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LOW-INCOME HOUSING: ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND PROJECT CONTROL by JAVED SJLTAN
LOW-INCOME HOUSING: ALTERNATIVE STRATEGIES FOR BUILDING CONSTRUCTION AND PROJECT CONTROL by JAVED SJLTAN
by
JAVED SJLTAN
B. Arch., Middle East Techni-cal University, Ankara
(1973)
and
The author hereby grants to M.I.T. permission to reproduce and to distribute copies of this thesis
document in whole or in part.
Signature of Author
Certified by
Waclaw Zalewski, Professor of Structures
Thesis Supervisor, Architecture
and
V( - bert D. Logcher, Professor of Civil Engineering
Thesis Supervisor
Accepted by
N. John Habraken
Chairman, Departmental Committee on Graduate Students of the Department of Architecture
and
Francois M.M. Morel
Department of Civil Engineering
. bairman, Departmental Committee on Graduate Students of
A7ChvIIs the Department of Civil Engineering
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by
JAVED SULTAN
partial
Submitted to the Departments of Architecture and Civil Engineering on May 7, 1982 in
fulfillment of the requirements for the degrees of Master of Science in Architecture Studies and
Master of Science in Civil Engineering
ABSTRACT
Housing low-income groups, who cannot afford even the most minimal shelter, remains a dominant
issue in most developing countries. However, all the solutions advanced so far depend on large in-
vestments, either by the Government or by the individuals concerned, which neither of them can afford.
This thesis examines squatter settlements in Aurangi, Karachi (Pakistan) and identifies issues
related to housing and the policies currently being implemented. The results of that investigation
indicate that housing the low-income, given the economy and housing policies in most developing countries,
can most effectively be realised by encouraging self-help methods,. However before self-help methods.
can be realised construction techniques. have to be simplified. This thesis proposes an alternate
construction method which promises to simplify some of the building tasks in constructi-on of loxW-rise
dwellings, and hopes to reduce the overall material costs in construction. This method relies on
using fabrics as formwork in construction. This fromwork is used in making walls, beams, and domes.
A cost comparison is made with the current egnstruction techuiques in the country and the proposed
building strategy is found to be highly competetive.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
To my advisors, Waclaw Zalewski and Robert D. Logcher, in appreciation for their encouragement and
guidance; to Raci Bademli, for sharing my concerns; and to the squatters all over the world for the in-
spiration.
Special thanks to Louise tiara and Diana Daymond who assisted me with the experiments on "Borion
16 you give a man a 64sh, you 6eed him Lo6 one day.
16 you teach him to jish, you 6eed him JoA many dayz.
Glossary of Terms Sarkanda; Reeds V
Baldia: Municipality
leaves
meter)
Pucca: Permament
Table of Contents
Abstract ii
Acknowledgement iii
Quote iv
Glossary of Terms v
Tables
Figures
Contents
Chapter 1. Introduction
1.1 Background 1
1.5 Conclusion 8
1.6 Methodology 8
Footnotes 10
2.1.1. Geography 13
vii
2.1.2. Historical Background 14
2.1.3. Administration 14
2.1.4. Economy 15
2.1.5. Demography 15
2.1.8. Literacy 17
2.1.10. Urbanization 18
2.2.1. Conclusion 19
2.3.1. Introduction 22
2.3.5. Administration 25
viii
2.3.6. Socio-economic Affects 25
2.3.7. Housing 26
Footnotes 34
3.2.1. Background 46
3.2.8. Conclusion 52
ix
Tables Page
List of Figures
1. Map of Pakistan 12
2. Population Growth( Pakistan Urban) 1911-2000 13
3. Urban Area Comparison 22
4. Percentage of Household by Income 23
5. Plan of Karachi 33
6. Major Squatter Areas of Karachi 58
CHAPTER 1 the few fortunate enough to afford them. The
1.1. Background met, land and construction costs being higher than
One of the more immediate concerns of that assumed, and most dwellings units designed
most developing countries is to provide shel- for the lower income groups going to those with
ter and other support institutions for the much higher incomes. Continuing inflation of
massive -influx of migrants to urban cen- land values and speculation in the housing mar-
ters. The situation has not only strained ket make the situation worse. Most of the mi-
the limited resources of most of these coun- grant population, a major portion of the growing
tries but so far escaped a convincing resolu- urban population, resort to impromptu improvisa-
tion. The problem looms large and threatens tion of shelters and squatting on any available
to remain one of the dominant impediments to land. Lack of tenure negates any sense of se-
the socio-economic development of most of curity of shelter and often results in alienat-
these developing countries for the rest of ing the individual socially and economically
The problems and issues that have been rule, the conditions in the squatters need en-
standard housing units and those that are be- 1.12 The Global Situation.
