Highway engineering I

3. Intersections, Interchanges, and Terminals

3.1 Intersections
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more
highways join or cross including the roadway and roadside facilities for
traffic movements within the area. Each highway radiating from an
intersection or forming part of it is an intersection leg.
Intersections are important part of highway facility because to a great
extent, the efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation, and capacity of the
facility depends on their design. Each intersection involves through or
cross traffic movements on one or more of the highways and may involve
turning movements between these highways. Such movements may be
facilitated by various geometric design and traffic control, depending on
the type of intersection.
Intersections vary in complexity from a simple intersection, which has
only two roads crossing at a right angle to each other, to a more complex
intersection, at which three or more roads cross within the same area.
The process of decision making for road users at intersections is complex
and this is part of the reason why intersections tend to have a high
potential for accidents and delays. The overall traffic flow on any highway
depends to a great extent on the performance of the intersections, since
intersections usually operate at a lower capacity than through sections of
the road.

General design consideration and objectives

The main objective of intersection design is to facilitate the convenience,
ease, and comfort of people traversing the intersection while enhancing
the movement of motor vehicles, buses, trucks, bicycles, and pedestrian.
Intersection design should be fitted closely to the natural transitional
paths and operating characteristics of its users.

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Basic elements that should be considered in the design of intersections

are:
ƒ Human factors
o Driving habit
o Ability of driver to make decision
o Driver expectancy
o Decision and reaction time
o Conformance to natural paths of movement
o Pedestrian use and habit
o Bicycle traffic use and habit
ƒ Traffic considerations
o Design and actual capacities
o Design hour turning movements
o Size and operating characteristics of vehicles
o Vehicle speed
o Bicycle movements
o Pedestrian movements
ƒ Physical elements
o Vertical alignment at intersection
o Sight distance
o Angle of intersection
o Conflict area
o Speed change lanes
o Geometric design features
o Traffic control devices
o Lighting requirements
o Safety features
o Environmental factors
o Cross walks
ƒ Economical factors
o Initial, improvement and operational costs

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o Effect of controlling or limiting right of way on abutting

residential or commercial properties where channelization
restricts or prohibits vehicular movements
o Energy consumption
Intersections are generally classified into three general categories:
• At- grade intersections,
• Grade-separated without ramps, and
• Grade-separated with ramps (commonly known as
interchanges)
Grade-separated intersections usually consist of structures that provide
for traffic to cross at different levels (vertical distances) without
interruption. The potential for accidents at grade-separated intersections
is reduced because many potential conflicts between intersecting streams
of traffic, are eliminated.

Selection of Junction Type

The choice of a intersection type requires knowledge of traffic demand,

intersection performance and accident prediction. It is often difficult to
determine the best intersection type of any particular situation, taking
into account capacity, delay, safety and physical layout factors. Several
alternatives may be possible at a junction. A guide for the selection of
junction type based on different combinations of traffic flows is presented
in Figure 6.1.
Basic advantages and disadvantages of different junction types,
including grade separation, are as follows:

ƒ Priority (T-Junction, Cross-Junction). For low flows. Can

cause long delays. Requires sufficient stopping sight
distance. Delays can be improved by signal installation.
ƒ Roundabouts. For low to medium flows. Minimal delays at
lower flows. Shown to be safer than priority junctions.

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Requires attention to pedestrian movements and

accommodation of slow-moving traffic.
ƒ Grade-Separation. For high flows. Results in minimal delays.
Expensive.

Figure 3-1: Junction Selection Based on Traffic Flows

3.1.1 At Grade Intersections

Most highways intersect at grade, and the intersection area should be
designed to provide adequately for turning and crossing movements with
due consideration to sight distance, signs, and alignments. The basic
types of at-grade intersections are T,Y or three-leg intersection, which
consist of three approaches; four-leg or cross intersections, which
consist of four approaches: and multi-leg intersection, which consists of
five or more approaches. A few examples of these types of intersections
are given Figure 6-2.

