CLAY MATERIALS IN SELF-HEALING

CONCRETE: A REVIEW

KARIM IHAB SADEK ABDELAZIZ

Supervisor: Assoc. Prof.Pooria Pasbakhsh

Industrial Supervisor: Mr. Chow Chee Choy

A Thesis

submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the Degree in Bachelor of Engineering
(Mechanical)Faculty of Engineering

Monash University

June 2021
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 CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it
contains no materials previously published or written by another person, nor material which
to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at
Monash University or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement
is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have
worked at Monash University or elsewhere is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis.

I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except
to the extent that assistance from others in the project’s design and conception or in style,
presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.

…………………………………………………………..
(Karim Ihab Sadek Abdelalziz)

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 ABSTRACT

Concrete materials naturally possess a limited self-healing ability (capability to heal or seal
freshly formed micro-cracks). This naturally occurring phenomenon mainly results from the
delayed (secondary) hydration process reaction with ingress water that has penetrated
through the cracks. This research paper studies the effected results and reviews past studies
on the self-healing agenda of concrete materials using clay materials. The latest self-healing
achievements up to date included a new type of self-healing concrete infused with bacteria
molecules providing the production of minerals that can rapidly seal freshly formed cracks
and prevent aggressive attacks on the steel structures embedded in the concrete systems. The
addition of self-healing bacteria produces promising results with cracks up to 2 mm fully
healed on a 28-day healing period cycles. Further studies and analysis are conducted on the
topic along with a thorough discussion on a scientific approach aimed to eliminate bacteria
encapsulation materials for the effective carrier transport and replace it with the natural
encapsulation of the bacteria entrapped inside the nano clay structural layered arrangement
in a proposed theoretical manner. Further developments and prospects are deeply discussed
to further introduce enhanced healing and strength capabilities to meet the rising concrete
demand of structures and buildings.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY ..................................................................................... ii

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... iii
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................... 2
LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................. 4
LIST OF APPENDICES ........................................................................................................ 5
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 6
1.1 Objectives ................................................................................................................ 7
1.2 Concrete overview ....................................................................................................... 7
1.2 Nano materials ....................................................................................................... 11
1.4 Nano concrete............................................................................................................. 11
1.5 Nano clay ................................................................................................................... 13
1.6 Self-healing concrete .................................................................................................. 14
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................. 17
2.1 Strengthening in concrete structures .......................................................................... 17
2.1.1 Traditional strengthening methods...................................................................... 17
2.1.2 Advanced strengthening methods ....................................................................... 20
2.2 Self-healing concrete .................................................................................................. 22
2.2.1.1 Intrinsic self-healing: Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC) .............. 26
2.2.1.2 Intrinsic self-healing: Super Absorbent Polymers ........................................... 27
2.2.2.1 Autonomic healing: Microvascular and tabular systems ................................. 34
2.2.2.2 Autonomic healing: Bacteria-based self-healing (Bio-concrete) ..................... 36
2.2.2.3 Autonomic healing: Encapsulation techniques ................................................ 40
2.2.2.4 Autonomic healing: Shape Memory Materials ................................................ 43
2.3 Clay Materials in concrete ......................................................................................... 45
2.3.1 Clay based concrete properties............................................................................ 46
2.3.2 Halloysite nanotubes ........................................................................................... 48
CHAPTER 3: RESULTS & DISUSSION ........................................................................... 49
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 3.1 Self-healing characteristics ........................................................................................ 49
3.2 Crack sealing .............................................................................................................. 51
3.3 Crack sealing assessment and quantification ............................................................. 57
3.3.1 Visual Inspection ................................................................................................. 58
3.3.2 Mechanical strength recovery ............................................................................. 62
3.3.3 Durability inspection ........................................................................................... 63
3.3.4 Microstructural evaluation ............................................................................. 64
CHAPTER 4: EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES ............................................................. 68
4.1 Phase I ........................................................................................................................ 70
4.2 Phase II ....................................................................................................................... 72
4.3 Phase III ..................................................................................................................... 73
4.4 Expected results ......................................................................................................... 74
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS ................................................... 75

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Concrete ingredients

Figure 2: Alligator crack

Figure 3: Number or studies conducted on self-healing techniques throughout the years

Figure 4: Crystal structures of clay minerals

Figure 5: Illustration of intrinsic and extrinsic healing

Figure 6: Traditional steel reinforcement techniques

Figure 7: Concrete self-healing techniques

Figure 8: Intrinsic healing mechanisms

Figure 9: Schematic representation of ECC structure

Figure 10: Schematic representation of SAPs healing concrete

Figure 11: Shrinkable PET polymer action using heating means

Figure 12: (a) Normal concrete hydration healing (b) Expansive mineral concrete healing

Figure 13: Tubular capsule healing schematic

Figure 14: (a) Vascular network in concrete slab panel and (b) Vascular network
combination with PET in field trial

Figure 15: Schematic representation of bacteria-based healing process

Figure 16: (left) Encapsulation schematic representation, (right) SEM image of fractured
capsule

Figure 17: Halloysite nanotube filling mechanism

Figure 18: Healing potential for various techniques

Figure 19: Self-healing evaluation technique flowchart

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Figure 20: Visual inspection of healing crackFigure 21: Liquid Penetrant Inspection

Figure 22: Algorithm flow chart

Figure 23: Numerical model crack detection results

Figure 24: Tensile and compressive test

Figure 25: Calcium carbonate morphology SEM images

Figure 26: Laboratory Experimental Program (LEP)

Figure 27: Halloysite clay material

Figure 28: Concrete artificial cracking

Figure 29: Fresh bio-cement building in Netherlands

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Different clay types

Table 2: Different mineral admixture composites for self-healing concrete

Table 3: Bacteria and encapsulation method properties

Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of concrete healing strategies

Table 5 : Test design composition and weight of ingredients for different clay sample
replacements

Table 6 : Compressive strength results of A samples (individual replacement of NMT at

0.5% and 2.5%) and B samples (combined NMT and HNCL replacement at 1%, 3% and
5%)

Table 7: Different healing techniques and crack ranges

Table 8: Different bacteria encapsulation methods

Table 9: Laboratory Experimental Program test samples

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 LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Reflections on Program Outcome (PO) Achievement

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The continuous advancement in the construction field and the uprising demand to
industrialization has led to an unusual rise in construction materials demand and utilization
all around the world. The current present structural concrete materials present relatively
higher strength properties than earlier concrete versions. Compressive strengths and tensile
strengths as well as workability of the most recent concrete material can sustain high stress
values. However long serviceability remains an issue when sustainable structures and
building materials are desired. After long service periods, different defects start to form in
the concrete material due to environmental factors, mechanical impacts, and accidents, or
simply due to improper maintenance [1]. Crack formation remains an unsolved problem.
Even though the overall strength of the material may not be affected much by these cracks,
this causes an issue in the chemical reactivity of the concrete. The microcracks formed on
the surface of the concrete material allow ingress water and aggressive reactive chemicals
such as carbonates and chlorides, which can penetrate the structure through the cracks and
react with the un-hydrated cement molecules that remained in the process. Such chemical
reactions may result in the formation of erosion, corrosion of steel embedded rods [2]. The
maintenance of concrete structures and repair costs are very high. Microcrack inspection is a
very tedious, costly, and time-consuming operations. The present report proposes a novel
review self-healing concrete and the usage of clay materials in self-healing concrete systems
for the effective and economic smart usage of smart bio-concrete nanomaterials for building
industries. Various self-healing studies and techniques are deeply analyzed and discussed in
this paper. The main objective of this paper is to review and help improve the self-healing
agenda of the concrete industry. Effects of using nano clay materials for self-healing in
bacteria infused concrete mortars are investigated by comparing past studies results with
normal self-healing techniques. A scientific theoretical approach is later introduced
attempting to eliminate the encapsulation operation in the concrete by substituting nano clay
particles to act as the encapsulation medium instead.
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1.1 Objectives

This research paper presents a sophisticated review on the self-healing agenda of concrete
materials using the most innovative techniques. The review paper covers a large scientifical
knowledge base on published articles and studies regarding that matter and further explores
using clay materials in concrete. A thorough analysis and literature review is conducted in
this report and a thorough is discussion is presented. Finally, the report aims to investigate
clay materials for the encapsulation of bacteria and nutrients needed in concrete to eliminate
the need for external encapsulation means.

1.2 Concrete overview

Concrete materials have long been used since the roman empire era, with astonishing
buildings still in service till today [1] . Industrial concrete fabrication started in the 1900’s
where the first type of concrete was introduced (5-45 grade concrete) [3]. The normal graded
concrete was mainly used for construction purposed and showed adequate strength abilities
for general applications. With a cement density less than 380 kg/m3, normal type aggregates
and medium water intake, the normal grade material presented acceptable durability and
mechanical properties [3].

Almost 60 years later, the scientific studies introduced High Strength Concrete (HSC) as
substantial improvement to normal graded concrete in that time. The new concrete material
mixture could sustain higher stress with a mechanical strength value ranging between 50 MPa
to 90 MPa depending on the mixing ratios [4]. The HSC concrete was mainly consisting of
more cement content, higher aggregate content, less water, adequate superplasticizers, and
the addition of new supplementary materials into the mix. Such materials include silica
fumes, fly ash and other pozzolanic materials [4]. It was only in the early 19’s that clay
materials were introduced as a partial cement replacement in concrete mixtures. The
development of nano concrete has made its appearance not long after HSC and clay replaced
concrete. Nano concrete is a term used to describe concrete that utilizes nanomaterials or
some concrete with nano materials added to it with average particle size < 500 nm [5]. The
introduction of nano materials in the concrete field improved its bulk properties and packing
model structure, allowing for a more dense and stronger concrete option than the older
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concrete version. The nanomaterials perform as superb fillers by refining the intersectional
zone in cement and the common discrepancies are eliminated in the concrete microstructure
i.e.: micro voids, porosity…[6] Today, concrete has become the most abundant material
worldwide where any kind of building construction will require concrete materials. Its high
strength to cost ratio makes this material a very crucial material to the sustainability of
buildings in everyday uses. Concrete materials for building purposes steals the show from
other construction materials due to its very high strength to cost ratio, high versatility, high
resistivity, and high compressive strength values. Those leading mechanical qualities made
the concrete a very favorable material for the construction of bridges, dams, roads,
apartments, tunnels and more.

A concrete mixture is generated from a variety of constituents who are well mixed together
to form the high strength compact forms of concrete seen on the streets everywhere. Of all
the ingredients incorporated in the mix, cement is one of the main constituents of the concrete
mixture, which when mixed with water, produces high strength concrete material [7]. Cement
crystallizes and solidifies the mixture along with limestone, silica, marl, clay, binder,
aggregate, water, and other minerals . The quality of the concrete is relying on the ingredients
of the mixture, percentage purity, particle proportions and molecular sizes of the added
aggregates [1]. The amount of cement induced in the concrete mixture greatly influences its
quality. Similarly, the water proportions are varied upon required quality, as less water
content results in a stronger. The resulting reaction from the cement binder and water mixture
form a hydration process, which in turn, solidifies the concrete [8].

Figure 1: Concrete ingredients

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On a journey to obtain stronger and stronger concrete, research and testing labs have been
deeply exploring new ways to further enhance the concrete’s mechanical properties and
reduce its carbon emission production on the long term which plays a large role in the rising
greenhouse gas emissions all around the globe [9]. It has been very common now to find steel
reinforcements inside concrete structures to improve its strength and resistance abilities.
Further studies incorporated Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs), such as fly ash,
blast furnace slag and silica fumes, with pozzolanic materials that react with chemicals
released during hydration which produce material capillaries that fully or partially fill the
voids inside the concrete mixture, resulting in a stronger material [10].

Although concrete materials possess very strong abilities, it is very susceptible to stretching
and cracking [11]. Microcracks may not affect the overall strength of the buildings but allows
ingression of water and corrosive environmental substances into the mix structure. This
unwanted mineral penetration into the concrete mixture may result in structure degradation
and reduction in durability and strength [12]. The formation of micro cracks puts concrete
structures at risk as they may lead to sever damages if they are not located and stopped before
further expanding. Concrete cracks come in many forms and due to several reasons. Out of
which, most crack formations are due to constructional movements, shrinkage stresses,
thermal stresses, structural designs as well as chemical reactions [13]. Similarly, concrete
cracks may come in many forms like linear cracks, alligator cracks, block crack and potholes
[14]. These types of cracks originate of microcracks that were left uncured until further
expansion over time.

Figure 2: Alligator crack

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The formation of microcracks when left untreated will keep growing and expanding, allowing
aggressive penetrants to access the concrete mixture and react negatively with the metal and
molecules inside the mixture. They may further lead to severe damages if not treated rapidly.
Additionally, the reparation and maintenance of such cracks is a very tedious, long, and costly
task. It is therefore very needed and advised to start aiming for a stronger and smarter material
to take over the construction industry and ensure a safer and cleaner environment for us all
and for the sustainability of our Earth.

Following the introduction of Supplementary Cementitious Materials in concrete to achieve

stronger concrete functions, recent research and studies have started to shift their focus on
self-healing concrete systems via the addition of additives and ‘smart’ ingredients to
introduce the new generation of concrete materials [15]. In a pursue to achieve improved,
and more durable materials while using environmentally friendly materials and cost saving
strategies, the introduction of self-healing systems offers the ability of buildings and
structures to be able to solve the microcracks issue and potentially heal microcracks.