ing produced, through public or private inter- The population of squatters compared to city pop-
vention, serve only a limited number and only ulation varies from 15% to as high as 80%, in case
TABLE 1 2
chi, Pakistan. Different criteria used for de- population lives in "slums" and shanties.
studies indicate that low-income housing prob- The existence of large numbers of squatters
lems have been aggravating at a faster rate is a manifestation of inadequate housing, and
than the rates of growth of cities.5 In Kara- inappropriate policies at the metropolitan and
chi a population of 1.6 million out of 6 mil- regional level. The problem is complex and most
lion live in "Katchi Abadis."6 About 80% of governments are incapable of initiating any
An estimated 70% of Jakarta's new growth limitations make such attempts prohibitive. How-
continues to be absorbed by unplanned ever public policies toward squatter has shown
Kampungs on the periphery of the city. In a gradual transition. In the past, demolition
the case of Phillipines out of Manila's popu- and clearance of squatter settlements by
lation of 4.9 million almost 2 million or 40% owners, whether public or private, was
are estimated to be either squatters or liv- the norm. Clearance often met voluntary or
ing in sub-standard housing. Over 30% of greater forced relocation to less obvious outskirts.
Bombay's population is estimated to be liv- While the Government saw these settlements
ing in squatter settlements and almost 80% as eyesores and inconveniences, to the slum dwel-
city's housing stock consists of huts and ler it represented shelter, close
4
to job opportunities in the city. Appropriate housing stock, causing over-crowding in existing
policy approaches became exigent only after housing and proliferation of less developed, most-
enormous increases in both the scale and ly inner city, housing stock.
cities of the developing world, evic- In most cities of the world the current poli-
tion had been practiced at one time or another. cies are more positive in outlook, generally de-
Often in these cities policy changes were made, molition of housing is avoided, and policies of
but eviction was still practiced under one pre- forceful prevention of growth or relocation has
text or another and continues even today. The been replaced by policies stressing the need for
justifications for such actions have been for- environmental improvement by dwellers involving
warded as a desire to remove the ugly blotches from socio-economic upgrading. However, specific
the city's social fabric; to either arguments that tactics to achieve these goals, given the lack of
the land under occupation is needed for more resources, have not materialized in most cases.
desirable, albeit, profitable uses; to argu- Some projects like the Kampung Improvement Pro-
ments that these settlements are marginal gramme in Jakarta," and programs of National
to the formal economy.9 On a regional level Housing Authority of Bangkok and Manila, testify
constraints to inter-city migration has been prac- to the change in policy. Many of the cities have
These policies, as a whole, have contributed to and services while dwelling improvement is left
isting housing stock rather than its deple- There are a number of specific approaches
tion; low per capita costs to the Government but they can be basically clustered under
compared with building standard houses; negli- two categories: the traditional and the environ-
bor and resource utilization in these areas; Traditionalists see the problem as quanti-
the political advantages of social stability tative, i.e., the number of sub-standard
derived from spreading the benefits of scarce housing. The environmentalists have a
resource among a larger section of the popu- broader perception of the problem. They see hous-
lation; and generation of communal inter- ing as a symbiotic process closely appendaged to
action through reinforcement of collective the socio-cultural and economic aspiration of the
However enlightening such policies are basis of (i) access to areas where family activi-
they have only achieved limited objectives ties occur daily (ii) its adequacy in dealing
with the hostile environment (iii) degree to which
harnessing of the skilled and unskilled man-
12
security of tenure is assured.
