, complex metallic designs [15].
Magnesium and its alloys have a reputation for being the most lightweight materials on the
market. With a lower density of 1.73 g/cm3 and increased levels of strength - it makes them a
great alternative to generally heavier Al alloys. The use of light alloys in aviation will result in
reduced aircraft weight, which in turn means reduced fuel consumption as well as combustion
product emission to the atmosphere [14], however, it is a highly oxidable material which may not
be the most suitable for engine applications where rain is a possibility as well as other
moistures.
2.3 Compressors
The are two types of compressors that are suitable for jet engine applications. These are the
Axial Compressor and the Centrifugal Compressor. They both do the same job, with their
advantages and disadvantages, but the principles used are the same and they both do the most
essential job inside a jet engine - which is to compress the air. Compressing the air is a strange
concept as in a stationary frame of reference, air cannot be compressed due to its
compressibility effects and this trying to escape. Inside a functioning jet engine that is going at
very high speeds, compressing the air is made easier by the high speeds as well as all the
components such as aerofoils which aid the compressing stage. A compressor does the job to
‘squeeze’ the air, as one of the main four stages - suck, squeeze, bang, blow. In more technical
terms, the best description of these processes is - intake, compression, combustion, expansion.
Incoming air particles are squeezed in ratios which differ from axial or centrifugal, number of
spools/shafts and stages of rotor blades and stator vanes.
Axial Compressor
The more modern axial compressors gain their name due to the flow of the gas in the engine
which does not change direction and flows in an axial direction (parallel to the axis of rotation).
They consist of a drum to which aerofoils are attached in various different stages (typically 17-
22 stages [16]) consisting of a rotor and a stator. The rotor is a set of blades that rotate and their
job is to accelerate the gas that is coming through the front of the engine and going through it. A
stator is a set of stationary blades whose role is to convert the velocity energy gained in the
rotor to pressure energy [17].
The benefit is that it is easy to link multiple stages together therefore allowing a greater overall
increase of pressure (pressure ratios) compared to centrifugal compressors meaning that axial
compressors can handle greater gas flows. This means it is better suited for larger aircraft and
applications where extra power is required.
However, the drawback is that a single stage of an axial compressor does not have as much
increase of pressure as a centrifugal one (a ratio of 4 compared to 1.2 [18]). They are also more
complex to design and take more time to manufacture as there are much more details so for a
small compressor the extra pressure increase gained from an axial compressor is not required
(in this case a centrifugal compressor would be more suitable).
Centrifugal Compressor
Centrifugal compressors were originally inside old jet engines but still, nowadays, function on
small turbojets and turboshaft engines in addition to various pumping systems such as pumps in
rocket engines. They gain their name as the flow of the gas is perpendicular to the rotation of
the axis of rotation (also referred to as radial rotation). They work by turning and accelerating
the gas that is entering the impeller axially and being discharged radially. They tend to be
formed of one stage that can increase the pressure by a factor of around 4. Each stage typically
consists of an impeller (rotating element) and a diffuser (stationary element). A fuel and power
efficient multistage centrifugal compressor is more complex to design as the flow has to be
ducted back once it has gone past a stage.
An advantage of this is that they have an extremely simple design that it’s easy to manufacture.
It has also been around for long so it is very thoroughly tested and improved. They can also
provide greater ratios in change of pressure with a single stage in comparison to modern axial
compressors. The downside is that they need a vibration monitoring system that is very costly
but necessary due to the rotational speeds. They cannot handle as much gas flow or pressure
ratios as axial compressors. Since the flow of air is directed radially, a jet engine with a
centrifugal compressor tends to be wider, having a greater cross-sectional area than a
corresponding axial. This results in an undesirable and additional resistive force of overall
aircraft drag [19].
2.3.1 Components of a Compressor

The compressor is made up of its fan blades, rotor blades, stator vanes, shafts, combustion
chamber, turbine blades and the exit nozzle. Some more advanced jet engines may have
components such as IGV’s (Inlet Guide Vanes) which help direct the air to change the angle of
attack so this doesn’t get too big [20] and there is a separation of the boundary layer, which will
result in the engine stalling.
Fig. 6. 3 spool high-bypass jet engine Rolls-Royce Trent 900.
The jet engine shown in Fig. 6 is an engine with three shafts - which is the current maximum
amount of shafts available nowadays. There is a low pressure (LP) shaft, where temperatures
are the lowest in the engine, rotor blades are big and long and the air is entering its first stage of
compression. Afterwards you have the intermediate pressure (IP) shaft, where temperatures
and compression are mid-way through from the entering and exiting values. Finally, the high
pressure (HP) shaft, where the temperatures are the highest and the air is compressed at its
peak.
2.3.2 Forces inside the Compressor