Figure 3: Number or studies conducted on self-healing techniques throughout the years

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1.2 Nano materials

Self-healing minerals embedded in cementitious materials is emerging as an innovative

method to improve concrete durability. The introduction of this innovative solution lies
behind the latest advancement in the material sciences and engineering prospects:
Nanotechnology. Nanotechnology refers to the creation of new materials, devices, and
systems at the intermolecular level to manipulate and achieve stronger innovating nano and
macro materials for the construction and sustainability purposes [16]. A nanomaterial is
defined as materials which contain a particle size less than 200nm [17]. Nano sized particles
can generate a greater filler effect when compared with micro based and normal materials.
The nano-sized material scope of research greatly puts the focus on the full control of the
mechanical and structural abilities of material. Manipulation of materials at that deep level
of understanding will change the materials science field evidently. A broader definition
though, refers to those materials that are manipulated at the atomic, molecular, or
macromolecular scales to achieve functionality that is different from that found in the bulk
or molecular form [18]. Nanomaterial technology has proved its efficiency in many industrial
fields like the bio-medical field, material sciences field and the construction industry. The
integration of nanotechnology in the concrete field has led to the evolvement of nano-
concrete, a new modified concrete at its molecular level to achieve higher durability and
strength concrete than the usual concrete at the current market. The application of nano
materials received numerous attentions to try and obtain stronger concrete.

1.4 Nano concrete

The term nano concrete refers to concrete that is composed of nanomaterial ingredients in its
design mix to reduce cement usage in concrete by partially replacing cement on weight basis
to enhance the strength of the concrete structures [19]. The introduction of nano particles into
the design mix will likely help reduce the micro pores formation in the mixture by acting as
filler agents, in turn achieving a very dense concrete material. The implementation of nano
materials in concrete technology has strongly evolved with the increasing demand on Ultra
High-Performance Concrete (UHPC). The UHPC utilizes silica fumes to provide better
strength and durability [20]. The limited availability and extremely high cost of silica fume

11
materials made the production and fabrication of UHPC decline compared to High Strength
concrete. Since its development, nano material applications have greatly influenced the
concrete technology. In an attempt to replace silica fumes in the UHPC with nano silica,
concrete infused nano silica materials have gained early strength compared to normal silica
fume concrete [21]. The workability of concrete has improved due to the round shape of the
nano silica particle which provides a ball bearing maneuver in cement particles. The super
micro size of the nano silica molecules helps it behave as an ultra-filler in the concrete voids
[22].

Similarly, nano alumina and carbon nano tubes (CNT) are also used as additive materials in
the nonconcrete sciences. Detailed calculations allow engineers and scientists to be able to
control the setting times of cement and speed up the process for UHPC. CNT is a carbon
allotrope with a tubular microstructure. Single walled and multi-walled nanotubes allow
increased flexibility and therefore an increased strength ability [23]. However, these
impressing nano materials are extremely costly and require very high expertise when
handling as it possesses very limited guidelines. Latest studies in the nano concrete field have
started to impose the nano clay minerals family into the scope of research. The big clay
materials introduced many new functions to the strength and abilities of the nano concrete.
With an average particle size thickness of 1nm and 70-150 nm width, nano clays may come
in various inter molecular structural shapes for different uses and purposes [24].

Table 1: Different clay types

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1.5 Nano clay

Nano clays are nanoparticles of layered mineral silicates with layered structural units that
can form complex clay crystallites by stacking these layers. Individual layer units may be
composed either of tetrahedral sheets or octahedral sheets or both together [25]. Tetrahedral
sheets are silicon-oxygen tetrahedra, linked to neighboring tetrahedron by sharing three
corners while the fourth corner of each tetrahedron sheet is connected to adjacent octahedral
sheet via covalent bonding. Similarly, the octahedral sheet like arrangement consists of
aluminum or magnesium in a six-fold coordination with the oxygen atom from a tetrahedral
sheet along with hydroxyl [26].

Figure 4: Crystal structures of clay minerals

There are almost more than thirty types of nanoclays. Their low environmental impact, low
cost and wide availabilty has attracted many eyes of the scientits who are conducting
engineering tets and researches on the nano materials and nano conrete fields. Based on the
required ability of the materials, nano clays are selected on their micro structure sheet
arrangements and intrlayer space. Nano clays exhibit notable characteristics and properties
which can be very beneficial for the environment as well as for the reinforcement of
materials. For example, the clay paprticles manifest a pozzolanic behaviour and can act as a
nuclei of hydration, which makes it a very effective filler due to its nano size particles [27].
Semetite, chlorite, kaolilnite, nanomontmorillonite, halloysites and many more are few
example of the different clay materials availbe for concrete mechanical propoerties

13
enhancement testing usages. Halloysite nanoclay is one type of nanoclay used for
encapsulation techniques of many minerlas including drugs and other micro sized molecules
for efficient container behaviors [28]. The hollow nanotubes are able to grow into long
multiwalled tubes which may be further exploited for many carriaer usages. Nanoclays are
not only used for container purposes. Nanomontmorillonite (NMT), another type of nanoclay
is a spherical shaped molecule material. When added attentively with the concrete mixture,
NMT proved an apparent increase in the compressive strength of concrete. A parabolic trend
was observed for the copmressive streength in correlation to the amount of nanoclay
substituted in the cement mortar, concluding a denser structure material and a stronger
compmressive strength ability [29].

1.6 Self-healing concrete

Hairline cracks and microcrack formation on the material surface exposes the structure to
aggressive agents like carbonates, sulfates, water, and chlorides due to capillary action,
absorption, and hydrostatic pressures [30]. The novel self-healing concrete is introduced to
solve this problem and prologue the survivability of structures. When successful, a lot of
money and time will be saved as well as a better durability for the structure. The self-healing
process of the concrete is characterized into autogenic self-healing and autonomic self-
healing [31]. Autogenic healing is referred to the natural crack closure of the concrete due to
secondary hydration process that are induced from the un-hydrated cement particles which
produce limestone crystals when reacted [32]. Autonomic healing on the other hand is
referred to concrete healing process that are induced due to external additives and minerals
that were added to the ordinary cementitious mixtures [33]. Extensive research has been
conducted on both autonomic and autogenic healing of concrete using many different
methods. Most recent autonomic techniques focused on bacteria based self-healing concrete,
which requires inclusion of self-healing reactants or molecules and bacteria into the matrix.
Other studies attempt the usage of microencapsulated healing agents and catalysts into the
concrete matrix. The theoretical ideologies rely on the release of the healing agents into the
microcracks which react with other encapsulated components to repair the damaged areas
[34]. These encapsulated materials are pre-embedded into the concrete mixture. The trigger
mechanism is stress generated from the formation of the cracks which leads to the rupturing
14
of the embedded capsules, in turn releasing the healing agents into the crack surface area. In
a similar study conducted by Jonkers et al. [35], microcapsules were developed to ingress
healing agents into the material. The healing agents need to be preserved and the
encapsulation method acts as a protective mechanism to protect the healing agents from
concrete’s harsh environment until needed to be ruptured to perform its objective of crack
healing. Encapsulation materials include gelatin, gum, expansive clay, and polyurethane
[35]. The autonomic self-healing technique is a better self-healing option over the intrinsic
healing. It can close wider crack widths and can remain unreacted for longer times. The
availability of the un-hydrated cementitious molecules is limited, and the healing efficiency
reduced over time in the intrinsic healing process [36].

Figure 5: Illustration of intrinsic and extrinsic healing

Nano clay materials have been explored for the performance of the healing of concrete
materials. The nano material scope of the study allows further enhancement and durability
of materials. The micro sized molecules densify the material structure and fill the voids on
the concrete structure. Various studies witnessed higher strength results with the inclusion of
partial clay substitutes inside the materials [37]. Attempting to improve self-healing
processes of concrete, nano clay materials are attempted to be used for encapsulation methods
instead of external encapsulation means. The nano clays present interesting molecular
structures and arrangements that may beneficially entrap and protect the healing agents and

15
bacteria in the system. The approach is further discussed in this report with detailed
theoretical review and discussion on the findings obtained.

16
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Strengthening in concrete structures

2.1.1 Traditional strengthening methods

Ageing structures and buildings attracted numerous engineers and research to perform more
and more studies on the enhancement of concrete strength abilities to find new stronger
materials. In general, it is desired to enhance the compressive, tensile and shear strength
capacity of the materials. The need for stronger material compensates mechanical failures
and structural deterioration due large external loads and environmental factors. In a study
aimed to strengthen concrete via the application of bonded steel plating in concrete structures,
additional steel reinforcements are added and bonded with epoxy adhesives to enhance the
concrete’s structural performance [38]. The idea is used for many reasons like correcting an
error in the design, to constrain cracks, to control cracks widths, to increase the overall
strength of the materials or to correct construction errors. Plate bonded concrete beams with
stiff adhesives produce 100% increase on the load required to onset visible cracking on the
surface [39]. Externally epoxy bonded steel plates, stirrups and vertical strips improved
efficiently the ultimate shear strength of the reinforced concrete. A 72% enhancement in
shear strength is obtained from epoxy bonded beams [39]. This composite strengthening
technique proved adequate strengthening results. Steel plates or bars are bonded together
with the structural members. Efficient bonding mechanisms are ensured using epoxy
adhesives and extra fasteners may be added. This method however is only viable for
relatively sound structural members and specimens [40].

Similarly, another traditional method used for strength enhancement is section enlargement.
With this strengthening technique, structural members can be enlarged with reinforced
concrete jackets around the structural member to obtain the desired strength performance of
17
concrete [41]. The section enlargement process consists of removing the deteriorated
concrete layer and the removal of corrosion residues. Prior to layered replacements, the
surface is maintained clean for the efficient bonding with the repair materials. This technique
solves as a very minimalistic low-cost solution for concrete strengthening. However, this
solution requires high labor costs. A similar effective solution used since old time to increase
flexural and shear capacity of the concrete members is external post-tensioning [42]. This
technique is applied to adjust excessive cracks and deflections in the system. A rather
economical and simpler operation that adjuncts minimal loads to the structures. This is
achieved by several prestressed high-strength steel rods that are added and located usually
outside the original section. End of members relate to each other via steel fixed anchor points
bolted to the structural members. Deviation blocks in the concrete matrix furnishes the
structural member with the desired uplift force needed to strengthen to material [42]. Cement
mortar wired meshes are used in another technique called Ferrocement covers. The
ferrocement cover technique uses thin composite materials with uniformly distributed
circular diameters to replace the spoilt concrete and reinforcements. Ultimate tensile
strengths, flexural stiffness and crack resistance are enhanced when compared to un-
strengthened specimens [43]. The strength augmentation and crack resistance are purely
dependent on the full composite action between the Ferro cement layers. The strengthening
of reinforced concrete is achieved by the addition of the wired steel ferrocement mesh
covered with concrete mortars.

The above-mentioned techniques may be applied in numerous structural members and

buildings. For example, concrete column strengthening may be achieved using reinforced
concrete pocketing like seen in Figure 6 . This section enlargement technique for concrete
columns relies on the addition of a steel cage around the concrete column prior to the
jacketing of the caged structure with concrete [44]. Similarly, reinforced concrete beams
may be likely enhanced using steel rods, steel rods section enlargements or usage of steel
plate bonding [45]. Likewise, external steel plate bonding is added to concrete columns
surfaces to achieve required jacketing confinement to completely cover the structure. Steel
jackets are used when the cross-sectional area of the column being strengthened cannot be
changed. This technique is efficient in the enhancement of the seismic performance of

18
concrete columns[46]. Horizontal steel angles are attached to the top and bottom end slabs
of the column before the vertical steel angles are added around the column corners and
welded together. Beams and columns may similarly be strengthened using external pressure
confinements. The ideology relies on the application of elongated members and fixed strips
on the column contours to induce externally active confining pressure. Material strength
properties are enhanced without needing to alter the specimen’s dimensions or weights [47].

Figure 6: Traditional steel reinforcement techniques

The mentioned traditional strength enhancement methods have been used a lot in the
construction field to effectively increase the concrete building’s strength. Even though these
techniques may beneficially enhance the concrete, it exposes the structure to high corrosion
damage due to the steel structures in the system which react with aggressive chemicals, which
may result in structure failure. Therefore, new strengthening techniques are required that
should eliminate the steel reinforcements as much as possible to reduce corrosion damages
19
from occurring. Advanced strengthening techniques have been studied and new material
compositions are sought for to produce better, stronger, and more durable concrete. Some of
these advanced strengthening techniques are discussed below.

2.1.2 Advanced strengthening methods

As opposed to the traditional methods for concrete strengthening, advanced strengthening

techniques incorporate material modifications instead of external structural additions to
support the structure [48]. One of the most innovative and efficient techniques is the Fiber
Reinforced Polymer (FRP) composites. FRP composites have intensively been used in the
construction phase of new structures and during the rehabilitation and strengthening of the
present buildings. FRP composites may speed up and ease the strengthening installation
process and increase the strengthening efficiency and corrosion resistance of the system [49].
FRP composites are preferred as it is easy to handle and does not impose any modifications
to the structure’s geometry and aesthetics. Sprayed Fiber Reinforced Polymers was one of
the techniques explored for the strength enhancement of concrete. This method is based on
spraying carbon or glass chopped fiber with vinyl ester resins on structure buildings. An air
compressed spray machine is used on the concrete surface directly. Consequently, the whole
sprayed structure’s strength is enhanced using sprayed FRP [50]. To find a stronger concrete
structure, Bjorn Taljsten [51] tested the use of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polymers (CFRP)
composites for shear strengthening. These polymer materials may be formed into any
required shaped and texture but are relatively more expensive. CFRP materials are also
anisotropic and possess different material properties in different orientations. The study
results indicated very high strengthening enhancement with CFRP-composites bonded on the
material surface. Strengthening improvements up to 300% were witnessed.

In another study [52], researchers analyzed the applications of using nano materials in
concrete structures. This early millennium discovery utilizes nano materials with particle
sizes < 500 nm in the concrete mixture to enhance the bulk properties of the structure, also
known as packing model structure. The micro sized molecules may act as superb filler by
refining intersectional voids in the cementitious structure, in turn, resulting in a stronger and
denser medium. Micro voids, porosity, and deterioration due to alkali silica reactions are

20
eliminated. Silica fume, nano alumina, nano silica, and titanium oxides are few of the
nanomaterials used for concrete strengthening [53]. The round shape of the nano silica
molecules provides a ball bearing maneuver in the cementitious matrix. The nano silica
concrete gained early strength when compared with normal concrete. The cement content is
reduced by 20%-30% and is replaced using nano silica particles. Although the nano sized
particles could fill the micro voids and densified the concrete microstructure, it is very
expensive due to its limited ability [53]. Other nano materials may be considered instead.
Similarly, cylindrical carbon nanotube allotropes may be used for their long hollow structure.
The individual nanotubes align themselves into a ropelike structure held together using van
der Waals forces. The single walled and multi-walled nanotubes improve the concrete
material’s flexibility and enhances the strength of the materials [54]. Polycarboxylates (PCE)
materials similarly enhances the performance and workability of the material.
Polycarboxylate concrete materials obtained strength results between 70 - 100 MPa. This
material may be applied in concrete as high range water reducers and can be used in marine
structures effectively [55].