power resources has not been fully investi-
Until now, much to the chagrin of the squat-
gated. Much work, generating spe-
ters, government planning policy was
cific programs which would combine public
6
dominated by the traditionalist approach. Its are available now instead of waiting for new
validity has been questioned on the following technical solutions, and thus waiting for new
grounds.13 Deficits are calculated arbi- resources to materialize in order to meet some
trarily without taking into consideration fancy standard. These solutions rely heavily
values or preferences of the people to be on talents of the dwellers themselves and at-
housed. Secondly, some calculations of hous- tempt to maximize their enterprise, initiative
ing deficits show traditional solutions to be and resourcefulness. These resources can be uti-
well beyond the current capital investment lized more effectively if there is a better re-
rates of most developing countries. 1 This source inventory and management through neighbor-
results in the housing sector competing with hood community organizations. The failure of
housing gets a lower priority in developing lack of interest by professional bodies, i.e.,
"because its desirability is minor in economic for low-cost housing. This neglect is partially
terms compared with productive activity invest- due to all education being oriented along the
ment."15 Thus, housing shortages in develop- lines of western countries, with very little
The environmentalists on the other hand maintain building codes - standards imposed
are more concerned with the improvement of what by the colonalists who were more concerned with
exists,16 with the help of whatever solutions controlling rather than generating growth.
7
The reaction of the people is only natural, The first question is who sets the standards.
they disregard codes which are beyond their Very often these standards are a legacy of the
ability to afford and implement. The crux colonial past and arbitrary in nature. Secondly
of the environmentalist argument is a greater lowering the standards will absorb more of the
degree of self-help; use of local materials and housing stock, considered presently sub-standard
indigenous manpower; and emphasis on lowering of and hence ready for demolition. This will permit
minimum standards for housing and a demand for the squatter to use his ingenuity and skill and
more communal facilities and services. apply it to housing production rather than invest
vironmentalists are suspect. Traditionalists Thirdly, the argument that lowering standards
counter that to lower the housing standards is will increase social tensions is untenable and
to turn the clock back on progress and lose unsound as all the squatters want is a secure
standards achievable through mass industrial- Lowering of the standards will generate self-
These arguments are parochial and perni- which will figure out ways to mobilize local
cious and are not circumspect of conditions in capital and manpower resources. This will
viding grass root participation from dwel- vironmental development will have very
lers. If the Government wants to help sub- strong positive impact on self-employment
sequently it has to merely consider ways of and communal self-reliance and capital cre-
that are generated from these locales. 1.6 Methodology: Thesis Proposal
We can summarize our discussions as gate the urban squatter condition in the context
1. The current attitude of Government in mobilize their resources, in the context of overall
terms of squatter housing treats hous- squatter upgrading process - with particular em-
ing merely as a means of shelter and phasis on delivery of the housing unit. The other
does not view it as serving other socio- objective is to identify the socio economic is-
economic needs of the dweller. sues that must be considered while designing
grading existing stock and providing The solutions however are not unique to Ka-
services to the squatter areas. rachi and can be applied to most developing
1. Sarin, Madhu. "Policies Toward Urban Studies and Planning, M.I.T., Cambridge,
Slums: Slums and Squatter Settle- MA 02139). These informal settlements
ments in the Escap Region," United are treated differently by different
Nations, 1980, p. 7. groups. One school of Morris Juppenlatz
writes (1920), "As the political control
2. Breese, Gerald. Urbanization in Newly of cities with an urban squatter problem
Developing Countries. Prentice Hall, passes from the presently established ur-
Inc., New Jersey, 1966, p. 5. ban society, who have little or no heri-
tage of city dwelling, and who at present
3. Sarin, op. cit., p. 9. have no training or administrative know-
ledge of city maintenance, it can be ex-
4. Directorate of Katchi Abadis, Karachi pected that essential services will dimin-
Metropolitan Corporation, "A Place ish until they finally break down and col-
to Live: Katchi Abadi Improvement lapse." (p. 171) He views them as an in-
in Karachi, Pakistan (Karachi, Jan- vading group who threaten to pollute the
uary 1979), p. 3. city. However another perspective, Margin
sees them as "a process of social recon-
5. Sarin, op. cit., p. 9. struction through popular initiative."
le does not see them as pathological but
6. Directorate of Katachi Abadis, op. cit., as creative, city builders, and creaters
p. 3. of new institutions. (Mangin, 1967 b)
7. Sarin, op. cit., p. 67. "The new 10. Sarin, op. cit., p. 9.
Kampungs on the periphery have de-
veloped after 1950 and are the main 11. Harst, D.J. van der. "Low Income Housing."
response to the housing needs of JRP Project IV, Institute of Business
the city's rapidly growing popula- Adminsitration, University of Karachi,
tion. Growing at 15 percent they 1774.
housed 32% (1.6 million) of Jakar-
ta's population in 1973. 12. UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs.