Multi-spool engines’ relation with compression ratios
As rotary speed of the compressor, U, is increased, the pressure ratio across each stage can be
increased. The blade tip speed and therefore U, has a limitation that is in place due to
consideration of forces at the root of the aerofoil. If the root experiences too much stress it could
detach from the hub and go through the engine causing this to set on fire and fail. The stress
that the root of the rotor is subjected to is proportional to the square of the compressor rotational
velocity and this stress gets smaller as the blade length decreases. The first stages of the
compressor (LP) have longer blades which therefore causes the rotational velocities of the LP
shaft to be lower so that not too much stress is put on the blade. Lower speeds means that the
overall efficiency of the engine decreases. Therefore, it is common to split up the engine into
different shafts or ‘spools’ (generally 2 or 3 spools - LP, IP, HP). Therefore, the LP shaft can be
set to rotate at lower speeds than the HP shaft to satisfy the stress restrictions while the shorter
blade high-pressure compressor can be rotating at increased speeds. This allows for a more
efficient engine as shafts are more efficient running at higher speeds, therefore the HP shaft
doesn’t have to be running at the same speed of the LP shaft (which it is not a requirement as
the HP blades can withstand higher speeds) [21].
The issue of stress at the root of the fan blades (LP compressor)
The long fan blades (in some modern turbofan engines this can be the LP compressor formed
of a single-stage) can also experience stress at their root by foreign objects such as bird strikes.
Thus, for reasons that have to do with the forces being applied to the structure, often, a limit of
root-to-tip ratio of 0.35 is applied - which is lower than standard. Air particles being sucked into
the fan travel at very high speeds which leads to a big Mach number since the cruising speed of
civil aircraft is typically around M = 0.83 or 545 knots. Supersonic flow (1<M<3) inevitably leads
to a shock wave with a resulting increase in pressure and entropy over the rotors in the
compressor. The efficiency of rotors is reduced by shock waves since they disturb the flow
above the surface which therefore leads to a separation of the boundary layer which could
cause stalling of the engine. Furthermore, these shock waves may cause unwanted vibrations
of the fan blades that further reduce the efficiency of the compressor and increase noise. To
reduce noise and limit the damage of bird strikes - increasing efficiency - the tip speed of the fan
is restricted, typically a relative M=1.6 is considered as the upper limit.
2.3.3 Temperatures inside Compressor

Air is brought from the surroundings at ambient temperature into the engine’s intake where the
air is compressed to reach temperatures between 200 and 550 degrees celsius. Once the air
has gone through the HP compressor, it then goes into the combustion chamber, where fuel is
being burnt up to 2,000 degrees celsius and the gas is at its hottest. The gas is then ignited in
the combustion chamber and ejected out of this onto the HP turbine where the gas can
experience temperatures between 850 and 1,700 degrees celsius. As components in this part of
the engine tend to have a melting point of around 1,300 degrees celsius, advanced cooling
techniques must be used to allow the aerofoils to cool down and prevent them from melting [22].
One of the techniques used is Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM) where electrodes are
discharged onto the aerofoils to create extremely precise (and small) holes that will then allow
for cool air to be taken from other parts of the compressor (the air isn’t ‘cool’ as it is at about
200-550 degrees celsius but it is enough to cool aerofoils down from 1,700 degrees) and
pumped through these tiny holes, therefore allowing the high temperatures to be brought down
below the melting point of the materials that aerofoils are made from.
2.4 Additive Manufacturing