A new study in the nano concrete field explored the effect of adding nano-clay materials in
the concrete mixture. Nano clays may be defined as structured layered mineral silicate
particle that can be arranged in different sheet arrangements. Nano clay materials include
clintonite, montmorillonite, pyrophyllite, halloysite and many more clay species. Dungca
et.al [37], used halloysite (HNCL) and nano montmorillonite (NMT) materials in his study.
Halloysite nano clay tubular structure and nano montmorillonite plate like structure were
mixed individually and combined in different samples to assess their mechanical
performance. Nano clays exhibit notable properties that are beneficial for the reinforcement
of concrete structures. Individual replacement and combined replacement of HNCL and
NMT were conducted in different test samples to evaluate the strength performance of the
material. Individual partial replacement of NMT and HNCL of 0.5% and 2.5% by cement
weight is tested and a 1%, 3% and 5% replacement of cement material was conducted for the
combined mixtures [37]. The test results are tested every week and strength results are
obtained. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and t-test compressive tests are conducted on the
materials to obtain the weekly strength results. The test results demonstrated a general

21
increased strength trend with both the individual and combined replacement of the material.
The pozzolanic materials may act as an efficient filler agent due to the micro sized clay
particles. The influence of the clay particles in the distribution of water in the cement matrix
resulted in reduced workability. This however is compensated with the strong increase in the
material’s strength. A parabolic trend of clay substitution and compressive strength relation
is observed as the matrix becomes denser due to the nano sized filler particles. The combined
clay replacement achieved higher strength values than for individual replacement. Highest
strength value (44.541 MPa) is recorded with 3% combined clay replacement [37]. The
decline in strength due to excessive clay substitution surpassing the optimal percentage
replacement. The research results can indeed confirm the successful strength enhancement
in concrete using partial substitution of concrete with nano clay materials.

The different concrete strengthening techniques discussed in the chapter have been tested
and researched efficiently to obtain stronger materials. Traditional and advanced strength
enhancement techniques may be applied to concrete buildings and structures during the
material preparation process or after concrete structure serviceability. Although all these
techniques improve the strength and durability of the concrete structures, crack formations
are yet an unsolved puzzle and is still exposing the concrete materials to dangerous
environment that could degrade and reduce the material’s performance . It is therefore that a
crack identification and crack healing solution is needed to outperform this problem.
Numerous crack healing attempts have been tried in the last decade incorporating various
techniques to enhance the healing ability and range of the materials.

2.2 Self-healing concrete

Concrete cracking in buildings and structures is almost a certainty. More than 90% of
concrete structures suffer from crack generation after 20 to 30 years of serviceability. Crack
formation is an unwanted process as it introduces ingress water and aggressive chemicals
that react with embedded steel rods and other molecules, resulting in corrosion and erosion
of the structures which eventually may lead to concrete spalling and mechanical failures [56].
This directly affects the concrete’s lifespan and may reduce it dramatically. The self-healing
ability of concrete has been intensively researched and numerous healing techniques are

22
developed to enhance the healing performance. The healing topic raised many attentions from
international material science centers. The main healing process relies on the formation of
calcium carbonate (limestone) crystal residuals in the concrete that may fill the cracked
surface efficiently. The self-healing theory is believed to efficiently seal cracks and possibly
eliminate the maintenance and human costs for the repair of the defected surfaces. The self-
healing concrete methodologies are reliant on a “Damage Management” concept approach.
This methodology is based on the concept that damage formation on concrete surface is not
problematic if the crack formation is opposed by an automating healing process of the
damaged areas [57]. When introducing self-healing abilities in concrete, it is important to put
in mind that the final composition mechanical strength performance should remain the same
if not enhanced. The main objective of self-healing concrete is to fill the empty area with
material able to restore the original load bearing capacities. A successful healing operation
is one which compensates mobile molecules able to move to the damaged sites and bond
efficiently with the ruptured surfaces. An ideal healing material should be able to heal
damages of any size completely and automatically on continuous basis. Concrete materials
possess a natural given ability to generate limestone crystals due to secondary hydration
reactions that take place because of the un-hydrated cement molecules that react with water
once in contact with each other [58]. This intrinsic healing behavior is a limited functionality
of natural concrete and can only heal cracks up to a certain size and duration. Extrinsic
healing as opposed to the intrinsic one includes using external intervention of healing agents
and molecules into the concrete matrix to induce a self-healing mechanism. In conclusion,
self-healing concrete may be grouped into five different healing methods. Intrinsic healing
with controlled crack widths, chemical encapsulations, bacterial infusion, mineral

23
admixtures, and chemically encapsulated capillary tubing each method is deeply analyzed
and discussed below.

2.2.1 Autogenic self-healing

The necessity for a stronger, smarter, and more durable concrete for sustainable
infrastructures gave rise to the self-healing idea of concrete. It was found that concrete
exhibits naturally this self-healing ability through a process called hydration [59]. The
development of the self-healing concrete may seal and prevent water and other chemicals
from penetrating the concrete building. The intrinsic healing ability of concrete is a natural
healing process mainly due to the continuous hydration of the un-hydrated cementitious
particles in the cracked concrete surface. The continuous hydration process is due to the
secondary hydration processes of anhydrous cementitious particles inside the concrete
structure when water accesses the structure. [60] The hydration process is a chemical process
that can be seen in Equations 1 - 5 below. The reaction results in the disposal of calcium
carbonate residuals in between the crack edges. The residual is a result of the reaction
between the Ca2+ ions of the hydration products and the CO32+ ions from the water and CO2
reaction products. The hydration process is very limited and can cover very tight cracks
(~100µm) [61]. The rate of this healing ability depends on the concentration of the
cementitious molecules as well as the temperature of the atmospheric environment.

Figure 7: Concrete self-healing techniques 24

Furthermore, intrinsic healing may also occur due to mechanical means such as crack
clogging and the expansive swelling effects that occur in the hydrated cement from water
absorption in the crack surfaces [62]. The fine particles that enter with the ingress water into
the cracked area as well as the broken surface particles accumulate and fill the cracked voids.
The intrinsic crack healing ability of concrete is very limited to tight crack widths. In attempts
to increase the intrinsic healing ability of concrete, crack width restriction techniques have
been explored to bring the cracked surfaces closer to each other to amplify the hydration lead
healing process.

Equations 1 – 5: Hydration healing process chemical reactions

Figure 8: Intrinsic healing mechanisms

25
2.2.1.1 Intrinsic self-healing: Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC)

The Engineered Cementitious Composites exhibit a very favorable behavior under excessive
tensile loading conditions. This tensile hardening behavior allowed the realization of tight
cracks in concrete structures [63]. The ECC concrete allows tight crack formation in a
controlled and linear manner compared to an exponential trend for normal concrete. Multiple
micro cracks occur with crack widths not more than 60 µm [64]. The ECC modified concrete
allows controlled tight crack propagations along the material structure without the
dependence on steel reinforcements. The fiber reinforced cementitious composite serves as
a very durable and environmentally friendly material. Li et.al [65] explored the self-healing
ability of controlled tight crack width propagations under numerous tensile exposure and
environmental subjections . The tight cracks and high cement concentration materials highly
promotes the secondary hydration process in the mixture when reacted with water and
carbonates. Studies suggested the fiber bridging of the infused fibrous materials in the ECC
structure and eased the crystallization process even for cracks larger than 60 µm. This
performance may be achieved using a 2% fiber volume [66]. The fiber action mechanism
takes place with effective polyethylene (PE) and polyvinyl (PVA) fiber distribution over the
concrete mixtures [67]. Calcium carbonate deposits are visible as white residue on the
cracked surface. It was concluded that ECC concrete can successfully heal micro cracks fully
below 30 µm. ECC can sustain higher loads after its first cracking while experiencing further
deformations. The ECC fibers are designed to constrain the brittle fracture cracks and
uniformly distribute the microcracks over the surface [68]. First cracking in ECC is generally
followed by further higher stress and increase in strain values. The self-healing ability of
ECC concrete strongly depends on the crack width, water exposure, fiber volume
concentration, availability of un-hydrated cement and the presence of other supplementary
cementitious materials [69]. Similar results [70] incorporated the usage of nano clay materials
infused with the ECC fibers to promote water supply as the nano clay structure entraps water
and can supply additional water access for the hydration process to take place in the concrete.
Addition of nano clay resulted in higher recovery levels and healing abilities. The distinctive
microcrack propagation behavior and efficient crack width control along with higher cement
composition mixtures and lower water-binder ratios puts ECC concrete in a favorable
position for the further advancements of intrinsic self-healing concrete [70].
26
 Figure 9: Schematic representation of ECC structure

2.2.1.2 Intrinsic self-healing: Super Absorbent Polymers

Intrinsic healing in concrete could similarly be enhanced using a synthetic cross-linked

homopolymers with high fluid absorption ability [71]. Super Absorbent Polymers (SAPs)
can absorb fluids and perform swelling action mechanism. The absorbent material is
introduced in concrete materials to reduce self-desiccation shrinkages in low water-to-binder
ratio during the hydration process of the system, freeze-thaw damages and enhance intrinsic
healing effects. The healing ability of SAPs highly depends on the SAP type used, SAP
particle size and particle shape, mixing techniques, quantity of water added, SAP
concentration and w/c ratio [72]. The SAP particles absorb water content during the mixing
phase of the concrete materials and shrink subsequentially during the hydration and
hardening of the mortars, leaving behind macropores which may act as microcrack sources
and stimulation. Although the intrinsic hydration ability may overcome and seal the fractured
surface structures due to the macropores, this may weaken the material’s mechanical
properties and durability. The strength loss in the concrete material due to swelling/shrinking

27
mechanisms may be surpassed using SAP coatings and PH sensitive SAPS materials. Coated
SAPs prevent early swelling of SAPs during the mixing formation and in turn reduce the
macropores formation in the cementitious structure [73].

Figure 10: Schematic representation of SAPs healing concrete

The efficient coating mechanism successfully indemnified the loss in mechanical strength of
concrete. SAP materials may be added as particles during mixing or by synthesize procedures
in situ. The self-healing mechanism quickly takes place via the swelling mechanisms and
secondary hydration upon crack formation. 96% healing abilities are obtained by Tziviloglou
et.al. when a concrete mixture with 1% mass SAP to cement content was added for crack
sizes up to 0.150 mm widths [74]. The SAP concentration and type as well as the crack width
used greatly affects the healing ability of the concrete. SAP infused concrete samples can
seal cracks completely up to 0.140 mm in high humidity environments. Furthermore, coated
SAP addition to the structure protected the material from corrosion defects and no visible
corrosion damages were observed under intensified NaCl exposure cycles [75].

28
2.2.1.3 Intrinsic self-healing: Shrinkable polymers and expansive minerals

As the crack width in the concrete structure greatly affects the self-healing ability of the
concrete, an efficient crack size control mechanism is needed. An attempted technique was
proposed, incorporating the usage of shrinkable polymer action mechanisms in concrete by
heating effects [76]. Shrinkage stresses applied by the shrinkage action polymers on the
concrete edges may enforce the cracked walls closer to each other to induce a better healing
ability. Thermally activated polyethylene terephthalate (PETs) was tested at the University
of Cardiff [37] to evaluate the crack sealing performance obtained upon thermally activating
the PETs after the initial curing stage of the concrete specimens. The polymer tendons in the
PET material fully sealed the cracked areas due to significant shrinkage stress values over
the cracked surface. This technique results in enhanced healing performance for the intrinsic
healing concrete.

Figure 11: Shrinkable PET polymer action using heating means

29
On the other hand, calcium sulphoaluminate material was used as an expansive mineral in
the concrete mortar in another attempt in intrinsic healing enhancement. The healing
mechanism improvement is linked to the expansion and swelling of these expansive materials
due to the crystallization of the aluminosilicates with the calcium ions in the mix design [77].
Expansive clay materials like nano montmorillonite and bentonite behaved in a similar
expansive manner. The expansive nano clay swelling capability efficiently enhanced the
intrinsic self-healing property of concrete. Cracks within 150 µm healed efficiently within
33 days [78]. Similarly, Magnesium oxide (MgO) and bentonite clay materials were tested
in controlled proportions for the intrinsic healing enhancement ability of the concrete.
Subsequent material substitutions up to 5% quicklime, 5% bentonite clay and 7.5% MgO
material obtained higher autogenic healing ability enhancement with crack widths sizes
recorded up to 170 µm in 28 days [79]. When attempted to mix expansive minerals with ECC
structured concrete, the resulted mixture achieved even higher and enhanced modes of self-
healing in concrete with visible flexural strength recovery variables. Expensive minerals and
shrinkable polymers have obvious healing enhancement results on the concrete matrix in its
intrinsic self-healing ability. A representation of crack healing using normal concrete and
expansive mineral induced concrete is presented in Figure 12 below.

Figure 12: (a) Normal concrete hydration healing (b) Expansive mineral concrete healing

30
2.2.1.4 Intrinsic self-healing: Mineral admixtures

Several minerals have been introduced to concrete mixtures in the most recent research
studies. The main objective behind mineral admixtures is to enhance and prolong the natural
hydration process in the concrete mixture. One of the main minerals used with concrete
mixtures is fly ash (FA) and blast-furnace slag (BFS) [80] . The minerals added to the mixture
remain un-hydrated for longer periods of time further improving the intrinsic self-healing
ability of concrete. Expansive behaviors and pozzolanic attributes executed by the mineral
admixtures reinforces and promotes the continuous hydration processes. The ongoing
hydration process may be accelerated using various techniques like higher curing
temperatures, increase in limestone and fly ash molecular content and applications of
favorable alkaline environment solutions. However, limited strength recovery was induced
and sealable cracked widths of 125 µm could be obtained [81]. A wide variety of materials
and admixtures may be used for different damage types and healing abilities. These minerals
and material healing characteristics are summarized in the table below.

