Multi-satellite Missions

February, 2019
One Satellite vs Group of Satellites

 Single satellite
- Advantages
✦Reduced overhead (single system)
✦More capability per copy
- Disadvantages
✦Limited coverage (potential)
✦Reliability
✦High cost
 Group
- Advantages
✦Enhanced coverage
✦Survivability
✦System simplicity
- Disadvantages
✦Higher operational and launch costs (potential)
✦Limited capability
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One Satellite vs Group of Satellites

 Evaluate Constellation Growth and Replenishment or Single-

Satellite Replacement Strategy
- Group
‣ Growth
✦Time consuming (several months to years)
✦Operational without full constellation
‣ Graceful degradation (reduced level of service)
‣ Replenishment
- Single Satellite
‣ Single point failure
‣ Degradation
‣ Replacement
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ESA A Train mission

4
 Formation vs Constellation
Multisatellite missions can be broadly divided into two categories,
namely FF missions and constellation missions.

The dynamic states of formation flying satellites are coupled

through a common control law. In a FF mission, at least one satellite
must track a desired state relative to another satellite, and its tracking
control law must, at the minimum, depend upon the states of this
satellite.

FF missions are further subdivided into two categories,

FF missions that involve rendezvous and docking
FF missions without docking.

Multisatellite missions that do not satisfy the definition of FF

missions are called constellation missions.
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 Small Satellites Formation vs Constellation

Saptarshi Bandyopadhyay, Rebecca Foust, Giri P. Subramanian, Soon-Jo Chung, and Fred
Y. Hadaegh Review of Formation Flying and Constellation Missions Using Nanosatellites
Journal of Spacecraft and Rockets 2016 53:3, 567-578 6
Small Satellites Formation&Constellation

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 A Swarm

 Random but bounded close relative

trajectories
 Decentralized and uncoordinated
control of each individual
 Local information processing
 Spatially distributed sensing system
 Individual fault tolerance

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 ESA Swarm Mission

 studies of core dynamics,

geodynamo processes and core-
mantle interaction
 mapping of the lithospheric
magnetisation and its geological
interpretation
 determination of the 3D electrical
conductivity of the mantle
 investigation of electric currents
flowing in the magnetosphere and
ionosphere

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Equations of Relative Motion:
Hill-Clohessy-Wilthire Equations
Consider the motion of two spacecraft – Target and Chaser in the
orbital (LVLH) reference frame with the origin in the Target CoM:

R T  (0,0,  RT )T , Ω LVLH  (0,  n,0)T . RC  RT  ρ.

 
R C   3 R C  fC , RT  ρ   ( R T  ρ)  f C ,
RT  ρ
3
RC

3/2
3 1  (RT , ρ) (ρ, ρ)  1  (RT , ρ) 
RT  ρ  3 1  2 2
 2   3 1  3 2
 ... .
RT  RT RT  RT  RT 
 x  2nz 
ρI  ΩLVLH  ΩLVLH  ρLVLH  ρLVLH  2ΩLVLH  ρ LVLH    
ρ   y     n y   fC  fT
2

 z   2nx  3n 2 z 
ρ  Ω LVLH  Ω LVLH  ρ  2Ω LVLH  ρ     
 3
  3 (ρ  2 (RT , ρ)RT  ...)  fC  fT
RT RT
Example problem
Evaluate the amount of fuel that needs to be spent to maintain for a week
a formation of three satellites, in which a leader goes in a circular orbit
(400 km altitude), and the other two form with the leader a unilateral
triangle (side – 2km) that belongs to the xy plane of the leader’s orbital
reference frame and is symmetrical with respect to its x axis

IFM Nano thruster

n  0.0011 s 1 y  1 km
(cubesatshop.com)

Specific impulse 2000 – 5000 s u  gI sp  49000 m/s

Nominal thrust 0.350 N
dm
Propellant mass – 0.25 kg mn y  
2
u
dt
Equations of Relative Motion:
Linear Model, Near Circular Orbit
Earth

Hill-Clohessy-Wiltshire equations:
y
T
rij  r j  ri   xij yij zij  O
х
Reference frame
z

 xij  2nzij  0 3C1ij nt


 ij
y  n 2
yij  0
 z  2nx  3n 2 z  0
 ij ij ij

Solution:
 xij (t )  3C1ij nt  2C2ij cos(nt )  2C3ij sin(nt )  C4ij ,
 Relative drift
 yij (t )  C5 sin(nt )  C6 cos(nt ),
ij ij


 ij
z (t )  2C 1
ij
 C ij
2 sin( nt )  C ij
3 cos( nt ),

Relative drift: 3C1ij nt

ij
Centers of instant ellipse: C 4 Relative shift
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Example problem