Additive Manufacturing (AM) is the process of creating an object by layering material on top of
each other, enabling the creation of very complex shapes. It is also known as 3D printing,
though this is just one of the many methods of AM. Additive manufacturing is a relatively new
and emerging technology that is currently being heavily researched for aerospace applications,
specially for aerofoils, however, there still needs to be a greater understanding of this method of
manufacturing as well as discovering a way of reducing the drawbacks that come alongside this
process - even if the drawbacks are fewer than the advantages that the industry could benefit
from in comparison to traditional manufacturing methods.
2.4.1 Methods of AM
AM methods with the use of polymers:
Photopolymerization
The photopolymerization process involves the curation of acrylics with the use of radiation,
typically a laser beam or UV light. Whenever the laser beam hits the polymer, it solidifies to
create the desired shape. The 3D shape is then built in layers by lowering the distance from vat
to the laser beam.
The advantage is that it has high resolution and accuracy hence being able to produce complex
parts. However, final parts can result to be weaker compared to the ones fabricated with other
methods of AM.
Material jetting
Material is deposited from a nozzle in drops and this moves horizontally across the platform to
build shape. It is also built in layers and UV radiation is used to solidify the jetted material (this
happens mostly with Photopolymerizable resins as molten polymers can solidify at ambient
temperature).
It is beneficial as it enables multiple materials as these can be changed mid-process. Also

allows for a good surface finish. The drawback is that parts may have low strength and
durability. As material is deposited in drops, this means that there are limited materials that can
be used.
Material extrusion
Final part is made by depositing extruded material in layers into a movable table that moves
horizontally and vertically for the shape to be designed. The extrusion nozzle is heated up so
the filament is melted and can therefore be deposited as a liquid - as soon as the filament
reaches the part, this solidifies and it bonds to the part.
It is an inexpensive and simple AM method. Allows for multiple materials and colours. However,
it has slow build times, doesn’t allow for complex designs and requires high processing
temperatures.
AM methods with the use of metals:
Powder Bed Fusion

Also known as Selective Laser Melting (SLM) or Electron Beam melting (EBM). This process
works by layering powder into a platform with a roller or blade to form the shape of the layer
desired. A heat source is then used to solidify the powder into a solid mass - working similar to
sintering as the powder is heated up to form a solid without melting it to the point of liquefaction
[25].
Allows for fast processes and complex structures. The drawback of this is that the spectrum of
suitable materials is limited due to the high cost associated with processing cryogenic powders.
Binder Jetting
There are two parts to this process: the powdered material which is shaped in layers with the
final product’s design and the binder, which is in liquid form and bounds the powder together.
The powder, like in Powder Bed Fusion, is layed using a roller or blade. The binder is deposited
in layers with the help of a print head that moves horizontally across the x and y axis.
The advantages are that the two material methods allow for a large number of different binder-
powder combinations and various mechanical properties. Process is also generally faster than
others. However, having to process the part after this has been built can significantly drive lead
times up. This is generally needed to make the part stronger [26].
Sheet Lamination
Sheet lamination processes include ultrasonic additive manufacturing (UAM) and laminated
object manufacturing (LOM). UAM uses sheets or ribbons of metal to be bound together by
ultrasonic welding. This method needs additional processes to remove extra undesirable
material. LOM (which also bounds polymers) is similar as it binds sheets together but it uses a
paper adhesive rather than ultrasonic welding.
Benefits from speed of manufacturing as well as reduced costs and ease of material handling.
The drawback is that finished parts generally require post processing to achieve desired final
product [27].
Directed Energy Deposition

A multi-axis nozzle is heated up to deposit material into a surface (similar to Material Extrusion).
The nozzle can move in any direction so it is more versatile than Material Extrusion. Generally,
it is used to repair or add extra material into already existing parts.
Its advantage is that it provides the ability to control the grain structure to a high degree, which
lends the process to repair work of high quality, functional parts However, finishes can vary
depending on paper or plastic material but may require post processing to achieve desired
effect [28].
It is worth noting that even though the above methods are labeled into polymers and metals,
some methods are interchangeable whereas others are not. Powder Bed Fusion could handle
both metals and polymers, whereas Sheet Lamination could only be used in metals.
2.4.2 Best applications of AM for Aerofoils

Even though there are many methods of AM, only some derivations of these are best suited for
aerospace applications - most specifically for aerofoils.
Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)