Table 2: Different mineral admixture composites for self-healing concrete

31
32
2.2.2 Autonomic self-healing

Autonomic self-healing or extrinsic self-healing concrete is one which involves external

components in the concrete material ingredients that are not traditionally present in the
mixture [82]. The autonomic healing process generally requires the release of healing agents
through various encapsulation and healing agent injection techniques. The ideology relies on
the assimilation of nutrients and self-healing agents in the cracked surface to efficiently seal
the defected area. Healing agent addition into the concrete mixture includes microvascular
systems, chemical microencapsulation techniques and bacterial encapsulation. Autonomic
healing outperforms the intrinsic healing ability of concrete and covers wider range of crack
sizes for an efficient crack seal mechanism as the necessary products and healing agents fill
the damaged crack surfaces [83]. The healing mechanism may be initiated via propagated
cracks that may rupture the encapsulation medium to allow the healing agent to flow onto
the cracks. The need for better healing ability of concrete is met with the autonomic healing
technique. Further studies and research have been carried out to obtain the best extrinsic
healing technique possible whether it is via encapsulation means or intervascular network

33
techniques. The latest findings and autonomic healing advancements are reviewed and
evaluated in this section.

2.2.2.1 Autonomic healing: Microvascular and tabular systems

Tubular hollow fibers for healing agent storing and containment is one of the extrinsic
approaches attempted by scientists. The idea is to fill tubular fibers and tubes with the
necessary healing agents, which are then embedded into the concrete matrix mix. The tubular
fibers remain intact until crack propagation cause the tubes to break, further releasing the
contained agents into the mixture structure and perform its healing mechanism [84]. Dry
et.al. attempted to store the repair components inside brittle tubular shaped vessels that are
dispersed along the concrete structure which shatter and break once damaged by cracking
stresses [85]. Hollow porous polypropylene fibers were filled with methyl methacrylate
liquid and released onto cracked surfaces upon fracture of the tubes to reduce concrete
permeability. Like the microvascular artery connections in our biological human systems,
tubular hollow pipettes and fibrous materials are evaluated for the efficient transport and
storage of the healing agents. The “bleeding” mechanism that occurs during the breakage of
the tubular systems efficiently transported the subsequent healing liquids into the
microcracked surfaces in the structure. Tubular capillary glass tubes were investigated for
the sole purpose of autonomic healing via the transport mechanism of the healing agents into
the concrete structure [86]. Wide ranges of healing agents are available to be used and
inserted into the concrete matrix to obtain the desired results. For example, Mihashi et.al
[87], experimented using tubular capillary glass tubing with inner diameter 0.8 mm and outer
diameter 2 mm embedded inside the concrete specimens. Two-component-blended epoxy
resins, diluted alkali-silica solution and undiluted alkali-silica solutions were few of the
healing agents tested in Mihashi’s study. When left for curing and healing, results suggested
that the injection of diluted and un-diluted alkali-silica solutions via the vascular tubing
connections obtained average strength recovery ratio of 1.1 and 1.5, respectively. The epoxy
resin on the other hand showed very little to no improvement at all regarding its mechanical
strengths when compared with direct injection of epoxy resins into the mixture rather than
employing it in tubular vascular systems. The loss in durability and workability of concrete
using epoxy resins in the tubular structures may be related to the remaining of epoxy liquid
34
in the pipes at the ends of the pipes, which enables insufficient mixing and stirring of the
epoxy with the materials. Ethyl cyanoacrylate was similarly used as a healing agent by Li
VC et.al [65] to induce the healing mechanisms in concrete. Primary and secondary healing
occurred during the first and second loading cycles and considerable strength and flexural
stiffness were recovered using this healing agent. The ethyl cyanoacrylates successfully
infiltrated the cracked system due to its low viscosity and efficient infiltration into the
microcracks. Crack widths up to 500 µm were sealed efficiently, however capillary action
mechanisms may limit the range of healing agents that can be used, and an open-ended
system arrangement is preferred [88].

Figure 13: Tubular capsule healing schematic

One major key player in vascular systems is the ability to deliver healing agents to the
damaged sites. Theoretically, continuous intake streams of the healing agents can be supplied
from external sources via the vascular tubing arrangements, reaching no limit in the
volumetric amount of healing agent that can be supplied [89]. Indeed, several healing agents
and catalysts may be provided at different timings and locations to treat various damaged
crack types. Vascular networks may be arranged in 1D, 2D and 3D channels to provide many
paths for healing agents into the concrete to reach he damaged zones. Channels inside the
concrete mixture may be achieved via many mechanisms. The most traditional / basic
technique involves applying embedded capillary tubes inside the concrete mixture. The
capillaries obtain adequate strength to sustain mixing and casting procedures but are sensitive
to crack fractures and stresses [90]. Another technique involves creating channels in the
concrete structure via the addition of solid bars in molds before the casting step and are
removed later after concrete hardening, which leaves hollow voids for the vascular transport
mechanism in the structure. Likewise, Davies et.al. [91] used shrinkable polyolefin tubes
embedded in the cementitious specimen which were removed following the casting of the

35
concrete. This method leaves hollow network structures inside the concrete upon successful
removal of the shrinkable tubes. The healing agent chosen for the vascular application
healing technique must possess certain qualities to ease out the procedure as it is a very
important matter. An ideal healing agent liquid must possess low viscosity to be able to flow
easily around the vascular networks. The healing agent must also be able to access the small
cracks using capillary action forces and then removed using air and water to conserve the
repeatable use of the vascular network system. A major drawback using vascular network
systems is the probability of unwanted materials to enter the system via the network channels
in turn deterioration the concrete matrix internal structure and strengths. Application of
vascular networks in large concrete infrastructures remains an unprecedented challenge for
the effective autonomic healing ability of the materials. Vascular network healing agents
include alkali silica epoxy mixtures, cyanoacrylate, epoxy resins, foam, epoxy, and silicon
cyanoacrylate liquids [92].

Figure 14: (a) Vascular network in concrete slab panel and (b) Vascular
network combination with PET in field trial
2.2.2.2 Autonomic healing: Bacteria-based self-healing (Bio-concrete)

Autonomic healing could also be performed using biological microorganisms that react and
produce calcium carbonate residues. Not long ago, scientist started exploring a new
autonomic technique which uses microorganisms and bacteria to induce the self-healing
mechanism in concrete. The bacteria infused concrete suggested by Dr. Henk Jonkers [93]
further pushed the limits in the materials engineering technology. The proposed use of
biological repair techniques presents an environmentally friendly enhanced concrete solution
to the current crack propagation issue in concrete. This theoretical approach suggests the
usage of ureolytic bacteria for its efficient calcium carbonate (CaCO3) production. However,
36
the concrete’s harsh environmental and high PH levels make this task a very challenging
objective [94].

In general, calcium carbonate precipitation from the ureolytic microbial reactions is affected
by the PH level of the environment, the calcium ions concentration, presence of nucleation
sites as well as the concentration of dissolved inorganic carbon [95]. Jonkers studied the self-
healing results using bacteria infused concrete. He suggested the usage of the Bacillus
bacteria, which can survive harsh alkaline environment conditions and produce calcium
carbonate (limestone) crystals upon precipitation to completely seal the cracked surfaces
[93]. These incredible biological microorganisms can remain dormant up to 200 years if
intact. Upon contact with water and oxygen, the microbiological organisms start to
precipitate limestone residues which are deposited on the cracked edged and crystalizes to
efficiently seal the cracks.

An efficient crack sealing mechanism should be able to seal freshly formed cracks to reduce
the material’s permeability. The self-healing concrete should also be able to heal itself
automatically without the need for any human interaction. Similarly, the healing agent should
be infused and mixed efficiently in the concrete matrix without affecting the mechanical
performance of the material. The self-healing mechanism should be able to stay dormant for
many years before reacting and must be compatible with the harsh concrete environment.
Active bacteria were found in rock structures in dry and high alkaline environment, which
are like the environment found in concrete. The Bacillus bacteria successfully meets all the
requirements for an efficient self-healing agent and is introduced into the mix design. The
bacteria must be fed properly for the calcium carbonate reactions to occur correctly. Relevant
nutrients must also be incorporated into the mixture for the bacterial survival. The ureolytic
bacteria releases urease enzymes that catalyzes urea (CO(NH2)2) into ammonia (NH4+) as
well as carbonate (CO2-3). The urea molecule is hydrolyzed to carbamate and ammonia. The
carbamate products subsequently hydrolyze spontaneously to form ammonia and carbonic
acid. These products then form bicarbonate and ammonium and hydroxide ions. Finally,
carbonate ions are produced due to the high rise in the PH level. The negatively charged
bacteria walls attracts the positively charged calcium ions. The calcium ions react with the
carbonate ions, resulting in a calcium carbonate (CaCO3) precipitation at the crack edges.
The cracked surfaces may then be filled with the calcium carbonate deposits from the
chemical metabolic reactions mentioned above [96].

37
 (6)

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

(11)

(12)

Equations 6 – 12: Bio-chemical reaction in bio-concrete systems

Figure 15: Schematic representation of bacteria-based healing process

38
The aformentioined bacteria organism is directly added to the mimxture or encapsulated via
microencapsulation means or vascular network system embedded in the structure. Although
the bacterial organism can remain dormant for long periods of time, its direct application
exposes the bacteria to reactive environment which in turn consumes the bacteria before it is
actually needed to react [97]. Therefore, direct application of bacteria spores into the concrete
is not advised. Relevent encapsulation techniques are applied instead to contain and protect
the bacteria and its nutriend from pre-mature reactions. For examplpe, Jonkekrs used porous
expanded clay particles to encapsulate the bacterial spores and its relevent nutrients.
Similarly, Wang et al. [98] entrapped the infused microorganisms in silica gel and
polyurethane in small sized long glass tubes. This vascular-like technique enables the bacteria
to be released upon the fracture of the glass tube from the induced crack stresses on the
concrete structutre. Several encapsulation and microencapsulation techniques have been
studied and discussed for the autonomic healing of concrete.
Table 3: Bacteria and encapsulation method properties

39
2.2.2.3 Autonomic healing: Encapsulation techniques

Added minerals and bacteria into the system suffer from early reactions and deterioration as
they may react with the concrete environment from before cracking, causing the minerals to
be wasted and not used efficiently for the crack closure. The encapsulation approach
incorporates all techniques that are used to compactly contain the self-healing agents inside
microcapsules embedded in the concrete system. Encapsulation techniques are all based on
the idea of isolating the healing agent from its concrete environment. The successful
40
encapsulation is to protect the minerals and chemicals until the propagated cracks break the
capsules open and the chemicals are released onto the cracked edges. A successful
encapsulation technique must overcome the internal forces generated in the concrete while
the mixing is ongoing while being brittle enough to fracture upon crack propagations [99].
Microencapsulation technology is a favorable technique due to its high versatility, which can
encapsulate wide varieties of healing agents and in any sizes. Successive encapsulation
greatly promotes the mineral’s shelf life and prolongs its overall service life. The release of
active ingredients could restore good proportions of the loss in mechanical strengths.
Therefore, the encapsulation technique has been preferred over other techniques for the direct
transport of healing agents onto to damaged location.

Figure 16: (left) Encapsulation schematic representation, (right) SEM image of fractured
capsule

Encapsulation techniques may either be discrete or continuous application. The different

techniques incorporate different storing mechanisms, extent of healable damages, recovery
rates and the healing repeatability. Microencapsulation involves direct application of the
embedded capsules into the system until capsulation fracture due to crack propagation. The
contained healing agent is released into the cracked surface for efficient healing reactions to
take place. The size, volumetric fraction and mechanical properties affects the compatibility
of the microcapsules with the bulk concrete. Similarly, the capsule’s shape may also affect
the performance and compatibility of the capsules with the concrete material [100].
41
To investigate the encapsulation potential in the self-healing concrete agenda, Hosoda
reviewed the application of water molecules in microcapsules to promote further hydration
reactions in the mortar. Gelatin microcapsules, acrylate superabsorbent polymers and methyl
methacrylate are few of the materials used for efficient encapsulation mechanism [101]. Yang
et.al [102] concluded a 50.2 and 66.8% reduction in the permeability of methyl methacrylate
(MMA) triethyl borane encapsulated concrete between 3 to 30 days. Similarly, crystalline
sodium silicate was encapsulated in polyurethane-encapsulated microcapsules. The results
obtained suggested a 12% decrease in compressive strength of the material when compared
to the control specimens. The encapsulated concrete however showcased a 24% mechanical
load recovery when compared to only 12% recovery for the control specimens. A near 100%
crack healing was obtained using sodium silicate in a gelatin and Arabic gum shell
encapsulation. The increase microencapsulation concentration reduced the material’s
mechanical performance by 24% [103]. Epoxy resin encapsulated microcapsules using urea-
formaldehyde formalin material has performed very poorly in terms of strength recovery and
crack sealing ability. The two-component healing agent experienced some difficulty in
hardening and very limited amounts of healing agents was encapsulated in the microcapsules.
It is thus desired to have larger microcapsule diameters and stronger bond strength between
the capsule materials and the concrete mixture. Suitable healing agents should be cost-
effective, readily encapsulated, and able to roam around the structure easily once released.