"Improvement of Slums and Uncontrolled
8. Ibid., p. 9. Settlements," (Repast of the Inter-region
Seminar on Improvements of Slums and Un-
9. Peattie, Lisa and Haas, A.A., Jose, controlled Settlements, New York, 1971),
"Marginal Settlements in developing p. 17.
countries. (Department of Urban
11
CHINA
2.1. PAKISTAN: Primary InformationI
Capital: Islamabad
Urba n 28%
POPULATION GROWTH * 1911-2000 great Himalayan ranges to its north. Its major
PAKISTAN TOTAL, PAKISTAN URBAN,
AND KARACHI REGION URBAN rivers are the Indus and its four tributaries, the
gions: the northern mountains, the sub-montane Pakistan gained independence in 1947 when the
plateau, the Indus Plain, the Baluchistan pla- former British India was partitioned into India
teau, the western bordering mountains, and the and Pakistan. From 1947 to 1971, Pakistan consis-
desert areas. The characteristics of different ted of two regions: West Pakistan in the Indus
areas are determined by variations in rainfall River basin and East Pakistan, located more than
and irrigation, rather than by temperature. Al- 1,000 miles away in the Ganges Delta. However, in
though the country is dominated by monsoon 1971 due to grave internal problems, East Pakistan
winds, it is extremely arid with an average pre- became the independent autonomous state of Bangla-
and the sub-montane tract which receive an aver- The political system of Pakistan has under-
age rainfall of 30 to 35 inches. gone several changes since 1947. The first Con-
There are essentially three seasons: sum- stitution was enacted in 1956 and brought a presi-
mer, winter, and the monsoons. The hot, dry dential form of government. However, the basic
summer lasts from March to July. The monsoons administrative structure has remained virtually
begin in July and last until late September. unchanged since colonial times. Provinces are
The moderate winter runs from November through subdivided into divisions, districts, and
administrators.
15
2.1.5. Economy Sind, which contain about 75% of the rural popula-
The economy relies heavily on the agricul- tion and produce 75% of the country's wheat, more
tural sector. The major crop is cotton. Pakis- than 95% of its rice, and 100% of its cotton.
tan's economic performance compares favorably Most of the industrial development has occurred in
with most developing countries. By 1980 the these two provinces. The remaining two provinces,
country was self-sufficient in staple food crops. Baluchistan and the Northwest Frontier, are poorer
manufacturing sector. Agriculture accounts for Throughout the country there is a concentra-
45% of the gross domestic product (GDP) and pro- tion of land-ownership, although successive gov-
vides employment to about 50% to 60% of the work ernments have pledged land reforms. Until recent-
force. Industry accounts for about 20% to 25% ly, most of the country's industries were owned by
of GDP and employs about 15% of the work force.3 a few individuals, but this has changed with the
Some 20 different types of minerals have nationalization of major industries in the 1970's.
of natural gas, as well as limestone to serve a Over recent decades, Pakistan has experienced
growing cement industry. There are several hy- dramatic population increases due to internal mi-
droelectric projects which have started fueling gration and to a high rate of population growth.
its expanding industries. Between 1901 and 1961, the population increase was
Until late, economic development has been 158%. From 1951 to 1961 population increased by
concentrated in the provinces of Punjab and 27 %, and from 1961 to 1972 by 51%. In 1980,
16
Pakistan had a population of 77.3 million. health care is also inadequate, and generally falls
Regional distribution of population varies into two categories: one along Western lines and
with the highest density in Lahore district, the other a homeopathic approach which is indigen-
1,698 people/square mile, while in Quetta divi- ous, therefore, more popular and widespread.