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Figure 3-2: Types of at grade intersection

3.1.2 Grade separations and Interchanges

Intersection at grade can be eliminated by the use of grade-separation
structures that permit the cross flow of traffic at different levels without
interruption. The advantage of such separation is the freedom from cross
interference with resultant saving of time and increase in safety for traffic
movements. Grade separations and interchanges may be warranted
(1) As part of an express highway system designed to carry high
volumes of traffic,
(2) To eliminate bottlenecks,

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(3) To prevent accidents,

(4) Where the topography is such that other types of design are
not feasible,
(5) Where the volumes to be catered for would require the
design of an intersection at grade of unreasonable size, and
(6) Where the road user benefit of reducing delays at an at-
grade intersection exceeds the cost of the improvement.
An interchange is a grade separation in which vehicles moving in one
direction of flow may transfer by the use of connecting roadways. These
connecting roadways at interchanges are called ramps. Many types and
forms of interchanges and ramp layouts are used. Some of these are
shown Figure 3-3. The choice between these intersection types depends
on various factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay,
space requirements, etc.

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Figure 3-3: Types of grade separated intersections

3.2 Design Principles of At-Grade Intersections

The fundamental objectives in the design of at - grade intersections are
to minimize delay and the number and severity of potential conflicts
among different streams of traffic and between pedestrian and turning
vehicles. At the same time, it is necessary to provide for the smooth flow
of traffic across the intersection. The design should therefore incorporate
the operating characteristics of both the vehicles and pedestrians using
the intersection. For example, the corner radius of an intersection

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pavement or the radius required for design velocity of the turning

roadway under consideration. The design also should ensure adequate
pavement widths of turning roadways and approach sight distances. This
suggests that at-grade intersections should not be located at or just
beyond sharp crest vertical curves or at sharp horizontal curves.
The basic requirements of intersection design are maximize safety and
minimize traffic delay. The design of an at-grade intersection involves:
(1) The design of the alignment including profiles, minimum radius
and widths of turning roadways,
(2) The design of a suitable channeling system for the traffic pattern,
(3) The assurance that the sight distances are adequate for the type of
control at the intersection.

Alignment of At-Grade Intersections

The best alignment of an at-grade intersection is when the intersecting
roads meet at right or nearly right angles. This alignment is superior to
acute-angle alignments because much less road area is required for
turning at the intersection, there is a lower exposure, time for vehicles
crossing the main traffic flow, and visibility limitations, particularly for
the trucks, are not as serious as those at acute-angle intersections.
Figure 3-4 shows alternative methods for realigning roads intersecting at
acute angles to obtain a nearly tight-angle intersection.
In designing the profile (vertical alignment) at the intersection large
changes in grade should be avoided; preferably, grades should not be
greater than 3 percent. The stopping and accelerating distances for
passenger cars on grades of 3 percent or less are not much different from
those of cars on flat grades; however, significant differences start to
occur at grades higher than 3 percent. When it is unavoidable to use
grades of 3 percent or more, design factors such as stopping distances
and accelerating distances should be adjusted so that conditions

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equivalent to those on level ground exist. In any case, it is not advisable

to use grades higher than 6 percent at intersections.
It should always be remembered that the combination of horizontal and
vertical alignments at an intersection should produce traffic lanes that
are clearly seen by motorists at all times, without the sudden appearance
of potential hazards. Also, motorists should be able to easily understand
the path they should take for any desired direction. The angle of turn,
the turning speed, the design vehicle, and traffic volume are the main
factors governing the design of curves at at-angle intersections. When the
turning speed at an intersection is assumed to be 25 km/h or less, the
curves for the pavement edges are designed to conform to at least the
minimum turning path of the design vehicle. When the turning speed is
expected to be greater than 25km/h, the design speed is also considered.
It is also necessary to increase the pavement width of turning roadways
when the speed is greater than 25km/h.

Figure 3-4: Alignment method for realigning skewed intersections

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ROUNDABOUTS

A roundabout is a one-way circulatory system around a central island,

entry to which is controlled by markings and signs. Priority is given to
traffic already in the roundabout. Roundabouts provide high capacity
and minimal delay. Roundabouts have a good safety record.