Choice of material was aimed at achieving an efficient healing concrete while maintaining
the structure’s mechanical reinforcement performance. Glass fiber tubes offer larger storage
area and can accommodate more healing agent. This encapsulation technique is also crack
initiated, and the embedded fibrous tubes are broken upon concrete microcrack formation
[104]. When Li et.al attempted a similar approach, it was noted that out of the nine test
specimens conducted, eight have managed to successfully heal the cracks and was able to
showcase strength and stiffness recovery. Li attempted the study using nice tubular hollow
glass fiber specimens with 0.8 inner diameters and 100 mm length filled with ethyl
cyanoacrylate also commonly known as super glue with both ends of the tubular fibers
efficiently sealed using silicone material [48]. With ongoing research in this encapsulation
technique, Mihashi et.al [87], used low viscosity ethyl cyanoacrylate filled in 3 mm diameter

42
and 100 mm length fibrous tubes. The tubes were placed this time in the concrete structure
with one end of the tube connected to a supply of healing agents while the other was sealed
efficiently using wax materials. The study resulted in a stiffer, stronger, and more ductile
material. However, the fiber glass tubes may negatively affect the concrete’s sustainability
due to possible undesired alkali-silica reactions. The attempt to solve this problem has
witnessed the usage of polymeric self-healing systems. Embedded EVA tubes melts upon
cracks due to higher resistance, in turn allowing the healing agents stored inside the system
to flow onto the cracks.

2.2.2.4 Autonomic healing: Shape Memory Materials

Shape memory materials are functional materials that have been incorporated lately into the
cementitious matrix for efficient healing options. The idea is based on the shrinking
mechanism of these materials which contain shorter predefined memorized shapes. The
shrinkage forces generated in this process may lead to clack closure and brings the edges
closer [105]. Shape memory alloys (SMAs) own higher thermo-electrical and thermo-
mechanical properties than usual materials. Nitinol, one of the many shape memory alloys,
execute very good shape memory effects and super elasticity behaviors. These two behaviors
allow SMAs to recover their original structure upon heating and to undergo large inelastic
deformations upon loading and the successful recovery of the original shape upon removal
of loads. The compressive stresses developed across the cracks results in crack closure. In a
study proposed by Son et.al., stranded martensite shape memory alloys were used. Strain
distributions are obtained via the evaluation and analysis of the electric resistance changes in
the material. The wired SMAs in turn are contracted and shrank upon electric heating of the
system. Self-healing using SMA molecules showed promising results with complete sealing
of large cracks. Early cracking in concrete structures is counteracted with the embedded
shape memory tendons in the structure. The forced closure of the cracks improves the healing
ability of concrete and its sustainability. It is confirmed the beneficial use of shrinkable
materials for efficient crack sealing. It was found that polyethylene terephthalate (PET) was
the most effective material for shrinkable tendons with a shrinkage potential up to 34 MPa
when heated at 90 degrees Celsius and then cooled down for shrinkage operations. The results
increased the structure’s strength by 25% [106].
43
The future of the construction industry is still yet to change and adapt with the ongoing
limitations and drawbacks. Studies are being conducted on the self-healing of concrete using
many approaches and mechanisms to minimize and eliminate crack dangers in concrete
structures. The extrinsic healing techniques in self-healing concrete promise fortunate results
and the latest results and findings are discussed and evaluated in the latter section of this
report. The various extrinsic techniques discussed are tabulated below with a brief analysis
on the advantages and disadvantages of each method in Table . In general, of all self-healing
techniques, extrinsic bio-concrete seems to be the most promising technique for the self-
repair of concrete. Further research is required to study the performance and healing ability
of infused bacterial concrete with different encapsulation methods. As the encapsulation
injections into the system negatively draws the strength of the structure. It is desired to
achieve a bacteria infused concrete without the need of encapsulation means. Direct addition
however limits the shelf life of the biological microorganisms, in turn the microbiological
infused concrete is only efficient when encapsulated. This means that to increase crack repair,
one must sacrifice some strength from the structure for the successful crack repair using
encapsulation techniques.
Table 4: Advantages and disadvantages of concrete healing strategies

44
2.3 Clay Materials in concrete

Clay materials have long been used in the concrete infrastructure industry as aggregate
substitutions in concrete. With limiting design specifications and project technical
restrictions on the amounts of materials to be used, the current available aggregate resources
and sand molecules can hardly meet these requirements at such challenging costs. The
question arose when it was required to find alternate materials and ingredients to substitute
for the limiting factors in the design specifications required by the constructors. And such, it
was required to explore the nature of materials that could replace this limitation without
affecting the performance of the concrete material.

Clay molecules are rock based minerals that are formed from the long-term environmental
weathering conditions. As mentioned in the earlier section of this report, clay minerals are
layered silica based hydrous units that may generate complex microstructures and stacking
mechanisms [107]. Individual layer units may be composed either of tetrahedral sheets or
octahedral sheets or both together which defines the stacking mechanism of the layers of the
clay material. The tetrahedral sheet structure arrangement is essentially representing a
pyramid like structure with silicon-oxygen tetrahedra bonds linked with neighboring units
through adequate covalent bonds. Likewise, octahedral sheet structure is one which consists
of a six-fold coordination with aluminum or magnesium and the oxygen atoms from the
tetrahedral sheet structure [108]. Fine clay aggregate minerals are usually referred to as nano
material aggregates with micro molecular sizes below 75 µm in shape. The clay materials
possess a very good filling and swelling ability that benefits the concretes performance. They
also possess residual negative charges acting on the surface. The interlayer space between
the structured sheets gets filled with water molecules once submerged in water. The inter
sheet layer spacing is the main player behind the swelling ability of clay minerals. Clay
materials in concrete aggregates could beneficially improve the material’s strength, stability,
workability, and sustainability of the hardened concrete [109]. It is therefore crucial to be
able to decide on the type of clay material to be used in fine aggregates and in what
concentrations to reinforce concrete materials.

45
2.3.1 Clay based concrete properties

In a study conducted by Solomon et.al [110], clay-based soil material is used to produce
affordable, low-strength construction materials for regions where material development and
innovation is limited. Concrete mixtures of 350 kg/m3 cement were tested with cement-to-
water ratios of 0.7 and 0.75 and the other two specimens were tested with 280 kg/m3 mix
design in cement-to-water ratios of 0.8 and 0.85 with a 10%,20%,30%, 40% and 60% partial
clay substitution of cement particles. Solomon concluded that the best mixture design suited
for the low cost, low-strength application included mixtures with w/cc ratio of 0.8 and a 20%
- 30% clay substitution. In a similar study, 7.5% - 10% clay substitution of cement fine
aggregates was tested for the effects induced on the absorption, permeability, and
compressive strengths of the concrete. Parsons [111] concluded that a 10% clay replacement
resulted in strength decrease of concrete material by 0% - 10% in its early days up to three
months and no evident drawbacks to the material’s permeability was observed. Similarly,
7.5% replacement of fine aggregates enhanced material’s compressive performance by 37%.

The concrete material specifications highly affect the strength of the material and
workability. In another study is conducted by Jonathan et.al [29] in attempts to find an
alternate solution to the concrete specification design requirements in projects. Nano clay
materials were tested as a promising alternate as it possesses good pozzolanic behaviors and
sheet structures. In his study, Jonathan had used Halloysite nano clay (HNCL) and nano-
montmorillonite (NMT) clay molecules for the partial substitution of cement to research the
resultant strength and workability performance. Individual and combined replacement of the
clay molecules was performed and analyzed. 20 samples of individual partial replacement of
NMT and HNCL by 0.5% and 2.5% and 1%, 3% and 5% combined replacement of NMT
and HNCL at ratio of 1:5 with reference to the individual replacement of the concrete
specimens. It was concluded that the concrete workability is greatly affected by the
substantial substitution of cement particles with clay with greatest loss in workability by 50%
when 5% combined replacement of NMT and HNCL was obtained. Mean compressive
strength values of the test specimens were obtained for efficient evaluation on the clay based
concrete mixture. The research findings suggested an apparent improvement in compressive
strength results for the clay-based material for both individual and combined replacement of

46
NMT and HNCL. Combined substitution of HNCL and NMT yielded higher strength values
than individual substitutions compared to control specimens. A 0.5% NMT substitution
resulted in a 0.701% strength increase and a 19.565% increased compressive strength using
2.5% replacements. On the other side, combined NMT and HNCL combined substitutions of
1%, 3% and 5% resulted in 26.251%, 27.430% and 6.565% increase in strength. A parabolic
trend between the amount of clay added and mechanical behavior of the material is deduced,
where the mechanical performance of the material deteriorates upon reaching an optimum
threshold replacement value of clay material in concrete.

Table 5 : Test design composition and weight of ingredients for different clay
sample replacements

Table 6 : Compressive strength results of A samples (individual replacement of

NMT at 0.5% and 2.5%) and B samples (combined NMT and HNCL
replacement at 1%, 3% and 5%)

47
2.3.2 Halloysite nanotubes

Of all different nano clay materials that could be incorporated for cement substitution in
concrete, halloysite nano clay material seems like a very promising material in the field and
possess various qualities that could be advantageous to the concrete performance. The
subsequent properties of halloysite molecules proved promising results for encapsulation and
transport means, filler behaviors and good absorbents for the environmental usage in
concrete. Halloysite possess hollow nano tubular shaped like structure molecules that are
attached together to form long multiwalled tube structure. In general, halloysite nano clay
tube consist of 20 nm diameter and 1 µm length tubular shaped molecules that may be added
into the concrete mixture in powder form. The chemical formula representing Halloysite
material is Al2Si2(OH)4.nH2O which is like other clay members [112]. The difference arises
in the microstructure of each member. In the biomedical field, halloysite nano clay tubes are
being used and tested for efficient drug encapsulation [113]. Price et.al [114] loaded the
HNCL nanotubes from saturated drug solutions followed by cyclic vacuum pumping
improved the replacement of air with liquid in the internal cavities of the material for an
efficient drug delivery system. The halloysite wettable lumen diameter provides elevated
capillary forces then enforce the solutions into the tubular voids in the structure. The drugs
may then be released upon contact with water. Halloysite nanotubes are widely available and
have a relatively low cost and high durability. Halloysite encapsulation has proved possible
through various studies which incorporated vacuum impregnation of different kinds of drugs
and catalysts in the biomedical field. It is desired to transfer this drug delivery mechanism
into the concrete building field. In other words, it is desirable to be able to use halloysite nano
tubules as a carrier and container mechanism for the successful encapsulation and
containment of bacteria and its relevant nutrients in order to eliminate the encapsulation
needs of the organisms through addition of extra materials into the concrete mix.

48
Figure 17: Halloysite nanotube filling mechanism
 CHAPTER 3

RESULTS & DISUSSION

3.1 Self-healing characteristics

When evaluating a self-healing technique, one must look at the overall performance and
feasibility of the mechanisms rather than only the healing results. In terms of the mechanical
aspects of the healing agenda, strength repair, crack width repair and depth are of main
importance when choosing a self-healing technique. Similarly, one must look at the
feasibility and durability of the techniques so that it could be applied efficiently in production
process and large-scale productions. When discussing the self-healing techniques of
concrete, it was clarified that self-healing concrete could perform its crack repair either
through intrinsic or extrinsic means. Through various research, intrinsic healing was proven
of limited capabilities and is only able to heal cracks up to a maximum width size. Intrinsic
healing is greatly affected by the un-hydrated molecules and the crack sizes. It is therefore
that engineers have been trying to implement smart crack width control solutions to enhance
the intrinsic self-healing potential.

The engineered cementitious concrete approach incorporating self-controlled crack widths

using fibrous materials exhibits a prolonged shelf-life and good diversity of fibers in the
structure to cover all structure surfaces and areas. ECC’s presented successful crack sealing
for crack width not larger than 60 µm. A linear crack propagation control was obtained and
the rate of crack formation in the ECC concrete structures could be carefully monitored and
controlled. Additionally, the ECC mechanism demonstrated high feasibility and versatility
of usage in various environments. As for the mechanical values of the ECCs, the material
partially regained stiffness when exposed to numerous loading cycles. Pre-cracked ECC
could develop compressive strength values of 24 MPa by three days period and obtained
almost 80% if the ultimate compressive stress of the material at the age of one week [115].
Faster healing could be observed when samples are immersed in water with decreasing water
49
permeability upon self-healing. Minimal influence was caused by ECC self-healing on the
mechanical recovery of the material and adequate flexural and compressive stresses are
recovered. Other intrinsic healing enhancement attempts like mineral admixtures and
expansive systems recovered cracks up to 0.05 mm with the enhanced hydration and healing
processes at different curing incubation period [116]. The autogenic healing agenda proves
helpful up to certain extents and the repair operation is limited to available un hydration and
crack width controls. The intrinsic behavior may be favored over extrinsic healing in
situations where the material and production costs are a precisive choice and where the
limitations imposed on the material specifications by design requirements strictly limit usage
of extra additions of ingredients.

Extrinsic healing techniques as opposed to the intrinsic self-healing incorporates addition of

external agents and molecules into the design mixtures. Several techniques may be used
according to the range of cracks to be healed, cost limitations or availability of materials. In
glass tubing encapsulation techniques, a long shelf-life may be obtained depending on the
type of healing agent chosen for the task. However, the limited diversity of this technique
makes its production a little harder. The tubular capsules must be placed in discrete locations
for crack anticipations. The test results and findings suggested an evident recovery of sealing
mechanism and mechanical strength but only limited in size and value. Insufficient data is
available to be able to approve the reliability of this self-healing system in larger scale
buildings, and the process cannot be repeated once it had been performed once.

In other encapsulation attempts, chemical encapsulations in microcapsules offered a long

shelf life potential but only depending on the healing agent in the encapsulation. The
microencapsulation technique allows a good diversity and pervasiveness of the micro
capsules in a uniformly dispersed manner. The sealing ability of the microcapsules regained
most of the crack widths and mechanical strength up to an extent. The encapsulation method
is independent of any external environment and may be applied in a variety of applications.
Similarly, bacterial encapsulations are likely used as a self-healing option for longer bacterial
shelf-life. The bacteria capsulations may be dispersed widely in the matrix and offer a large
amount of diversity in the concrete structures. Successful crack sealing is achieved for cracks
up to 0.15 mm and some loss of mechanical strength experienced due to the chemical
50
modifications in the concrete mixture with the incorporation of the exterior ingredients used
for the encapsulation and biological organisms. The microbiological encapsulation is
dependent on water exposure and may be initiated upon capsule fracture from surface
cracking stresses. Finally, mineral admixtures incorporated systems also promise a fortunate
path with healing ranges up to 0.05 mm with different minerals used [117]. The added
ingredients possess a long shelf life as long as the additives remain intact and unreacted. The
mixture is able to completely seal micronized cracks and regain minimal strength. The
technique is likewise dependent on water supply and possesses really good chemical diversity
composition.