It is a variation of Direct Energy Deposition. Parts are built by feeding raw, melted, material into
a nozzle - metal wires are melted using an electric arc as the heat source. The final part is built
onto a substrate material (base plate). When the wire is melted, it is extruded in the forms of
beads on the substrate for these to stick together and form layers. Once these layers stick
together the next bead is extruded and this process is repeated until the final desired part is
finished. WAAM can be feedstocked any metal as long as this is in wire form. The range of
materials includes aluminium alloys, stainless steel, titanium alloys and nickel-based alloys.
Basically, any weldable material can work with WAAM.
Some of the benefits are: Cheaper process and materials - The wire metal used to produce the
parts is significantly less expensive than powdered metal used for Powder Bed Fusion (PBF).
The reason being is that welding is a well established manufacturing technology of itself and
WAAM reuses its processes and materials which considerably drives costs down; High-quality
parts - Due to the feedstock material being purely dense, parts produced with WAAM are noted
for their high densities and negligible porosity in the process of manufacturing as well as high
mechanical strength properties, compared to traditional manufacturing methods; Suitable for
repair operations - WAAM can also be used to add material in aerofoils where these have been
damaged by usual wear and tear or other factors. Adding material to the aerofoils to give them
their original precise dimensions - known as hybrid manufacturing - means that parts can be
reused which will save money.
Some of the drawbacks: Heat management - Due to the high temperatures associated with
WAAM and most AM processes, the cooling of the aerofoil must be factored into the process
(as well as heat treatment for post processing) as otherwise residual stress can become a
problem - where parts end up being weaker; Low resolution - WAAM typically produces near-
net-shape parts with a poor surface finish. Thus, the finished part required post-processing
machining; Some materials require shielding - Materials like titanium require to be built in a
closed atmosphere to be under the right building conditions. However, a closed atmosphere
may limit the size of the part and the shielding will drive costs up [29].
Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

This process is a form of Powder Bed Fusion. The powdered metal is on a base plate when the
laser is pointed at it to fully melt the metal (unlike Direct Metal Laser Sintering where powdered
isn’t fully melted). Once the metal is melted another layer is added to it until the final part is
finished as one piece of solid and strong metal.
The term “laser” implies that a laser is used for processing, “melting” refers to the particular
situation in which powders are completely melted and the term “selective” specifies that only
partial powder is processed [15].
Advantages of SLM: Strong and dense final parts - As the feedstock material is being fully
melted, this allows for the production of a dense, solid metal component in a single
manufacturing process (without the need of post-process furnace operations that have been
previously used to make metal parts via Laser Sintering); High resolution - The SLM process
has the ability to manufacture geometrically complex structures with high resolution. However,
where there is fluid flow (aerospace applications) the surface finish of final parts is a
disadvantage; Supports a wide range of materials - SLM can be used with titanium alloys, Ni-
based alloys and various steels - used to fabricate aerospace components.
Some of the disadvantages: High cost of machinery and materials - Powdered metals are more
expensive and the machinery to produce the parts can drive costs up due to the fact that they
must also be produced in an inert gas atmosphere; Inert gas supply required - Due to high
reactivity of materials in high temperatures, usually the SLM process is carried out in an inert
atmosphere, such as argon, to lower the impurity pick-up level and produce medical grade
products; Surface roughness - A powder feedstock that is rich in coarse particles and sparse in
fine particles results in large effective layer thickness and low powder layer density during SLM,
and consequently produces rough top surface [30].
Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)

Laser engineered net shaping (LENS) is a form of Direct Energy Deposition, where air-blown
streams of metallic powders are welded into complex final components. Each nozzle is in
charge of directing a stream of metallic powders at a central point beneath them.
Simultaneously, that point is heated by a high-powered laser beam which causes the powder to
solidify. The laser and jets do not move while the current part is moved around for more metallic
powder to be deposited and shape the component. First, this is done on a substrate (base
plate), and then on the layer above the one just finished so layers are built up, until the desired
cross-sectional geometry is completed with production of a - previously uploaded with CAD - 3D
metal product.
Benefits of LENS: High resolution and accuracy - This method creates near-net shaped parts,
hence, saving time of post-processing methods; Strong parts - The main benefit of LENS is to
build small lots of high-density parts or molds. The work discusses grain size as dependent on
the temperature gradient and the cooling rate. The density of a single part that has been
processed with LENS could reach up to 94%, though this can be furthered increase to 97%
dense using post-treatments with heat; Inert building conditions - The chambered atmosphere is
fed with argon to allow for high reactive metals such as titanium and zirconium.
Drawbacks of LENS: Heat conditions - LENS can have challenged due to the elevated
temperature of processing that creates challenges when trying to form smooth objects from
molten metals; High costs - The need for an inert atmosphere drives the cost of machinery up
as well as the powdered metal that can result more costly than other wired metal processes;
Pores - As with most metal AM processes, induced pores from the manufacturing process could
affect fatigue life. Besides internal pores in struts, manufacturing imperfections such as rough
surfaces, variations in strut thickness, staircase effect, and unwanted material left in the lattice
are all problems that need to be given attention [31].
3. Results
Summary of Aerofoils
An aerofoil is a cross-sectional shape that is intended to create lift. Lift is created by the
curvatures of the air flow, and as shown in section 2.1.2, it does not relate to the upper camber
having a greater distance than the other. In fact, this is very well proven in applications such as
aircraft flight upside down. In these instances, lift is still created as the aircraft remains in the air,
where the upper camber now has a shorter distance compared to the lower one. There are also
many aerofoils that are designed symmetrically and both cambers are equal in distance - such
as the NACA 0012 [33]. In these aerofoils, with an angle of attack of 0 degrees, no lift is
created, however, when the angle of attack is increased, there is a curvature in the lines which
causes lift.
Use of different materials in AM - Magnesium