Although the standard of living has im- northwest, and by internal migrations across the
segment of the population is able to purchase The population can be grouped regionally into
only the basic necessities of life. Per capita the following four categories:5
income is around US $ 250. In recent years Pak- The Mediterranean type, found in Punjab.
istan has acquired self-sufficiency in food pro- The Oriental/Mediterranean type, found in both
There is an acute shortage of housing, to- The Pashtuns of the Northwest Frontier prov-
the urban areas and three million in the rural The Baluchis, who originate from Iran.
areas. Basic services such as water supply, The country is linguistically heterogeneous.
sewage disposal, and electricity are generally The distribution of languages as reported in the
inadequate in both urban and rural areas. 1961 census was as follows: Punjabi 66%, Sindhi
17
13%, Pashtu 8%, Urdu 8%, Baluchi 2%, and Brahui 2.1.10. Settlement Patterns
1%. Because of a lack of common language under- The vast majority of the rural population
stood by all, English is used in addition to lives in nucleated villages or hamlets. Dispersed
Urdu for official purposes, except in local ad- habitation patterns in the form of isolated single
ministration, where local dialects dominate. homesteads are rare, occurring only in a few moun-
About 97% of the population is Moslem. tainous areas. Patterns of habitation in villages
There are both Sunnis and Shiites, including Is- are varied and complex. Clusters have a dozen or
mailis, Bohras, and Ahmadis. In addition, the so buildings, and there are usually a few hundred
Christians constitute 1.4% of the population and dwellings in each village with populations rarely
The literacy rate is about 16%. About 10% Most of the older villages have a spider web form,
of the literate population has had no formal ed- having at least one focal point such as the village
ucation. Urdu is the medium of instruction at mosque, some shops, or a well, from which the lanes
the elementary and secondary levels, and English radiate outward. In the canal colonies, villages
is the medium of instruction at the university are of a regular rectangular pattern, with a well,
level. There are five multi-faculty universities a mosque, and a school or other communal facilities.
as well as several engineering and medical The houses are generally arranged in a series of
erally have a courtyard where animals are teth- without any legal tenure.
ered, and the open space is used for sleeping at The development of most cities has been un-
night in summer. There is another type of layout planned and basic services and facilities are lag-
which is found only in certain areas of the fron- ging behind the needs of the urban population. The
tier provinces and tribal areas. It consists of urban growth rate is estimated at 6%, about twice
isolated housing, each having a roofed structure the national population growth rate. Conservative
and a walled enclosure so that each unit is like estimates place growth of urban centers in Pakistan
The country experienced rapid urbanization living in urban areas. The population growth is
after independence. Initially this was a spon- irrespective of any population control program.
taneous process triggered by migration of millions This will put an added strain on the country's re-
from the Indian side of the sub-continent. Most sources to provide adequate jobs, housing and oth-
The shortage in urban housing has been 7. lack of proper institutional arrangement to
linked to increased demand for housing by mi- deal with the housing problems;
by industrial and commercial activities in to plans and programs which resulted in poor
cities. Government documents provide inadpnniate recovery of loans and mortgages.
land ownership out of the reach of the low- 10. lack of any process of evaluation and feed-
3. the lag between housing construction 11. low priority accorded to housing at the time
development and housing programmes; In most Asian countries the uncontrolled mi-
5. low income of people - inability to pay gration can be attributed to "push" due to desperate
rent for even cheapest form of housing; necessity to move from conditions in rural areas.9
6. lack of financial institutions for pro- In case of Karachi a large portion of the migrants
viding adequate credit for housing at rea- have come from India and Bangledesh due to political
20
factors. The skilled among these migrants have invest in major urban areas where he has greater
managed to obtain some form of regular subsis- access to market, infrastructure, and credit fa-
tence but the majority live in hovels of pover- cilities and will not be attracted to all kinds
ty. The entire urban structure and the infra- of subsidies that might be provided by the Govern-
structure was not designed to take in such a ment for developing in less populated areas.13
massive influx of population. The result is Hence congested cities continue to grow with in-
that they have been pushed to peripheral areas creasing levels of congestion.
of the city and were initially treated as mar- 2.2.2. Options for Solving Housing Crisis:
ginal population.10 Government policies in re- Given the situation as discussed above, the
cent years11have started to develop industries Government should seriously persue policies of
in these urban areas but they are more or less mixed development. This will spread the
contained to cities which have ease of access resources more equitably over the entire country.