3.2 Crack sealing

The various crack sealing techniques have been intensively researched and tested in order to
obtain the optimum healing results. Crack sealing may be successful if complete closure of
the crack is obtained while maintaining the material’s mechanical properties. Through the
various research conducted, it could be concluded that extrinsic healing in general obtained
better crack repair ability than intrinsic or autogenic cracks. In autogenous cracking, the
largest crack width that could be sealed efficiently was recorded using a PC expansive
mineral mix. The enhanced expansive mineral healing technique was able to recover cracks
up to 500 µm in an incubation period of 28 days while lowest crack width recovery was
obtained using the good old original hydration healing reactions and blast furnace slag
mineral admixtures [118]. In the autonomous side of the story, bacteria-based precipitations
in bio-concrete test specimens achieved highest healing ability with cracks up to 0.2 mm and
lowest sealing width recovered was witnessed using the microvascular and tubular embedded
capsulations using alkali-silica, two-part epoxy resins as the healing agent. The drawback in
the vascular technique is related to the inefficient release of the epoxy agents onto the cracked
surfaces upon capsule fracturing. The extrinsic self-healing technique surpasses the intrinsic
methods in terms of crack recovery. Choice of healing technique incorporated should be
carefully made and considered before application in construction buildings.

51
 Figure 18: Healing potential for various techniques

Table 7: Different healing techniques and crack ranges

Healing Crack width Curing Incubation

mechanism recovery condition period

Autogenic Hydration 50-150 µm - -

healing

Compressive 50 µm Compressive 72 days

stress stress

52
 Healing Crack width Curing Incubation
mechanism recovery condition period

Mineral 300 µm Silica fume 33 days

Admixture

Mineral 50 µm Crystalline 12 days

Admixture additive

Mineral 25 µm Blast furnace 22 days

Admixture healed slag, limestone
efficiently powder
60 µm not
healed
completely
Enhanced
Autogenic
self-healing Mineral 100 µm 70% slag, two -
Admixture class fly ash

Mineral 50 µm F-class fly ash -

Admixture

Mineral 30 µm C-class fly ash 33 days

Admixture

Expansive 150 µm Calcium 28 days

minerals Sulphoaluminate

Expansive 170 µm PC cement mix 28 days

minerals

Expansive 160 µm 100% PC cement 28 days

minerals mix

Expansive 400-500 µm PC expansive -

minerals mineral mix

53
 Healing Crack width Curing Incubation
mechanism recovery condition period

Microvascular 300-500 µm Embedded glass -

& tabular pipes. Healing
capsules agents: Alkali-
silica, two-part
epoxy

Autonomic 0.1-0.2 mm Calcium 14 days

self-healing Coated sulphoaluminate
minerals
>0.2 mm Polyvinyl alcohol 16
coat

Bacteria 0.15 mm Microbiologically -

based induced calcite
precipitation

Encapsulated 970 µm Encapsulated -

bacteria microbiologically
induced calcite
precipitation

Bacterial encapsulation encompasses numerous bacterial organism species and different

encapsulation material means, where each species and encapsulation material offer different
functions and abilities which can be seen in the Table below. Encapsulation materials
included lightweight aggregates, hydro C-S-H gels, gelatin, Arabic gum… The different
encapsulation means are tabulated, and the most important findings are noted down.

54
 Table 8: Different bacteria encapsulation methods

Bacteria species Encapsulation Healing Findings

material mechanism

Spore forming Direct addition - (1) Early healing

bacteria due to water
curing
(2) Decreasing
healing ability
with increasing
crack age

Bacillus Direct addition Calcium (1) Bacteria active

decomposition, up to 4 months
carbonate precipitation

Bacillus cohnii Clay aggregate Metabolic (1) 0.15 mm width

conversion of and 80 mm
calcium lactate length sealed
completely
(2) 0 viability loss
up to six months

Bacillus Immobilized in Ureolytic (1) Lowest

sphaericus PU and silica gel decomposition of permeability
inside glass calcium nitrate (2) Higher bacteria
activity
(3) Higher strength
recovery

Bacillus Diatomaceous Ureolytic (1) Highest

sphaericus Earth (DE) decomposition of reduction of
calcium nitrate water absorption
(2) DE causes loss
in workability
of concrete

Bacillus Melamine Ureolytic (1) Crack sealing

sphaericus capsules decomposition of ratio: 48% to
calcium nitrate 80%
(2) Highest crack
width is 970 µm
(3) Greatest crack
area reduction

55
 Table 8: Different bacteria encapsulation methods

Bacteria species Encapsulation Healing Findings

material mechanism

Bacillus Hydrogel Ureolytic (1) Highest crack

sphaericus decomposition of sealing: 500 µm
calcium nitrate (2) Permeability
reduction of
68% for
bacterial and
nutrient
encapsulation
using hydrogel

Bacillus Sodium alginate- Ureolytic (1) Bacterial

sphaericus based hydrogel decomposition of activity
calcium nitrate observed only at
crack face

Bacillus subtilis Lightweight Decomposition of (1) Uniformly

aggregates and calcium lactate distributed
graphite nano- bacteria due to
platelets GNP fine
particle size and
dispersion in
concrete mix
(2) Higher self-
healing at early
ages (3-7 days)
(3) Lightweight
aggregates are
more effective
when samples
are pre-damaged
at later stage
(14-28 days)

56
3.3 Crack sealing assessment and quantification

Self-healing of concrete is the partial or full repair of concrete cracked surfaces without any
human interaction. Cracks in cementitious materials could be repaired intrinsically through
the natural hydration processes that take place in the un-hydrated concrete mortar or through
external participation of healing agents and minerals that react accordingly to seal the cracked
areas. As crack formation is a common behavior. Engineers attempting to tackle this issue
have been widely investigated in crack healing techniques of various kinds. Although the
microcrack formation may not directly affect the mechanical strength of the structure, it
increases the material’s permeability and allows ingression of corrosive and harmful products
into the system that reduce the concrete structure’s durability and sustainability due to the
ingression of water and aggressive substances. In order to be able to assess and evaluated
efficiently the crack healing techniques, one must be able to characterize and quantify the
healing mechanisms in order to be able to find the optimum solution of self-healing concrete
agenda. In general, crack healing may be assessed through different means. The most straight
forward crack assessment technique involves visual inspection and observation using
microscopy and imaging tool as well as normal natural observation using the naked eye.
Unfortunately, crack sealing efficiency is not only based on the extent of repair, but it also
depends on the mechanical strength recovery upon healing as well as the durability and the
microstructural evaluation of the system. The aforementioned evaluation techniques are
strictly discussed and analyzed in the following section.

Figure 19: Self-healing evaluation technique flowchart 57

3.3.1 Visual Inspection

Out of all the different crack repair evaluation techniques, visual inspection methods may be
categorized as the most straightforward and simple evaluation techniques for crack repair.
Visual inspection may be performed in several ways from which the healing potential could
be assessed and analyzed. Visual inspection techniques are used for its feasibility, short
analysis time and straightforward results. When comparing different healing techniques, it is
desired to obtain the technique that is able to recover the widest crack widths and efficiently
seal the micro fractured surface.

Most basic method to assess the crack width is though optical inspection using the naked eye.
This includes the close assessment through visual means of the crack sealing. In general,
crack sealing is identified by light white deposit residuals at the cracked area that is easily
identifiable using the human eye as can be seen in Figure 20 below. Although we are able to
detect if the crack repair was performed or not, visual inspection analysis does not provide
detailed views on the extent of the repair nor on the sizes or widths of the repaired crack.
Visual eye inspection can thus only obtain qualitative results of the cracked surfaces but not
quantitative results. In other words, we are not able to measure and quantify what was the
healing extent and how much distance was covered by the crack repair process. Visual
inspection of the cracked edges is thus achievable using naked eyes and can be quantified by
regular inspection and by taking high quality picture images using high-definition image
capturing tools.

Figure 20: Visual inspection of healing crack

58
Similarly, concrete micro cracks and sealing performance may be detected using non-
destructive testing (NDT) and inspection techniques. Nondestructive testing refers to
methods which are usually applied to search for the presence of defects in materials without
causing any damage of harmful effects on the properties and geometrical shape of the
specimen being inspected [119]. NDT methods are mainly used for flaw detection and
evaluation of materials, leak detections, locating defects, dimensional measurements,
microstructure characterizations, estimation of mechanical and chemical properties as well
as material sorting and chemical composition determination. Out of the most commonly used
NDT techniques for defect detection, Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) inspection may be
applied in concrete context in order to be able to detect defect presence and analyze the shape
and structure of the cracks and its repair results. Liquid Penetrant Inspection techniques rely
on capillary action mechanisms that promotes the ability of liquids to flow into narrow spaces
[120]. LPI techniques involves the application a high surface wetting characteristic liquid
onto the surfaces to be inspected and is allowed time to seep into the surface cracks. The
excess liquid is then removed from the specimen surface and a developer powder is applied
in order to draw out the liquid penetrant out of the cracks so they can be detected under UV
lighting. This technique may be applied on the concrete test specimens prior and after self-
healing incubation periods in order to detect the crack before healing and to detect any
residual cracks that have not been fully sealed upon self-healing operations. A successful
healing operation will be one which detects no defects and thus represents a defections free
surface. LPI is relatively easy to use and may be applied on a wide variety of materials while
inspecting large areas and volumes rapidly at relatively low costs with direct indications and
immediate results.

Figure 21: Liquid Penetrant Inspection 59

Naked eye inspection and Liquid Penetrant Inspection techniques may be used efficiently to
detect crack presence and defect locations on the specimen surfaces. However, these
techniques may not generate quantitative results about the defect. This means that we are
only able to detect the presence and location of the deteriorated surface but not able to
generate the size or widths of the crack or the extent to which it has been sealed. Qualitative
results are not sufficient to quantify and assess the self-healing operations of concrete to
declare it as a successful healing system or not. Quantitative information must be obtained
about crack sizes and the extent of sealing in order to determine if the self-healing process
was indeed a victorious one or not.

Optical microscopy enables a detailed magnified view of the specimen at hand and is able to
generate high resolution magnified images for efficient crack sealing evaluation. This
technique allows a magnified view of the cracked edges and enables a sophisticated
demonstration of the defects being analyzed. Optical microscopy however is also limited in
terms of quantitative results and may not be able to calculate the crack sealing efficiency
due to lack of information about the cracked width sizes and recovered widths sizes. Another
visual inspection technique attempted for an efficient crack detection and crack repair
evaluation incorporates numerical and digital analysis software and programs that are able to
detect defects and provide adequate measurements and variables about the crack size and
shape [121]. The image analysis methodology compares crack closure with original crack
openings before and after the healing processes. The automatic numerical crack detection
model allows continuous estimations of chosen parameters and compares it with original
images at different healing stages all along the crack outlined surface. A successful image
analysis morphological approach will consist of three basic steps to a good crack detection.
These steps are image pre-processing, image binarization and image post-processing and
outlier removal steps. A numerical model receives a cracked surface image as input. Prior to
detection process, the numerical model must first change the image into a grayscale model.
Then, the image is segmented into single cell pixels, with an intensity value assigned to each
pixel, representing the degree of color intensity in the image. A noise filtering procedure is
performed to enhance image quality for crack detection. After image pre-processing steps
have been completed, the numerical model then binarizes the image based on a threshold

60
level that is calculated and assigned accordingly. A pixel above this threshold value may be
assigned a value of 1 to represent pixels belonging to the cracked area and 0 for pixels outside
the cracked surface. Upon crack image binarization and object identification, the results may
be post-processed to eliminate further noise and discontinuities using erosion and dilation
techniques which successfully filters out any wrong detections or missing detection.

Figure 22: Algorithm flow chart

Figure 23: Numerical model crack detection results

61
3.3.2 Mechanical strength recovery

Crack recovery is not the only parameter which decides if a crack repair procedure has been
successful or not. It is often required to assess the mechanical properties of the concrete
before and after crack repair in order to determine if the sealing mechanism has been
successful. A successful crack repair is one which seals the cracked surface efficiently and is
able to recover the mechanical energy of the material. So, in order to evaluate the strength
recovery of self-healing concrete, many mechanical strength tests could be applied to
effectuate the required recovery tests. Uniaxial tensile tests are conducted on material
specimen before after and during the healing periods for both control specimens and self-
healing specimens on weekly basis in order to be able to assess and track the continuous
advancement and changes in the mechanical behavior of the materials. The mentioned
mechanical testing method could determine the material stiffness, strain hardening,
maximum tensile strength and stiffness recovery of the specimen upon healing reactions.
Similarly, bending tests like the three-point and four-point bend tests can also be conducted
on the test specimens to evaluate their mechanical properties. A strong correlation between
the deflection capacity and the tensile strain capacity could be obtained using relevant
bending tests where a material could be characterized using true strain hardening behaviors.
Likewise, bending tests could be performed when needed to assess the mechanical properties
of the concrete specimens before and after crack sealing at different periods of time for both
control and test specimens. The test is able to determine mechanical and structural element
deformation measurements of various materials. Finally, compressive testing is also another
mechanical behavior evaluation technique that could possibly be performed on the materials
being tested in order to gather valuable information about the material mechanical strength
and ultimate compressive stresses of the specimens. A comparison can be made between the
control specimen and the self-healing concrete specimen where the mechanical strengths of
both are compared to each other in order to assess if there has been any mechanical strength
loss due to healing procedures.

62
 Figure 24: Tensile and compressive test

3.3.3 Durability inspection

Another attempt for concrete self-healing investigation and evaluation has been the focus on
the durability of the material in terms of permeability and oxygen consumption as well as
corrosion resistance and freeze-thaw resistance. When concrete cracks are sealed, it is
expected that the material’s permeability should reduce due to the closure of defects, in turn
allowing less water to be able to access the material matrix. Specimens are submerged in
water and are left to heal and cure. Detailed water measurements are carried out on a
continuous basis in order to determine the permeability of the material. Water permeability
tests allows efficient monitoring of the water activity in the concrete and presents viable
information about whether the healing process had been successful or not in concrete
systems. When test specimen water permeability results are compared to original control
specimens, one must find that the self-healable concrete has achieved lower permeability
results upon successful sealing of the cracks.