Advantages such as removing the need for traditional manufacturing methods such as casting,
extrusion, secondary machining and forging can be obtained with the use of additive
manufacturing methods such as Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF), to process magnesium
alloys will enable the production of parts of the specific shape in a single technological process.
A few issues are yet to be solved, however, to ensure successful implementation is (a) allow for
repeatability, (b) eliminate porosity, and (c) ensure scalability (capability to expand from the
production of small to large parts).
Summary of How Compressors Work

Most of the thrust comes from the air rather than the fuel - in a normal engine, 100 pounds of
air/sec are mixed with 2 pounds of fuel/sec. The high temperatures in the gas allow for high
amounts of energy which is how the engine functions. The high temperatures in the gas are
caused by the compression in the air where the aerofoils give sufficient energy for the air, when
compressed, to go up in temperature. After this rise of energy that causes a rise in temperature,
the main conversion of energy in a jet engine happens where chemical energy (fuel) is
converted to kinetic energy and heat energy in the flowing gas. The engine is driven by this flow
of gas as some of its kinetic energy is passed on to the turbine blades, making them spin, which
drive the shafts and therefore the stage of compressors attached to that shaft. The engine
works because the compressor rotates to compress the air, and it rotates because it is attached
by a shaft that goes across the whole engine to the turbine. Once the turbine blades rotate due
to the energy given to this by the flow of gas, the shaft is rotating too, which, in turn, makes the
compressor rotate. The flow of gas is losing some of its energy to drive the turbine but this still
has enough energy to be ejected and create thrust in the engine to allow the whole aircraft to
move forward (Newton’s 3rd Law of Motion states that every action has an equal and opposite
reaction, meaning that if gas is ejected from the turbine, this will cause the aircraft to move
forward). The gas is also accelerated through the nozzle, creating an exit velocity greater than
the free stream velocity of the gas leaving the combustion chamber [23].
Since no external heat is being added to or extracted from the compressor during the pressure
increase, the process is isentropic [24].
Summary of AM
There are many advantages and disadvantages that are applicable across all metals and AM
techniques.
Advantages of AM:
- Some advantages in AM methods that can be obtained when compared to traditional
manufacturing methods is the reduce in lead times (i.e. the overall time for a component
to be built from scratch), flexibility in building parts due to the adaptability of the
feedstock material that allows for complex parts to be manufactured as well as control of
the material’s porosity and density with rapid cooling and heating cycles. The feedstock
used may be in the form of wire or powder. [32]
- Since there is a flexibility in manufacturing parts due to the feedstock material and
directional solidification, less material is being wasted. This reduces the “buy to fly” ratio
of the components which further reduces costs and time (that also saves money) that
usually would go onto the parts for post machining.
- Also, since AM produces near-net shapes, this means that there is no need for post
machining (or at least not as much) which reduces time, which is money, and reduces
costs as you have less material waste [2].
- One of the main priorities in an engine is to reduce SFC, if less fuel is consumed the
engine is more efficient and produces less emissions therefore leaving a greener
footprint. AM can help to produce new, lighter, and high-strength construction materials.
This is needed as weight reduction is the easiest and most cost-effective option to
reduce overall SFC [14].
Disadvantages of AM:
- The final part’s density can vary greatly depending on the powder’s properties such as
its particle size, chemical composition and morphology which can differ from different
powder production methods. The porosity of the part can also vary depending on the
fluidity and packing factor of the powder properties. Water atomization process is the
simplest and low-cost atomization process. Liquid metal is atomized by high speed water
jets while the metal is falling through the atomization chamber. Particle sizes from ~ 5
μm to 500 μm can be produced by this method due to high cooling rates provided by the
water. However, this could have secondary effects of an irregular morphology of the
particle which might not be suitable for AM as it reduces the packing factor of the
powder. Oxide can form in the metals which changes the component composition and
can be undesired in materials where oxide has detrimental effects on the mechanical
properties of a material; this may be caused by water atomization leading to higher
oxygen content in the powder particles. This disadvantage can be overcome by using an
inert environment with gas atomization. The method works for both reactive and non-
reactive materials [32].
4. Discussion
All the research was conducted by myself to the best of my knowledge. I was able to identify
reputable sources in the area of aerospace engineering, such as: NASA, research papers from
Science Direct and various other educational organizations such as the MIT and the University
of Cambridge. My research could have had more validity if I had taken multiple sources for
every concept that I tackled. I took an average of in between one and two sources per piece of
information - perhaps, having cited three or more sources would have given my research added