THE GENERAL LAYOUT

The general layout of a roundabout should provide for the following:
• Adequate entry widths
• Adequate circulation space compatible with entry widths
• Central islands of diameter sufficient only to give drivers
guidance on the maneuvers expected.
• Deflection of the traffic to the right on entry to promote
movement and ensure low traffic speeds.
• A simple and clear layout
• Suitable visibility at any entry of each adjacent entry
• Entry and exit deflection angles and central island radius
should be adjusted to the design speeds

Channelistation of At-Grade Intersections

Channelisation is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic
movements into definite paths of travel by traffic islands or pavement
markings to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of both vehicles
and pedestrians. A traffic island is a defined area between traffic lanes
where vehicular traffic is excluded and provided to regulate the
movement of vehicles or to serve as a pedestrian refuge. A properly
channelised intersection will result in increased capacity, enhanced
safety, and increase driver confidence. Properly designed channelistation
systems increase intersection capacity and decrease conflicts and
accidents.

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Channelizing Islands generally are included in an intersection design for

one or more of the following purposes:
• Separation of conflicts
• Control of angle of conflict
• Reduction of excessive pavement areas
• Regulation of traffic flow in the intersection area
• Arrangements to favor a predominant turning movement protection
of pedestrians
• Protection of pedestrians
• Protection and storage of turning and crossing vehicles
• Location of traffic control devices
Islands are generally grouped into three major classes; directional or
chanelised, divisional, and refuge. Islands can be formed by using raised
curbs, pavement markings, or the pavement edges. General types and
shapes of islands are shown in figure 6-5. Directional islands are
designed primarily to guide the motorist through the intersection by
indicating the intended route. Where spacious area exists at an
intersection and leaves much to the discretion of the driver, islands may
be used to channelize the motorist into the desired lane by placing a
channeling island in the little-used portion of the intersection.
Divisional islands are most frequently used on undivided highways
approaching intersections. They serve to alert the driver to the
intersection and regulate the flow of traffic into and out of the
intersection. Their use is particularly advantageous for controlling left-
turning traffic at skewed intersection. A refuge island is located at or
near crosswalks to aid and protect pedestrians crossing the roadway.
Refuge islands are most generally used on wide streets in urban areas for
loading and unloading of transit riders.

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Figure 3-5: Example of types and shapes of island

Sight distance at Intersections

The high accident potential at an intersection can be reduced by
providing sight distances that allow drivers to have an unobstructed view
of the entire intersection at a distance great enough to permit control of
the vehicle. At-grade intersections either have no control or are controlled
by one of the following methods; yield control, stop control, or signal
control. At signalized intersections, the unobstructed view may be limited
to the area where the signals are located, but for un-signalized
intersections, it is necessary to provide an adequate view of the
crossroads or intersecting highways to reduce the potential of collision
with crossing vehicles.
Figure 6-6 shows a schematic of the sight triangle required for the
location of an obstruction that will allow for the provision of the
minimum distance da and db. It can be seen from that triangle ABC and
ADE are similar, which gives:

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Figure 3-6: Minimum sight distance at an intersection

CB ED
=
AB AD
db a
=
da da − b

From this equation, if any of the variables da, db a, and b are known the
fourth can be determined.
Sight distance requirements for No-control intersections: - In this
situation the intersection is not controlled by a yield sign, a stop sign, or
a traffic signal, but sufficient sight distance is provided for the operator
of a vehicle approaching the intersection to see a crossing vehicle and if
necessary to adjust the vehicle’s speed so as to avoid a collision. This
distance must include the distance traveled by the vehicle both during
the driver’s perception reaction time and during brake actuation or the
acceleration to regulate speed. At intersections, 2.0 sec is usually