Out of all the concrete healing techniques, bacterial microorganism self-healing methods
have widely been implemented for its efficient crack sealing mechanism in attempt to combat
the crack propagations induced in the material. The aerobic infused bacterium in the concrete
systems reacts with water and oxygen to produce calcium carbonate crystals between the
cracked edges in order to fully seal the edged crack. Optical oxygen microsensors or micro-
optodes can be used for the oxygen consumption monitoring of the bacterial metabolic
63
conversion of calcium lactate in the concrete mixtures and the quantification of oxygen
consumption. The changes in oxygen concentration of the submerged specimen are obtained
using Fick’s first law of diffusion [122] that could be obtained using the equation below:
(13)
𝑑𝐶(𝑧)
𝐽 = −𝐷𝑜2
𝑑𝑧

Equation 13: Fick’s first law of diffusion

Where Do2 represent the diffusion coefficient of oxygen in the water and dC(z) / dz refers to
the change of concentration of oxygen with varying depths z. The oxygen permeability tests
are used to ensure the viability of the induced bacteria and the extent of bacterial activity in
the test specimens. Bacteria-based specimen should reveal efficient oxygen consumption
with no oxygen consumption results for the control samples without bacterial reactivity.
Oxygen consumption and water permeability measurements could generate valuable
information about the reactivity and viability of the specimens but does not offer any data
about the strength nor the healing extent of the defects.

3.3.4 Microstructural evaluation

To ensure that the concrete mixture infused with minerals and other chemicals has been
successfully performed, a microstructural analysis may be executed to correctly evaluate and
assess the micronized mineralogy of the specimen. Microstructural evaluation allows
scientists and engineers to assess the internal structure of the material at a micro scale level
in order to determine the morphologies and purity of concentrations in the healing agents and
subsequent sealant ingredients. Investigation and observation of the chemical healing
products and procedures is therefore required to ensure the presence and successive High-
definition images of the microstructure morphologies may be obtained using Scanning
Electron Microscopes (SEM). Stereomicroscopic means allow detailed observations of the
structure of the test elements. Once the healing process is completed, mineral powder may
be scraped off the healed crack surface for an efficient minerology to identify the present
molecules and ingredients in the matrix using energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDAX).
Similarly, environmental scanning electron microscopes (ESEM) equipped with an x-ray

64
energy dispersive system (EDS) can improve the understanding of chemical compositions
and mineralogy of the induced healing components. The EDS system is capable of producing
quick and detailed chemical analysis of fluid inclusions and molecules. Fourier-Transform
InfraRed (FT-IR) technology could likely also present detailed mineral compositions through
different spectrums assigned for each structural crystal through different vibratory
frequencies.

Figure 25: Calcium carbonate morphology SEM images

Crack evaluation and relevant quantification is essential to ensure the success of the healing
processes performed on the concrete specimens [123]. It is obvious that crack analysis could
be achieved through numerous means incorporation visual, mechanical, durability and
microstructural inspections. It is crucial to obtain quantitative and qualitative results from
respective techniques in order to be able to identify whether the self-healing concrete was
able to seal itself or not, and if it did, critical evaluation must be performed on the mechanical
performance of the material in order to quantify up to what extent can the self-healing system
being inspected be applied for everyday uses. It is therefore required to evaluate the sealed
cracks through various means to approve the application of the self-healing techniques.

65
Microcrack formation causes probable threats to concrete infrastructures and exposes the
buildings to corrosion and deterioration damages. Hairline crack propagations is the
beginning to any concrete structure damages and accidents. Attempting to address this issue,
material engineers and scientists explored the self-healing concrete agenda and introduced
many techniques and approaches that could benefit the self-healing and enhance its
performance. In general, extrinsic healing performs better than intrinsic healing in terms of
crack widths ranges that could be recovered during the healing process. Bacteria infused
concrete was identified as one of the most innovative healing techniques and the top
performer of all techniques when it comes to the ranges of crack that can be repaired using
this method.

Direct and indirect addition of the bacteria into the concrete was discussed and assessed, and
it was found that the direct addition of bacteria into the mixture greatly affects the bacterial
shelf life, while the encapsulation method of bacteria limits the mechanical strength recovery
of the material. It is therefore that a potential encapsulation technique is sought for which
incorporates immobilizing bacteria-based organisms in protective layers without including
any external encapsulations. A theoretical approach is thus introduced, which is based on the
literature review executed in this research project. Since it was found that expansive clay
materials like halloysite nano clays exhibit favorable conditions in concrete, and may
potentially increase its mechanical strength, a hypothesis was deduced on the usage of clay
materials for the encapsulation means of the two-component bio-chemical agent is proposed.

Knowing about the structural arrangement and interlayer sheeting structure of clay materials,
protection by immobilization of the two-component healing agent in porous expansive clay
particles is the main approach behind this theoretical approach as an alternative technique for
the addition of bacteria in concrete in order to enhance the shelf life of the organisms while
sustaining and perhaps improving the mechanical ability performance of the materials after
self-healing. In this manner, expanded clay particles may act as an internal reservoir as well
as contribute with the structural ability of the concrete and serve as efficient protection for
the healing agents and nutrients. This theoretical idea is believed to solve the microcrack
formation problem while sustaining the mechanical endurance of the structures with the
incorporated minerals and biological organisms in the concrete matrix. Such systematic
66
approaches should be able to increase the viability of bio-chemical self-healing agents. Upon
successful completion of the methodological ideology for self-healing systems, bacterial
encapsulation means are to be eliminated and concrete’s mechanical performance should be
maintained. Due to the unforeseen events and the ongoing pandemic, access to laboratories
and university campus has been prohibited for safety measures, and thus it was not possible
to conduct the experimental work of this project in order to assess the proposed idea for the
self-healing systems. A brief guide and technical laboratory methodology is presented and
discussed briefly in the following section, which describes the procedures and measures that
should be taken if granted access again to campus facilities.

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 CHAPTER 4

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Embarking a journey to achieve stronger building materials, the nano concrete science started
to attract many eyes and quickly researches started conducting experiments on the so-called
nano concrete. In general, the term nano concrete may be identified for concrete mixtures
which have nano materials incorporated into its design mix with particle average sizes < 500
nm. Nanomaterials in concrete mixtures beneficially served the mortar design, enabling a
more dense and stronger material compared to the previous concrete [124]. Nanomaterials in
concrete have higher surface areas and can fill voids between molecules due to its very small
size. The highly reactive materials activate the pozzolanic reactions faster and promote
crystallization of molecules because of the improved aggregate contact zone structure.

Many studies have attempted the usage of microencapsulated healing agents and catalysts
into the concrete matrix. The theoretical ideologies rely on the release of the healing agents
into the micro cracks which react with other encapsulated components to repair the damaged
areas. These encapsulated materials are pre-embedded into the concrete mixture. The trigger
mechanism is stress generated from the formation of the cracks which leads to the rupturing
of the embedded capsules, in turn releasing the healing agents into the crack surface
area[125]. In a similar study conducted by Jonkers et.al.[126], microcapsules were developed
to ingress healing agents into the material. The healing agents need to be preserved and the
encapsulation method acts as a protective mechanism to protect the healing agents from
concrete’s harsh environment until needed to be ruptured to perform its objective of crack
healing. Encapsulation materials include gelatin, gum, expansive clay, and polyurethane. The
microcapsule system must be very well blended in the mix design and bind properly with the
paste.

68
It is desired to obtain a bacterium based self-healing mixture without the need of
encapsulation to entrap the bacteria. A comparative experiment is to be conducted to
compare and analyze the best optimum clay bacteria combination for the most efficient
healing performance. A physical experimental procedure was not able to be carried out as all
laboratory work and campus consultation were prohibited due to the latest on going COVID-
19 restrictions and Movement Control Orders. It is therefore that this paper remains a review
paper and a theoretical methodological approach is presented below for the experimental
procedures to be performed to obtain efficient results and data.

Intensive research was conducted from literature review to shape the direction of the
laboratory experimental program. The experimental procedure is planned to be conducted in
three phases which are each independently crucial for the success of the study. The first phase
known as phase I will consist of collecting materials, resources and data required for the
study and preparing the required quantities desired for the processing phase. Phase II will
consist of mixing the test samples, mechanical tests, artificial cracking, and the healing
process. Finally, phase III will conclude the study with appropriate measurement and
quantification techniques to assess the healing ability of the concrete as well as test its new
mechanical properties.

69
Figure 26: Laboratory Experimental Program (LEP)
4.1 Phase I

Different ingredients are required to complete this study. Concrete material (Ordinary
Portland Concrete), expansive clay halloysite material, water, and bio-chemical self-healing
bacteria (genus Bacillus). Materials collected must be stored efficiently and sealed properly.
Microscopic observation and analysis will be conducted using a Scanning Electron
Microscope to correctly analyze the samples at the molecular level and efficiently analyze
the experimental results findings. Similarly, compression and tensile tests as well as
permeability testing to analyze the bacterial behavior are required to evaluate all the
mechanical properties of the samples before and after their healing process.

Firstly, the required materials must be collected and prepared for the experimental
procedures. Positively charged inner lumen of halloysite nanotubes facilitate the loading of
negatively charged compounds into the HNTs using efficient impregnation techniques.
Proper protective equipment must be always worn while conducting the experimental work.
These include protective gloves, protective glasses, protective face masks, protective
clothing, and appropriate footwear. The materials required for this laboratory experimental
procedure includes Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC), halloysite clay aggregates, water, sand,
and light weight aggregates (LWA) as well as Bacillus bacterial spores for the material
preparation of the test specimens. Collected materials should be assorted and prepared for
the mixing procedures. Required quantities and weight measurements are conducted for an
efficient concrete concentration mixture. The bacterial spore materials must be washed by
repeated centrifugation techniques in sterile tap water. As proposed by Qian et al [127], the
modified nano clay should be dispersed in organic solvent and added with continuous stirring
in a water bath until solvent completely evaporates. Expanded clay particles should be oven-
dried at approximately 90oC, wetted and filtered overnight before being added and infused
in the concrete mixture till no further weight loss due to water evaporation is observed. The
impregnation of the HNT with bacterial organisms and nutrients was performed by vacuum
suctions where the mixture should be placed in a vacuum jar and executed with a vacuum
pump. Vacuum conditions are remained for an hour before slow release of atmospheric
pressure to draw the bacterial molecules into the nanotubes. The impregnated halloysite
nanotubes are then separated using suction filtration and dried in a convection oven.

70
 Figure 27: Halloysite clay material

Three different types of concrete are to be tested: normal concrete, direct injection bacteria
concrete and expansive clay mineral bacteria infused concrete. 10 test block samples of each
type will be produced for a total of 30 samples. Cementitious materials are mixed with water
and expansive clay minerals and bacteria infused expansive clay minerals are induced into
the mixture for an efficient and balanced composition. 40 x 40 x 60 mm specimens are
prepared for the specimen testing procedures. Control specimen (bacteria free concrete) will
be used as reference to be able to compare the healing results between the concrete control
specimens, direct bacterial inclusion specimens, and halloysite impregnated bacteria
organisms’ specimens. Once the efficient sampling and mixing of the test specimen products
is completed, the samples should be left to cure until complete solidification of materials
before being proceeded for relevant mechanical testing and artificial crack formation
procedures for the incubation and curing periods.
Table 9: Laboratory Experimental Program test samples
Sample Sample type Number of samples

A1 Control specimen – only 10

concrete

A2 Direct bacterial inclusion 10

A3 HNT impregnated 10
bacterial inclusion

71
4.2 Phase II

Once cured, the test samples are proceeded for mechanical testing in order to obtain a control
reference mechanical behavior information about the uncracked samples. Compressive tests,
tensile test and 3-point bending tests will be conducted to assess the mechanical behaviors of
the cured materials. The results are reported and relevant stress strain curves as well as the
valuable ultimate stress findings should be noted down for further evaluation and comparison
before further assessment of the healing process of concrete. Concrete slabs must then be
pre-cracked in an ordered manner to assess its crack healing ability. Crack formation in the
concrete specimens may be achieved by controlled application of tensile stress using the
compressive test machines. Induced cracks should cover different length and width cracks to
explore the healing capabilities of the bacteria infused concrete over a wide range of cracks.
The post-cracking steps will require direct immersion in plastic water reservoirs with oxygen
microsensors and water permeability equipment’s attached with the test samples in order to
monitor the bacteria activity over the healing periods. Each concrete sample is isolated on its
own and identified using efficient noting techniques. The test specimens should be left to
cure for a total period of 6 weeks with weekly analysis and checks on the performance of the
healing function.

Figure 28: Concrete artificial cracking

72
4.3 Phase III

The last experimental phase includes data collection and post healing measurements and
evaluation. By the end of the 6 weeks incubation period, all samples should be collected and
prepared for the post-incubation assessments and data collection. The test samples are
continuously observed on a weekly basis using ESEM techniques equipped with energy
dispersive spectroscopy to capture detailed atomic representations of the chemical structure
of the material. Similarly, relevant chemical minerology and x-ray diffraction
characterization means are to be conducted to obtain useful information about the material
structure. A numerical analysis approach may also be introduced to observe the self-sealing
ability of the concrete specimens and provide sufficient crack quantification results. As it
will not be efficient to record the average crack widths due to the inconsistency in widths all
along the crack lengths, crack widths measurements will be taken every 40 mm to incorporate
width variations along the crack for a better detailed comparative analysis. Crack closure
quantification results are used and compared to assess the healing ability and strength
recovery of the test samples and the control specimens. Artificial imaging analysis techniques
may likely be performed on the test samples to assess and analyze the cracked surfaces and
the repaired cracked areas. AI algorithms may be developed to automatically detect and
identify the cracks and compare them with the post repair results for efficient crack repair
percentage estimations. Successive dynamic thresholding techniques and edge detection
methods can be applied using advanced imaging software toolboxes like on MATLAB or
PYTHON into smart algorithms for successful comparison results. Finally, the test samples
are tested one more time for their mechanical properties to assess if the healing mechanism
on the concrete affected its mechanical performance and the durability data of the oxygen
consumption and water permeability are similarly collected and compared for repair
evaluation. The results obtained will be compared to the results obtain at the beginning of the
experiment, as in before the pre cracking step so we can evaluate how the performance of the
healing agent was when compared to the original cracks and materials.