or provide convenient distribution of manufac- The Government is aware of this and has been mak-
12
tured goods. These poles are Karachi, Lahore, ing attempts in this direction. The Government
Lyallpur, Hyderabad, Gujranwale, Multan, Raw- has come up with a proposal of agrovilles which
alpindi, and Peshawar. More than 50% of the are a policy of implementing concentrated decen-
total labor is located in these cities. No tralized form of development. The agroville pro-
serious effort has been undertaken by the gram, and several other programs, are part of a
Government to dispense industries to other comprehensive long range planning policy. However
poles. Hence, an industrialist prefers to these long range measures should be supplemented
21
with short range curative measures, which ad- is a viable investment. In Colombia estimates
dress the more immediate priorities. Hence suggest that income multiplier for housing con-
16
long range measures can be implemented through struction is about 2, and that seven additional
central government in Islamabad or could be jobs are created for every U.S. $10,000 spent on
policies of the provinces while short range construction of dwelling units.7 Similar results
policies would be in the domain of the city have been found for Pakistan, India and Mexico. 8
and towns. The Pakistan Planning Commission This does mean that self-housing should not be
does acknowledge that there have been no com- considered the only panacea to national housing
prehensive schemes which have looked at long shortage but should be one additional strategy
term and short term goals as distint develop- for increasing the housing stock.
mental programs.15
5,800,000.19
Lyari.
10 -
Karachi was a small fishing village in the
RUPEES PER MONH*** It bacame the headquarters for the army and saw
try's economy.
to immigration from India. In the period The city is administered by five institutions.
1951-1961 immigration was still significant The most important of these is the Karachi Muni-
as it was between 1961-1971, the difference cipal Corporation, which performs many civic func-
was that in this period it was from all over tions affecting more than three-quarters of the
the country. There was significant migration population of greater Karachi. Other authorities
after 1971 from Bangladesh of so called leih- address the needs of special residential quarters
aris who mostly settled in Aurangi, and in in the suburbs, the cantonment, and the port.
The forecast for employment in the coun- The average population density is 300 persons to
try indicates that the major services, manu- an acre, although some parts of the city reach
facturing, and construction will absorb the from 500 to 700 persons per acre.2 The city had
increasing labor force, while agricultural a population of 1.9 million in 1961, which by 1972
employment is expected to decrease by 33% by had reached 3.4 million. The population is cur-
1990. This assumes a considerable in- rently estimated at over 4.5 million.
migration from rural to urban areas. In this Karachi is the largest city in Pakistan.
connection, Karachi may expect to absorb a Textiles and footwear are its primary manufactures.
cals, medicine, furniture, machinery, paper and (an average of 16,800 per year), while the total
printing material. It is also an important cen- population increased by 1.2 million. This meant
ter for handicraft and cottage industries. an average of one new dwelling unit for 7.1 per-
of Pakistan, as well as of landlocked Afghanis- Over this period there was no change in the
tan. It is the country's banking center, and character of the housing stock: 45.7% was perma-
has a major stock exchange and other financial nent; 36.8%, semi-permanent; and 17.5% temporary
perity are manufacturing and trade. Together The city proper contains many old and decayed
they employ more than 44% of the total labor buildings occupied mostly by the middle and lower
force. Services and professions employ 42%; income groups. Further from the city core are
transport, 9%; and agriculture, 1%.23 new residential blocks and satellite towns for
2.3.7. Housing middle and lower income groups. The city is in-
In 1969 when the population was estimated terspersed with squatter settlements
at 3.2 million, it was found that the city had which are being cleared by the municipal authori-
510,000 households in 490,000 dwelling units, ties; and the inhabitants are being relocated to
The number of persons per household was 5.75. About 50% of the population own their houses;
Over the decade between 1960 and 1970, the remainder live in rented property.