credibility.
5. Conclusion
The design of aerofoils is intended to be aerodynamically efficient in creating lift - by improving
lift in increased angle of attacks, thus bending more air and creating bigger changes in pressure
which is the main cause of lift. This can also be aided by a special component called an IGV
(Inlet Guide Vanes) where the air is directed to change the angle of attack, so this does not get
too shallow and the engine does not risk stall - where there is a separation of the boundary layer
above the surface of the object, causing the engine to stall which could result in a non-functional
engine which could lead to the plane falling off the sky causing many deaths. This design also
aims to reduce the drag coefficient where much of the engine’s power and thrust could be lost if
there has to be work done (energy) in resisting and opposing this force of drag. Drag will always
be a factor but it could be reduced by reducing variables of an aerofoil such as the area of the
aerofoil. These aerofoils also have to be designed to withstand the flying conditions that they
are exposed to while in a working engine. They have to ensure that the flow is not turned
turbulent and that the Mach number and Reynolds numbers of the fluid which they are travelling
through will not detriment its performance and therefore be designed to operate efficiently at the
conditions designed to work at.
There are many materials that could be used to build aerofoils using additive manufacturing.
Some of these materials provide advantages that aerofoils could benefit from being
manufactured with AM. Some materials have high thermal conductivity which means that the
working conditions are easier and the component can be manipulated with ease. The
conductivity of a material is the ability to dissipate and conduct heat to the whole component.
When Titanium is being cut, for example, high amounts of heat are applied to a single point and
the reason for this is that Titanium has a low thermal conductivity so it cannot spread the heat
out so then the single point experiences a higher temperature. The cutting process of Titanium
cannot be interrupted because if this is done then the high temperature could harm the material
and change the material’s inert properties and its microstructure. Other factors such as density,
porosity and weight are also taken into consideration when choosing the best material for a
specific application.
The compressor functions at high-demanding conditions which is the reason as to why choosing
the appropriate materials is so important. There are very high temperatures as well as rotational
forces that cause the aerofoil to be under stress. For this reason, in modern axial compressors,
multiple shafts are used to minimise the stress that an aerofoil is subjected to. This means that
the the long, LP, compressors can rotate at lower speeds for them to not detach from the hub
and fail at its root, and for short, HP, compressors to be able to rotate at higher speeds to
function more effectively and compress more air - not being exposed to as much stress due to
them being short and not as easy to fail from the root.
Additive manufacturing is a technique that has been around for long but it is an emerging
technology with the use of metals in the aerospace industry. It can offer many advantages to
traditional manufacturing methods where much more time goes into each aerofoil, and as time
is money for all companies, reduced lead times can cause savings in money. It can also
produce near-net shaped aerofoils that will decrease the “buy to fly” ratio where the amount of
material bought is being used as much as possible in the final component. This is due to the
reduction in material being wasted which is very costly so companies are saving money - as
well as further reducing lead times as not as much as post-processing finishing is required. This
technology enables the production of more complex shapes. However, it has not yet been
adopted due to the drawbacks of this process: porosity caused by the part having material
added by layers and density of the final product, as well as more complex machinery required.
My research is valuable as I have collated data across the field to display it in a single research
paper, where different AM methods can be identified, in conjunction with the materials that can
be used and which is more suitable for each application - and more importantly, how AM can
improve the aerodynamic design of aerofoils and the efficiencies inside a jet engine
compressor.
6. Evaluation
My research placement was interrupted by the global pandemic COVID-19. This affected my
level of learning, understanding and depth of research which would have been otherwise
possible if I was not restricted from enhancing my research with activities such as: access to a
laboratory and seeing experiments first hand, carrying out practical activities as well as having
access to CAD software to be able to design and perhaps build aerofoils for testing. I was not
able to see the manufacturing process of aerofoils with AM in practice and had no work
experience or contact with the working industry. I could’ve also benefited from being in contact
with industry professionals who are carrying out the job and have deep knowledge of all
processes.
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Acknowledgements
This research project has been possible due to the Nuffield Future Researches program that put
me in contact with my mentor for the project, Iain Sword, who is a Mechanical and Aerospace
graduate engineer at the University of Strathclyde going into studying a PhD on additive
manufacturing.
My work experience provider, Rolls-Royce, gave me the opportunity to be introduced into