73
4.4 Expected results

Upon completion of the experimental work, data evaluation and strength and repair results
are generated and compared for each test sample. Based on the literature review conducted,
it can be said that it is expected to achieve crack width repairs between the range of 0.2 – 0.4
mm sealed cracks using bacterial techniques. The control specimen is expected to perform
the least in terms of crack repair and mechanical strength recovery due to the limited
hydration in intrinsic healing of concrete. The control specimen should experience limited
crack repair and will only serve as a comparison reference for the test results. While the main
focus of the experiment is to assess the HNT capsulation technique of the bacterial spores, it
is helpful to also assess the performance of the direct bacteria addition into the concrete
samples. Limited oxygen consumption should be witnessed in the control specimen case. As
for the bacteria addition samples, it is expected to obtain an inverse parabolic trend where
the oxygen consumption should increase till a stagnation point and then start decreasing with
the reducing number of active bacteria due to the chemical reactions taking place during the
crack repair procedures. Similarly, water permeability results should decrease with
incubation periods with the most reduction expected in the expanded clay bacteria
capsulation technique due to the longer shelf life and healing potential of the cracks. In terms
of mechanical strength recovery, test samples mechanical test results should be able to
recover some of the original mechanical strength if not all of it. The control specimens are
not expected to recover much of the strength again due to the limited hydration availability
of concrete while bacteria infused concrete samples especially the encapsulated clay
specimens are expected to perform the best in terms of mechanical strength repair. Upon
completion of the experiment and successful data collection, the experimental results will be
compared to the theoretical expected results and subsequent conclusion could be made. The
bacteria infused clay materials is believed that it can be successfully applied to enhance the
self-healing capacity of concrete. With this being said, it can be concluded that the bacterial
encapsulation technique in clay materials is expected to be beneficial for the concrete self-
healing domain and experimental work is awaiting to prove whether the above-mentioned
theory is correct or incorrect.

74
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS

The present research study was established to evaluate and investigate the different self-
healing mechanisms for concrete structures. The idea lies behind the ability of concrete to be
able to self-detect the microcracks at its early age and successfully heal the cracked edges
before further propagation of the cracks. The presence of microcracks in the concrete
structure poses the material at risk of corrosion and deterioration due to ingression of
aggressive chemicals into the structure. This paper further focuses on the self-healing
techniques and comparative results of the past findings was obtained and discussed. A
theoretical approach was proposed in attempt to further enhance the extrinsic bacterial self-
healing ability of concrete in order to improve the crack seal potential while maximizing
mechanical strength recovery. In the case of campus return, immediate lab work is to act.
The specimens tested will vary in concentrations and compare its self-healing capacities at
the different concentrations as well as assess their mechanical behavior under compressive
and tensile stresses. It is desired to obtain the best halloysite combination and cement ratio
to ensure best healing qualities involved by the bacteria and its nutrients. It is believed that
the tubular structure of the halloysite nano-clay structure will be able to encapsulate the
bacteria and the nutrients in a cement and halloysite resin mix.

Concrete specimens will be prepared with a mix of Ordinary Portland Cement, pit sand,
halloysite encapsulations of nutrients, self-healing bacteria and finally halloysite nano-clay
to complete the mixture and water. The cement and sand will be mixed manually and
combined thoroughly. The bacteria are added with the halloysite material and mixed in the
same manner. Weekly results will be recorded of the test specimens to assess their healing
properties over weekly periods up to four-week cycles. This paper suggests a new theoretical
approach to the enhancement of self-healing concrete using bacteria-based organisms
immobilized in expansive nano clay minerals. A sophisticated review is presented on the

75
self-healing fundamentals in concrete and results have proved a satisfactory finding. In
conclusion, an intensified research has been conducted in the self-healing agenda of concrete
and different self-healing techniques have been studied, analyzed, and compared. With two
types of concrete self-healing, autonomic healing outperforms the autogenic self-healing of
the delayed secondary hydration processes in the concrete embedded system. The results
from the past studies suggest efficient increase in strength performance when nano clays are
added to the system as well as an enhanced healing ability with bacteria infused concrete.
Following the mentioned findings, a better self-healing material and even stronger one is
highly sought for. The experimental findings found from the literature review has helped
develop a theoretical approach that if conducted as planned, should eliminate the need of
extra encapsulation methods for the healing agents while enhancing the mechanical strength
of the concrete. Upon completion of this planned laboratory experiment, comparison and data
evaluation will conclude whether the theoretical approach has been successful or not.

While concrete materials naturally exhibit an inherent self-healing property, intrinsic healing
processes are only efficient for small, limited crack sizes. Most findings concluded crack
width ranges between 10-200 µm for the successful sealing using intrinsic means in presence
of water due to the continuous hydration process of concrete structures. Nevertheless,
intrinsic healing can be difficult to predict and can be hardly relied on. Therefore, engineered
intrinsic concrete materials have been introduced for autogenous healing enhancement.

Engineered intrinsic healing is limited to the availability of reagents in the cementitious

mixtures. Fiber reinforced concrete was a successful attempt to control crack widths and
manipulate the rate of crack formation to obtain better self-healing result using intrinsic
techniques. Likewise, addition of mineral admixtures and crystalline admixtures in the
concrete mix could possibly enhance the self-healing efficiency of the system depending on
the concentration and availability of the healing agents. Super Absorbent Polymers (SAPs)
attracted engineers due to its three-level healing approach which incorporates crack
mitigation due to internal curing in concrete, instantaneous crack sealing upon water
ingression in the hardened concrete, and a subsequent promotion of self-healing concrete.
Further research is still needed to identify the best SAP combination to achieve healing
characteristics at acceptable cost ranges.

76
With the goal to further enhance self-healing performance of concrete, and increase the
healable crack widths, autonomous self-healing systems have been researched, designed, and
implemented for efficient healing enhancement. These include micro based encapsulations
of polymers, minerals or healing agents and bacteria-based systems. Many materials can be
considered and tailored in order to be used efficiently inside cementitious matrices. Since the
encapsulation techniques usually incorporated a negative drawback in terms of concrete’s
mechanical ability, optimum dosages and material ratios have been deduced in order to
balance the healing effect properties and the mechanical strength regain ability of the self-
healing concrete. With most extrinsic techniques covering up to 300 µm, some studies
managed to showcase that crack larger than 1 mm were able to be sealed efficiently using
specific self-healing techniques.

The long-term stability of encapsulations of healing agents has been a rising concern for
scientists and material engineers due to the limited shelf life and mechanical strength
recovery reduction. Therefore, the focus has been shifted to bacterial spores and mineral
encapsulations. The long-term stability and repeatability of the healing ability has not yet
been properly addressed and should be a focus of future work. This long-term stability may
be less an issue for the vascular systems, where the healing agent is only injected in the
system at the moment of crack induction. However, there remains the challenge to develop
vascular networks for large concrete structures and to remotely activate them. In the latest
attempts to enhance self-healing of concrete while maintaining the mechanical strength of
the material, clay-based encapsulations of bacterial spores and minerals is believed to be a
potential solution that will eventually heal the cracks and increase the mechanical strength
recovery of the concrete specimens.

The bacteria mediated mechanisms for self-healing of cracked and porous concrete surely
have their limitations as well. From a performance point of view, aerobic oxidation and
denitrification have a disadvantage in terms of CaCO3 precipitation yields when compared
to the ureolytic pathway. However, from an environmental point of view, urea hydrolysis has
the disadvantage of producing ammonia as a byproduct. Denitrification can be advantageous
when the necessary nutrients are considered. Yeast extract, urea, calcium lactate, and calcium
glutamate used for urea hydrolysis or aerobic respiration are organic compounds which may
77
negatively affect concrete properties. In the case of denitrification, commercial concrete
admixtures such as calcium formate and calcium nitrate can serve as nutrient source for
NO3− reducing bacteria without negative effect. Self-healing strategies using aerobic
oxidation or ureolytic bacteria lack the preventive action to avoid exposure of the steel
surface to corrosive substances during the healing period, which usually takes several weeks.
However, recent proof-of-concept studies show that it is possible to achieve nitrite production
and hence corrosion inhibition simultaneous with crack healing by using NO3− reducing
bacteria. On the other hand, the absence of oxygen will reduce the rate and risk of corrosion
of the steel reinforcing bars and the presence of active oxygen respiring microorganisms will
therefore also potentially prolong the service life of steel-reinforced concrete constructions.

For (stimulated) autogenous and bacterial self-healing systems, the calcium carbonate
(limestone) formed within the cracks mainly seals cracks but hardly regains lost strength.
Moreover, limestone is rather soluble under acidic conditions and will therefore not result in
durable sealing of cracks when in contact with low pH conditions. Another drawback of
limestone is that it shows rather brittle behavior, and the mechanism of microbial limestone
formation is therefore less suitable for durable sealing of cracks in concrete subjected to
dynamic loading conditions as this will result in repetitive opening of cracks. To overcome
these drawbacks, a more acid resistant, stronger, and/or more elastic (low E-modulus)
material would be required. Optional materials would be minerals like hydroxyapatite
(calcium phosphates) as these are stronger and more acid resistant, or bio-organic–mineral
composites like nacre which are not only stronger but also more elastic in comparison to
calcium carbonate–based minerals. Further research should also focus on low-cost
fermentation and drying processes to obtain bacteria from industrial byproducts, together
with low-cost production strategies and protection mechanisms. Although presently more
than 200 studies reported on improved durability aspects of concrete due to bacteria-mediated
limestone formation, virtually all are based on laboratory studies what calls for outdoor
applications to show that bacteria-mediated limestone formation is a relevant mechanism that
could increase concrete structure durability. Actually, all self-healing systems should
improve durability-related properties, and further research should be focused on long-term
durability of the healed structures, e.g., resistance to corrosion, freeze/thaw, and salt

78
crystallization. In-depth life cycle assessment (LCA) studies are required to show that self-
healing concrete is more sustainable and is over the service life of the structure more
economical than a traditional concrete which needs more inspection and repair.

This paper provides an intensive review on the self-healing concrete behavior of concrete
using various techniques and could serve as a basis of future work in the same context. Up
until today, large-scale industrial applications of self-healing concrete still needs to be
researched and further evaluated for its performance on large scale structures to ensure the
construction and buildings will meet all safety standards. So far, there has been limited real
life case scenarios of applications of the bio-concrete self-healing material. The first building
put in place incorporating the self-healing materials could be found in Netherlands Figure 29
and has been functionally working and healing efficiently since its construction in natural
environment conditions. The so-called fresh bio cement structure has been showcasing
promising results for the application of self-healing concrete on large scale building and
constructions.

Figure 29: Fresh bio-cement building in Netherlands

79
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 APPENDICES

Appendix 1 : Reflections on Program Outcomes (PO) Achievement

Program Outcomes Reflections

PO1 Mechanical Engineering Basic knowledge on clay materials
Knowledge: Apply knowledge of and self-healing concrete systems
was required for this project
mathematics, natural science,
engineering fundamentals and
specialisation
in Mechanical engineering to the
solution of complex engineering
problems

PO2 Problem Analysis: Identify, Literature reviews were carried out to

formulate, survey research literature obtain the latest development on the topic
and analyse of the project. The objective was
complex Mechanical engineering formulated to close the gap between what
problems reaching substantiated is currently available and what is ought to
conclusions using first principles of be known to further develop the topic of
mathematics, natural sciences and the project.
engineering sciences
PO3 Design/Development of N/A
Solutions:Design solutions for
complex Mechanical engineering
problems and design systems,
components or processes that meet
specified needs.
PO4 Research-based Intensified research procedure was
Investigation: Conduct investigations conducted to explore the self-healing
of complex Mechanical engineering systems of concrete and efficient
problems using research-based evaluation and analysis is conducted
knowledge and research methods
including design of experiments,
(analysis and interpretation of data,
and synthesis of information to provide
valid conclusions.
PO5 Modern Tool Usage: Create, N/A
select and apply appropriate
techniques, resources, and modern

94
engineering and IT tools, including
prediction and modelling, to
complex Mechanical engineering
problems, with an understanding of
the limitations

PO6 Engineer and Society: Apply Application of self-healing concrete on

reasoning informed by contextual society is evaluated and discussed
knowledge to assess societal, health,
safety, legal and cultural issues and
the consequent responsibilities
relevant to professional engineering
practice and solutions to
complex Mechanical engineering
problems

PO7 Environment and Application of self-healing concrete on

Sustainability: Understand and environment is evaluated
evaluate the sustainability and impact
of professional engineering work in the
solution of complex Mechanical
engineering problems in
environmental contexts.

PO8 Ethics: Apply ethical principles N/A

and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of
engineering practice.

PO9 Communication: Communicate Throughout the project, the writing of

effectively on complex Mechanical
engineering activities with the
engineering community and with
society at large, such as being able to
comprehend and write effective
reports and design documentation,
make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions
progress report, research paper, and
thesis helped to develop a better ability in
delivering the idea and finding obtained in
the project. Oral presentation also served
as a great opportunity to enhance the
presentation skill. A better understanding
of the difference between communication
via writing and speaking were realized.

PO10 Individual and Team Individual project

work: Function effectively as an

95
individual, and as a member or leader
in diverse teams and in multi-
disciplinary settings
PO11 Lifelong Learning: Recognize N/A
the need for, and have the preparation
and ability to engage in independent
and life-long learning in the broadest
context of technological change
PO12 Project Management and N/A
Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and
understanding of engineering
management principles and economic
decision-making and apply these to
manage projects

96