27
Presently there are about 688,000 dewlling units Korangi. To understand the current housing
in Karachi, of which 45% are permanent, 20% are policies in the city, one must go back to the
semi-permanent, and 35% are temporary. A large first satellite town, Korangi, planned in 1958
population in the city lives under slum con- for a population of 500,000. The site was loca-
ditions. The average number of persons per ted 10 miles outside Karachi. It was originally
habitable room is 3.9. For the lowest income built to relieve the problem of refugees from In-
groups the number is 4.7.24 dia who were squatting in the city. The objec-
30% of all dwellings have access to piped tive was not to create a township of low-income
water supply and 20% are connected to the sew- groups, but to provide various levels of housing
erage system. .Only 16% of dwellings are fully so that its population would reflect the overall
served by sewerage and electricity connec- income distribution in the city. It was planned
In addition to the current housing deficit, education, health, recreation, and utilities pro-
489,000 more housing units between 1980 and Korangi township was divided into several
ble to provide only an average of 25,000 plot A typical sector would be as follows: (population
density varies between sectors)
per year. This is highly inadequate consider- Sector 36A
ing that the city expects to grow to a popula- Area: 107 acres
tion of 12 to 15 million by the year 2000. Gross residential density: 112 people/acre
28
Net residential density: 381 people/acre (hospitals, health centers, recreation areas,
Roads and unused land area: 36.5% of total25 schools, etc.) did not materialize due to insuf-
area
ficient funds. Many people did not pay their in-
There were to be three housing prototypes:
stallments beyond the initial payments, and most
one-room, one-and-a-half-room, and two-room.
of the defaulters were in the lower income group.
Construction of these houses was heavily sub-
Therefore, government lost considerable rev-
sidized by the government, and the cost was to
enue. The cost of the project was too high -
be recovered by having people pay in install-
hence many of the services planned could not be
ments.
provided.
Most of the houses had water connection
Because of the exorbitant cost of the Korangi
five years after the inception of the project.
project, the Karachi Development Authority has
Sewerage was provided, but the system was
been promoting other types of housing programs.
plagued by malfunctions. Most houses were not
Open Plot Development. These schemes were
connected to electric poles initially, although
attempted in North Karachi. The basic objectives
streets were lighted; however, connections
were to provide the target group secure land ten-
were made later on an individual basis by the
ure near a place of work, to prevent uncontrolled
residents.
growth, and to regulate densities. A plot size
There were numerous problems with this
of 80 square yards was decided on. Financing was
project. First, sufficient employment was not
to be achieved by enforced savings and taxation.
provided in Karachi to allow Korangi to func-
It was assumed that with gradual improVement of
tion as a satellite town. Other services
29
The site and services project has been
utilities these areas will eventually become
a complete disaster. Seven years after com-
fully serviced. In spite of the fact that the
pletion, it is still vacant. The Karachi de-
authorities delayed by several years to bring
velopment authority feels that this is due to
the much publicized infrastructure- water, paved
the inability of the authority to provide wat-
roads, and electricity- these areas have shown
26
er to this area. However, interviews with
dynamic growth and continued determination of
several plot holders who preferred to live in
the population to upgrade their enviornment
unauthorized areas of Aurangi, had this to
and economic status.
offer:
range program. In general, they address a high- that he must partake in, in his house
er income group than the Open Plot Developments. (see illustration on page
erage, and electricity. The plots are either The standard of housing, implicit in
75 square foot concrete floor locates the kitch- ity, involve investments beyond the
en, bath, and toilet core area, where the con- reach of even a middle income group.28
They complained that mortgages were not provement and Regularization Programme for the in-
available, accept to those who had con- formal sector has been developed as a short term
nections with the local public mortgage solution to regularize land tenure in the city.
poration. 29
absent.
automatic renewals.
-' LEGEND
KEY PLAN OF KARACHI
or-puts. V IVW
AllIoi. PC
6..iQvCP.V
II . 3
Cpol
a...Gm"
Is ao4 41V SII' B
'I 5--poe
s vt l. 4F s ll.-
I ~ ~ ~~ ' -lS fts I@~lS.
aBC
mi i'uIS -. ~. VIr 11o^ -.
OuS
at OW O 1b4AMGT. VII
'5%
(ICC~w
IOWM~SP as
2~
.'m Pool
A /
/7,
V-f
c2
CHSCFTOW"I PL&SCPSeC.,
04A.