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acceptable for perception reaction time, and an additional 1.0 sec is

added for the driver to actuate braking or to accelerate to regulate speed.
It is, generally, preferable to design uncontrolled intersections such that
the driver of each vehicle sees the intersection and the traffic on the
crossroad insufficient tie for stopping the vehicle before reaching the
intersection.
Sight distance requirements for yield-control intersections: - In this
situation the minor road is controlled by a yield sign. Vehicles on the
minor road are therefore required to yield to vehicles on the major road,
which often requires the vehicle on the minor road to slow down or to
stop prior to reaching the intersecting roadway. The sight distance
provided on the minor road must therefore be sufficient for the driver to
see a vehicle approaching from either the left or right of the major road
and to be able to stop the vehicle before reaching the intersecting
roadway, as shown in figure 3-6. It should be noted that the grades of
the approaches should be taken into consideration when determining the
minimum stopping sight distances.
Sight distance requirement for stop-control intersections: - When
vehicles are required to stop at an intersection, the drivers of such
vehicles should be provided sufficient sight distance to be able to stop
the vehicle before reaching the intersecting roadway and allow for a safe
departure from the stopped position for the three basic maneuvers that
occur at an average intersection. These maneuvers are:
(1) Crossing the intersection, thereby clearing traffic approaching from
both sides of the intersection,
(2) Turning left onto the crossroad, which requires clearing the traffic
approaching from the left and then joining the traffic stream on the
crossroad with vehicles approaching from the right, and
(3) Turning right onto the crossroad by joining the traffic on the
crossroad with vehicles approaching from the left.

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Sight distance at intersections with signal control: - Although the

unobstructed view at signalized intersections may be limited to the area
of control, it is recommended that the minimum sight distances based on
sight distance requirement for stop-control intersections be made
available at these intersections. These minimum sight distances are
necessary to avoid the hazardous situations resulting from unanticipated
conflicts at signalized intersections, including signal failure, vehicles
running the red light, use of the flashing red/yellow mode, and right
turns on red. The basic principle of signalized intersections is to provide
sight distances that will enable the driver to see the signals early enough
to make the necessary action indicated by the signals.

3.3 Traffic Controls

The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of way to drivers, and
thus to facilitate highway safety be ensuring the orderly and predictable
movement of all traffic on highways, control may be achieved by using
traffic signals, signs, or markings that regulate, guide, warn, and/or
channel traffic. Complex maneuvering areas of highways such as
intersections require properly designed traffic control systems.
Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in different directions
interfere with each other. The three types of conflicts are merging,
diverging and crossing. Figure 3-7 shows the different conflict points that
exist at a four-approach un-signalized intersection. There are 32 conflict
points in this case. The number of possible conflict points at any inter-
section depends on the number of approaches, the turning movements,
and the type of traffic control at the intersection.

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Figure 3-7 Conflict points at four-approach unsignalized intersections

The primary objective in the design of a traffic control system at an

intersection is to reduce the number of significant conflict points. In
designing such a system, it is first necessary to undertake an analysis of
the turning movements at the intersection, which will indicate the
significant types of conflicts. Factors that influence the significance of a
conflict include the type of conflict, the number of vehicles in each of the
conflicting streams, and the speeds of the vehicles in these streams.
Crossing conflicts tend to have the most severe effect on traffic flow and
should be reduced to a minimum whenever possible.
Types of intersection control
Several methods of controlling streams of vehicles at intersections are in
use. The choice of on of these methods depends on the type of
intersection and the volume of traffic in each of the conflicting streams.
The different types of intersection control are described below.

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YIELD signs: - Yield signs are usually placed on minor road approaches;
where it is necessary to yield the right of way to the major road traffic. All
drivers on approaches with yield signs are required to slow down and
yield the right of way to all conflicting vehicles at the intersection.
Stopping at yield signs is not mandatory, but drivers are required to stop
when necessary to avoid interfering with a traffic stream that has the
right of way.

STOP signs: - A stop sign is used where an approaching vehicle is

required to stop before entering the intersection. A stop sign may be used
on a minor road when it intersects a major road, at an un-signalized
intersection, and where a combination of high speed, restricted view and
serious accidents indicates the necessity for such a control. Stop signs
should not be used at signalized intersections or on through roadways of
expressways.

Roundabouts: - A roundabout is a means of traffic control where one-

way traffic is circulating a round a central island priority with in the
roundabout is controlled by GIVEWAY(YIELD) signs for entering traffic,
although occasionally traffic signals may be used. It considerably
reduces the number and severity of conflicts, and makes the traffic flow
self-regulatory and continuous, reduces congestion, and promotes safety.