aerospace engineering and to be invited back after my first week was a privilege. I learned a lot
and was keen to further my knowledge - and that is when this project happened!
Jennifer, who was the Nuffield coordinator for Scotland has also provided me with outstanding
continuous support in getting me allocated a project and throughout the process.
My parents were there to listen to me talking about my project and provided me with moral
support and encouragement as well as incentive and motivation to finish the project that I was
lucky to obtain.
Finally, my girlfriend, Heidi, who was also there to adapt to my research schedule and was very
understanding of how important this project was for me and due to it we were not able to meet
as much as we would’ve liked throughout the summer as well as helping me out with pressure
and stress.

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ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING IN COMPRESSORS 1

How Additive Manufacturing of Aerofoils can Increase

Submitted in partial completion of the Nuffield Future Researchers Course on

Author’s contact details: gonza.montenegro2@gmail.com

2.1 Aerofoils ········································································································· 4

2.1.1 How lift is created in Aerofoils due to Aerodynamics ··············································· 4

2.1.2 Why is the “Equal Transit” theory incorrect? ························································· 6

2.1.3 Flying conditions of Aerofoils ············································································· 7

2.2 Materials used in Aerofoils ·················································································· 11

2.3 Compressors ··································································································· 13

2.3.1 Components of a Compressor ·········································································· 14

2.3.2 Forces inside the Compressor ·········································································· 15

2.3.3 Temperatures inside the Compressor ·································································

2.4 Additive manufacturing ······················································································· 16

2.4.1 Methods of AM ·······························································································

2.4.2 Best applications of AM for Aerofoils ·································································· 19

Keywords: Additive Manufacturing, Jet Engine Compressors, Aerofoils.

2.1.1 How lift is created in Aerofoils due to Aerodynamics

pressure (left) to low pressure (right) will

2.1.2 Why is the “Equal Transit” theory incorrect?

The reason why this theory is wrong:

2.1.3 Flying conditions of Aerofoils

ratio = speed of object / speed of sound = Mach number

Re formula: Re = ratio = Interia Force / Viscous Force

The formula for Reynolds number is:

Where: Re = Reynolds number

Re = (p v L) / μ → Re = (kg m-3 * m s-1 * m) / ((kg m-1 s-1)

m-3 * m1 * m1 = (-3) + 1 + 1 = (-1)

Turbulent vs Laminar Flow

Fig. 4 - Turbulent & Laminar Flow. Source: https://www.cfdsupport.com/OpenFOAM-Training-by-CFD-Support/node334.html

Fig. 5 - Boundary Layer. Source: https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-12/airplane/boundlay.html

2.2 Materials used in Aerofoils

Nickel-chromium Alloys (Inconel)

2.3.1 Components of a Compressor

Fig. 6. 3 spool high-bypass jet engine Rolls-Royce Trent 900.

2.3.2 Forces inside the Compressor

2.3.3 Temperatures inside Compressor

2.4 Additive Manufacturing

AM methods with the use of polymers:

It is beneficial as it enables multiple materials as these can be changed mid-process. Also

AM methods with the use of metals:

Powder Bed Fusion

Directed Energy Deposition

2.4.2 Best applications of AM for Aerofoils

Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)

Selective Laser Melting (SLM)

Laser Engineered Net Shaping (LENS)

Use of different materials in AM - Magnesium

Summary of How Compressors Work

My work experience provider, Rolls-Royce, gave me the opportunity to be introduced into

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