Can the triangular formation be kept without propulsion (assuming the

central gravity field model)?
Set the initial conditions for the triangular formation from the previous
problem so that the satellites’ resulting trajectories ensure the
triangles’ rotation with respect to some point in the reference orbit.
No Fuel Group Control
We developed a cool
satellites swarm But we have
mission! magnetorquers
…

But you
have no
thrusters
onboard

... and
magnetometer

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 Aerodynamic Drag Model
and Lyapunov Control
 xij  2 zij  uij

Controlled motion equations:  yij   2 yij  0
 z  2 x  3 2 z  0
 ij ij ij

1 1
The aerodynamic drag model: fi   Ca V 2 S sin  i  Ca V 2 S0
2 2

fij  f j  fi   Ca V 2 S  sin  j  sin  i 

1
The difference in aerodynamic 2
forces i-th и j-th satellties :
1
Maximal drag value: max fij  Ca V 2 S
2

The control principle

1 ij 2 1
Lyapunov function: V (C1 )  k1 (C4ij ) 2  0
2 2 i
1
V  C C  k1 C C 
ij ij ij ij
C1ij uij  k1 C4ij (3 2C1ij )  0 Incoming airflow
1 1 4 4


Control algorithm: uij  3 2 k1C4ij  k2 C1ij , k1 , k2  0 15

Constellation Design

 Constellation: Set of satellites distributed over space intended to

work together to achieve a common objective

 Satellites that are in close proximity are called clusters or formations

 Constellation architectures have been fueled by recent development

of small, low cost satellites
Constellation Design

 Coverage
• Principle performance parameter
• Minimize gap times for regions of interest
‣ Entire Earth
‣ North America
‣ Colorado
‣ US Air Force Academy

 Number of Satellites
• Principle cost parameter
• Achieve desired coverage with the
minimum satellites

 Example
• GPS requires continuous coverage of the
entire world by a minimum of four non-
coplanar satellites
Number of Orbital Planes

 Can be a driver for coverage

 Satellites spread out (typically evenly)

throughout plane

 Plane changes require large amounts of

propellant

 Meet requirements with the minimum

number of orbital planes

 Rephasing can be accomplished with

less propellant in a single plane
Launch Date, Launch Window

 The launch window is the time when the launch site on the
surface of the Earth rotates through the orbital plane
• Depends on latitude & longitude of the launch site
• Depends on satellite’s i and Ω

 Number of launch windows

• 0 if latitude > inclination
• 1 if latitude = i or 180-i
• 2 if latitude < inclination

 Launch azimuth: β
• Desired location of the observations
• Swath width (width on the ground of the observed area)
• Altitude
• Repeatability of ground tracks…

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GPS constellation

 First GPS satellite launched in 1978

 Full constellation achieved in 1994
 Satellites built to last about 10 years
 Approximately 2,000 pounds,17 feet
across
 Transmitter power is only 50 watts or
less …

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GPS Space Segment

 24+ satellites

 6 planes with 55° inclination

 Each plane has 4-5 satellites

 Broadcasting position and time

info on 2 frequencies

 Constellation has spares

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GPS Space Segment

 Fairly high orbit

 20,200 km
 1 revolution in ~12 hrs
 Travel approx. 7,000mph

 Considerations
 Accuracy
 Survivability
 Coverage

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GPS Navigation

Multilateration:

a c By knowing your distance from

at least 3 points of known-
position, you can determine
your own position.
b

For Satellite Navigation: a, b & c are satellites, and a

fourth is needed to solve for clock variations.
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Satellite Coverage
 The coverage refers to the part of the Earth (or other planetary
body) that a scientific instrument or antenna can see at one instant
or over an extended period
 We define:
• Field of view: angle of vision of the science instrument or antenna
• Foot print: area on the ground that the instrument or antenna can see at any moment
• Access area: total area on the ground that could be seen by turning the satellite or
instrument
• Ground track: path of the sub-satellite point over the Earth’s or planetary surface

 The final orbit will be selected based on parameters such as:

• Desired location of the observations
• Swath width (width on the ground of the observed area)
• Altitude
• Repeatability of ground tracks… 24
Ground Track Examples

geosynchronous

Sun-synchronous

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Earth Geometry Viewed from Space