Traffic signals: - One of the most effective ways of controlling traffic at

an intersection is the use of traffic signals. Traffic signals can be used to
eliminate many conflicts because different traffic streams can be
assigned the use of the intersection at different times. Since these results
in a delay to vehicles in all streams, it is important that traffic signals be
used only when necessary. The most important factor that determines
the need for traffic signals at a particular intersection is the

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intersection‘s approach traffic volume and accident experience may also

play a significant role.
The efficient operation of the signal requires proper timing design. The
main objectives of signal timing at an intersection are to reduce the
average delay of all vehicles and the probability of accident. These
objective are achieved the average delay of all vehicles and the probability
of accidents. These objectives are achieved by minimizing the possible
conflict points when assigning the right of way to different traffic streams
at different times. The cycle length for an isolated intersection should be
short, preferably between 35 and 60sec, although it may be necessary to
use longer cycles when approach volumes are very high. However, cycle
lengths should be kept below 120sec, since very long cycle lengths will
result in excessive delay. Several methods have been developed for
determining the optimal cycle length at an intersection and, in most
cases, the yellow interval is considered as a component of the green time.
Figure 3-8 shows a typical two-phase signal system to illustrate the
terminologies commonly used in the design of signal times.

Figure 3-8: Two phase signal system

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Yellow interval: The main purpose of the yellow indication after the
green is to alert motorists to the fact that the green light is about to
change to red and to allow vehicles already in the intersection to cross it.
A bad choice of yellow interval may lead to the creation of a dilemma
zone, an area close to an intersection in which a vehicle can neither stop
safely before the intersection nor clear the intersection without speeding
before the red signal comes on. The required yellow interval is the time
period that guarantees that approaching vehicles can either stop safety
or proceed through the intersection without speeding.
The yellow interval, which eliminates the dilemma zone, is estimated
from the following equations:
W + L uo
τ min = δ + +
uo 2a

If the effect of grade is added

W +L uo
τ min = δ + +
uo 2( a + Gg )

Where, min = the minimum yellow interval, (sec)

δ = perception-reaction time (sec)
W = width of intersection, (m)
L = length of vehicle, (m)
uo = speed (m/sec)
a = deceleration, (m/sec2)
G = grade of the approach road, and
g = acceleration due to gravity

Yellow intervals of 3 to 5 sec are normally used. When longer yellow

intervals than 5 see are computed from the above equations, an all-red
phase can be inserted to follow the yellow indication, but the change
interval, yellow plus all-red, must be at least the value computer from
the equations.

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Cycle lengths: - Several design methods have been developed to

determine the optimum cycle, length, one of which the Webster method
is presented here.
Webster method: Webster has shown that for a wide range of practical
conditions, minimum intersection delay is obtained when the cycle
length is obtained by the equation:
1.5L + 5
Co = n
1 − ∑ Yi
i =1

Where, Co = optimum cycle length (sec)

L = total lost time per cycle (sec)
Yi = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to
saturation flows for all traffic streams using phase i (i.e., Vii/ Sj)
n = number of phases
Vij = flow on lane j having the right of way during phase i
Sj = saturation flow on lane i
Total Lost Time: Figure 3-9 shows a graph of discharge of vehicles of
vehicles at various times during a green of a signal cycle at an
intersection. Initially, some time is lost before the vehicles start moving
and then the rate of discharge increases to a maximum. This maximum
rate of discharge is the saturation flow. If there are sufficient vehicles in
the queue to use the available green time, the maximum rate of
discharge will be sustained until the yellow phase occurs. The rate of
discharge will then fall to zero when the yellow signal changes to red. The
number of vehicles that go through the intersection is represented by the
area under the curve. Dividing the number of vehicles that go through
the intersection by the saturation flow will give the effective green time,
which is less than the sum of the green and yellow times. This difference
is considered lost time, since it is not used by any other phase for the
discharge of vehicles; it can be expressed as
li = Gai + τ i − Gei

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Where, li = lost time for phase i

Gai = actual green time for phase I (not including yellow time),
i = yellow time for phase i
Gei = effective green time for phase i
Total lost time is given as
n
L = ∑ li + R
i =1

Where, R is the total all-red time during the cycle

Figure 3-9. Discharge of vehicle at various times during a green phase

Allocation of green times: In general, the total effective green time

available per cycle is given by
⎡n ⎤
Gte = C − L = C − ⎢∑ li + R ⎥
⎣ i =1 ⎦
Where, C = actual cycle length used (usually obtained by rounding
off C0, to the nearest 5 sec)
Gte=total effective green time per cycle.