RE
sin   cos 0 
RE  H

  0  90

RE - radius of the Earth

H - altitude of the satellite

Dmax   RE  H   RE2  RE tan 0

2

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Earth Geometry Viewed from Space

  nadir angle

  Earth central angle

  grazing angle

sin  sin 
tan   sin   cos  sin 
1  sin  cos 
sin 
DE  RE
sin 
sin 
cos         90
sin 
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Example Problem

Calculate the coverage of a single sensor observation of a nadir

pointing sensor with a field of view of 50° from a satellite at an
altitude of 400 km
 RE   6378 
  arcsin    arcsin    70.22
 RE  H   6378  400 

 sin  50 / 2  
  arccos    63.31
 sin  70.22  

  90      1.69

 1.69
swath width RE  6378  30 km
360 360
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Time in View with a Ground Station (GS) 1/2

 Problem of duration and geometry of a

pass over a ground station for
telecommunication purposes
 Satellite elevation angle ε, greater than
some minimum angle εmin after which
there is a line of sight between the
satellite and the ground station
 For a satellite in Low-Earth Orbit (LEO),
circular, the following equations apply
to calculate minimum and maximum
distances from GS to satellite:
sin  sin min
sin max  cos  min sin  tan min 
1  sin  cos min
max  90   min  max  max  90  min  min
sin max sin min
Dmax  RE Dmin  RE
sinmin
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sin 
Constellations: Street of Coverage

cos street  cos max / cos  S / 2 

Swath 2street where coverage will be continuous

Constellations: Street of Coverage

• Adjacent Planes
The Walker Constellation

• Symmetric
• T = total number of satellites
• S satellites evenly distributed in each of P orbital planes
• Ascending Nodes of the P orbital planes are uniformly
distributed about the equator
• Within each plane, the S satellites are uniformly distributed in
the orbit
• Relative phase between satellites in adjacent planes to avoid
collisions
The Walker Constellation Example

• Consider 15:5:1 constellation (T=15, P= 5, f = 1)

• 15 satellites in 5 planes
• S = T / P = 3 – number of satellites in each plane
• Pattern unit PU = 360 deg / T – 24 deg – between the orbital
planes
• In-plane spacing between the satellites = PU x P = 120 deg
• Node spacing = PU x S = 72 deg
• Phase difference between adjacent planes = PU x f = 24 deg
The Walker Star Constellation

 Walker star geometry, based

on Adams/Rider ‘streets of
coverage’. Best diversity at
poles, worst at Equator.

 Has orbital seam where

ascending and descending
planes pass each other and
must overlap.

 Only operating example:

Iridium
The Walker Star Constellation

 Walker star geometry, based

on Adams/Rider ‘streets of
coverage’. Best diversity at
poles, worst at Equator.

 Has orbital seam where

ascending and descending
planes pass each other and
must overlap.

 Only operating example:

Iridium
 Iridium
 Reduced to 6 orbital planes (from a proposed 7) by increasing the orbital
altitude slightly.

66 active satellites, 6 planes

The Walker Delta Constellation

 Best diversity at midlatitudes.

 Usually no coverage at poles;

not global.

 operating LEO example:

Globalstar
The Walker Delta Constellation

 Best diversity at midlatitudes.

 Usually no coverage at poles;

not global.

 operating LEO example:

Globalstar
 GlobalStar

 LEO Cellular Phone Constellation

 48 satellites in 8 planes
 h=1414km
 i=52º
 Latitude coverage: 70º
 7 Boeing Delta II Launches
 6 Russian Soyuz Launches General Characteristics:
 Each launch vehicle carried 4 satellites Total weight - 450kg,
 On-orbit spares
Power - 1100W
 Two additional Deltas were purchased to
ferry spares to the constellation Lifetime - 7.5 years
Stationkeeping

• Approaches to perturbations
- Leave perturbation uncompensated
- Control the perturbing force the same for all satellites in the
constellation
- Negate the perturbing force
• Example: h=700 km, i=30º and 70º
- Node rotation rate of 2.62º /day and 6.63º /day
- Relative plane movement of 4º /day
- Makes construction of long term constellation difficult
‣ Coverage requirements
‣ Active rephasing may be necessary
Example Problems

• Calculate the access area for a GEO satellite

• Consider placing a constellation that uses Molniya orbits. What

is the minimal number of satellites to cover the whole territory
of Russia?

• Consider a Walker-delta constellation that is required to

provide a continuous coverage of the region -40 - +40. What is
the minimal number of satellites for the orbit altitudes between
600 and 800 km?