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To obtain minimum overall delay, the total effective green time should be
distributed among the different phases in proportion to their Y values to
obtain the effective green time for each phase.
Yi
Gei = Gte
Y1 + Y2 + ... + Yn
And the actual green time for each phase is obtained as
Ga1 = Ge1 + l1 − τ 1

Ga 2 = Ge 2 + l 2 − τ 2

Gai = Gei + li − τ i

Gan = Gen + l n − τ n

Example: Figure 3-10a shows peak-hour volumes for a major

intersection on an arterial highway. Using the Webster method,
determine suitable signal timing for the intersection using a four–phase
system and the additional data given in the figure. Use a Yellow interval
of 3sec.

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109 75
25

321

321

128
A 222 B
464

464

128
100 206

PHF = 0.95
LEFT TURN FACTOR = 1.4
PCE FOR BUSES AND TRUCK = 1.6
TRUCK PERCENTAGES
NORTH APPROACH SOUTH APPROACH WEST APPROACH EAST APPROACH
THROUGH LEFT THROUGH LEFT THROUGH LEFT THROUGH LEFT
0 0 0 0 4 4 0 0
PEDESTRIAN VOLUME IS NEGLIGIBLE
a ) Data on traffic flow

115 79
37

338

338

189
A 335 B
499

499

519
105 217

DHV for EB (West approach )through traffic= 467/0.95=488 vechiles

PCE = ( 488 - 0.04 x 488) + 0.04 x 488 x 1.6 = 468 + 31 = 499
Figure 6-a & b : Peak hour volume for major intersection on arterial highway

Figure 3-10a & b: Peak hour volume for major intersection on arterial highway

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Solution:
First convert the mixed volumes to equivalent straight-through passenger
cars. The equivalent volumes are shown Figure 3-10b. The volumes were
obtained by dividing by the PHF, and then by applying the relevant
factors for trucks and left–turning vehicles as necessary. No factors for
right- turning vehicles were used because those volumes were very low.
Assume the following phasing system, where the arrows indicate traffic
streams that have the right of way:
The critical lane volumes are (see Figure 3-10b)
Phase, n Critical Lane volume
A 499
B 338
C 115
D 519
1471
Compute the total time using li=4sec. Since there is not an all-red
phase-that is, R=0 and there are four phases,
n
L = ∑ li = 4 × 3.5 = 14 sec
i =1

Phase A (EB) Phase A (WB) Phase A (SB) Phase A (NB)

Lane 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
Vij 335 499 499 189 338 338 115 79 37 519 105 217

Sj 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000 2000

Vij/Sj 0.17 0.25 0.25 0.09 0.17 0.17 0.06 0.04 0.019 0.26 0.05 0.17

Yi 0.25 0.17 0.06 0.26

∑Y i = 0.74

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Determine the optimum cycle length

1.5L + 5
Co = n
1 − ∑ Yi
i =1

1.5 × 14 + 5
Co = = 100 sec
1 − 0.74
Find the total effective green time:
Gte = C − L = 100 − 14 = 86 sec

Effective time for phase i is obtained from:

Yi
Gei = Gte
Y1 + Y2 + ... + Yn

Yi
Gei = 86
0.25 + 0.17 + 0.06 + 0.26
Yi
Gei = 86
0.74
Yellow time =3sec; then the actual green time for each phase can be
calculated as:
0.25
• Actual green time for phase A: GaA = × 86 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 30 sec
0.74
0.14
• Actual green time for phase B: GaB = × 86 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 20 sec
0.74
0.06
• Actual green time for phase C: GaC = × 86 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 7 sec
0.74
0.26
• Actual green time for phase D: GaD = × 86 + 3.5 − 3.0 = 31 sec
0.74

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3.4 Terminals
3.4.1 Parking facilities
Widespread parking problems exist in business districts and other highly
developed areas. Provision of parking facilities where there is a demand
is vital for an efficient and safe movement of vehicles. The geometric
design of parking facilities mainly involves the dimension and arranging
of parking bays to provide safe and easy across without seriously
restricting the flow of traffic on the adjacent traveling lanes. The following
paragraph presents principles on the design of parking facilities.
On-Street Parking Facilities: On–street parking facilities may be
designed with the parking bays parallel to the curb or inclined to the
curb. Figure 3-11 shows the angles of inclination commonly used for
curb parking and the associated dimensions for automobile parking. It
can be seen that the number of parking bays that can be fitted along a
given length of curb increases as the angle of inclination increases up to
900.

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Figure 3-11: Various parking configurations

The higher the inclination angle, however, the greater the encroachment
of the parking bays on the traveling pavement of the highway. Parking
bays inclined at angles to the curb severely interfere with the movement
of traffic on the highway, with the result that accident rates tend to be
higher on sections of the roads with an angle parking than on those with
parallel parking. It should be noted that the dimensions given in Figure
3-11 are for Automobiles. When parking bays are to be provided for

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trucks and other types of vehicles, the dimensions should be determined

on the basis of dimensions of the specific vehicles being considered.

Off-street parking facilities: The primary aim in designing off-street

parking facilities is to obtain the maximum possible number of spaces.
Figure 3-12 shows different types of layouts that can be used in a
surface lot. The most important consideration is that the layout should
be such that parking a vehicle involves only one distinct maneuver,
without the necessity to reverse. The different layouts also indicate that
the parking space is most efficiently used when the parking bays are
inclined at 900 to the direction of traffic flow. The use of the herringbone
layout facilities traffic circulation since it provides for one- way flow of
traffic on each passageway.

Figure 3-12: Different types off-street parking layout

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Garages: Parking garages basically consist of several platforms,

supported by columns, which are placed in such away to facilitate an
efficient arrangement of parking bays and passageway. Access ramps
connect each level with the one above. The gradient of these ramps is
usually not greater than 1 in 10 on straight ramps and in 12 on the
centerline of curved ramps. It is recommended that the radius of curved
ramps measured to the end of the outer curve should not be less than
21m, and that the maximum super elevation should be 0.15 m/m. It is
also recommended that the width should not be less than 5 m for curved
ramps and 3 m for straight ramps. These ramps can be one-way or two-
way, although one-way ramps are preferable. When two-way ramps are
used, the lanes must be clearly marked and perhaps physically divided,
particularly at curves and turning points. This helps to avoid head-on
collisions that may occur as drivers cut corners or swing wide at bends.

3.4.2 Truck Terminals

The planning and design of facilities to accommodate the loading,
unloading, and parking of trucks can have a significant impact on the
operational efficiency of the street and highway system. Although truck
loading docks and berths (doors) are usually located off the rights-of-way
of public roadways, inadequacies in such facilities will cause bottlenecks
and congestion on the nearby streets and highways. Furthermore, trucks
making pickups and deliveries for commercial establishments often make
use of street and alley space for maneuvering into truck loading docks
and berths. It is apparent that, while public highway agencies do not
usually become involved in the planning and design of truck loading and
unloading facilities, it is in the public interest that such facilities be
properly planned and designed.
Truck terminal planning involves the determination of the overall size
and general layout of facilities required to handle the forecast quantity of
freight. This includes estimating the number of loading berth as well as

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the amount of space required for the handling and temporary storage of
the freight. To make reliable estimates of the number of loading berths, it
is necessary to make a thorough analysis of the truck movements and
cargo- handling procedures. The design year workload must also be
forecast, taking into account daily and seasonal variations in the rate of
truck arrivals and the effect of loading and unloading rates and
procedures. Detailed procedures for the planning are beyond the scope of
this text.

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