41111
e 0 EliiCIACC of 11 L A^fC~i~ncl
SIAUACIA O~vSLVPdmI, &mINOU1
Fig. .5
Footnotes: 34
1. Karachi Development Authority, Master Plan 11. Pakistan Planning Commission, "Physical
for Karachi Metropolitan Region, (Final Planning and Housing in Pakistan," (Plan
Report, August, 1974) p. 1. Publicity cell Planning Series, Islamabad,
1973) p. 18.
2. The New Encyclopedia Britanica, Encyclo-
pedia Britanica, Inc., U.S.A., 1974, p. 12. Ibid., p. 18.
892.
13. Most of the country's industries are lo-
3. Ibid., p. 901. cated in the few major urban centers like
Karachi, Lahore, Lyallpur, Multan, Sialkot,
4. Ibid., p. 898. etc. Government efforts'to coerce indus-
trialists to move to non-urban areas have
5. Ibid., p. 896. not been very successful.
9. Robinson M. Ira. "Comprehensive Regional 17. Sarin, Madhu. "Policies Towards Urban
Physical Planning: A Second Pattern of Slums: Slums and Squatter Settlements in
Future Urban Growth in Pakistan," (Paper the ESCAP Region," United Nations, 1980.
in problems of urbanization in Pakistan,
Proceeding of N.I.P.A. Conference, Kar- 18. Karachi Development Authority, op. cit.,
achi, October 31, 1966), p. 29. p. 45.
10. Lloyd, Peter, "Slums of Hope? Shanty Towns 19. Current unofficial estimates. This range
of the Third World, (N.Y.: St. Martin's is felt to be within 5.5 to 6.5 million,
Press, 1979), p. 60. as correct records are difficult to main-
tain due to irregular influx of refugees
and rural migrants, etc.
35
20. Karachi Development Authority, price. Currently they did not pay any rent
Master Plan Department, Karachi, p. on their land but felt pretty confident that
that they would not be evicted from the area
21. Karachi Development Authority, op. cit. they were squattting in. Their confidence
p. 18. stemmed from the fact that they were on the
periphery of the city where nobody wanted to
22. Ibid., p. 21 live.
23. Karachi Development Authority, Master
Plan Department. Master Plan for Kar-
achi Metropolitan Region (First Cycle
Report, Vol. I) September 1972, p. 23.
3.1 The Squatter Settlements of Karachi. The population influx into Karachi, after inde-
The squatters in Pakistan are called pendence brought in about half-a-million refu-
"bustees" or "juggis." The term "juggi" is gees who initially squatted on open spaces, roads,
also used to refer to a dwelling unit in which footpaths, and on any space that they could find.
a squatter lives. The houses initially are From 1947 to 1952 the population of the city had
mere shacks made of chatai (bamboo or reed increased from 436,000 to 1,150,000. Currently
mats) or sarkanda (long reeds) or simply a bed about 250,000 persons or 40,000 families are
mentary canvas shelter. Once a plot is staked out dwelling units that are required annually, only
the shelter is made more permanent using mate- 15,000 are being constructed by both the public
rial as available in the local market (rags, and private sectors, bearely 25% of the actual
tin sheets, etc.) Initially they build with need.3 The total area on which squatters
bamboo for support and tarpaillin or reed for "Katchi Abadis" are located are estimated at
roof and wall. As liquid assets increase, em- 10,000 acres and are spreading at an annual rate
ployment, informal economic activities - they of 300 acres. In 1957 the backlog in housing
build with more permanent materials. was estimated at 380,000 today it is estimated
The first squatter population moved to the 3.1.2. Reasons for Squatting:
city immediately after partition of the sub- The Karachi Development Authority has done
37
considerable work on identifying these reasons. 10. Easy access to places of work. (Employment
Some of the reasons KDA lists for creation of insures existence of slum).
1. Initial influx of refugees after indepen- 12. Planning deficency with regard to leaving un-
2. Unbalance between supply and demand for 13. Land speculation by unethical professionals
3. Continuous in-migration from other parts 14. Ineffective measure for controlling squatting.
of the country. The above list however omits the most important
4. Rapid industrialization and consequent in- factor - lack of coordination in the economic and
sion of land holdings in the rural areas The current KDA estimates put the squatter
6. Better employment and income opportunities imately 1.7 million people. However, informed
7. Better recreation facilities in Karachi. in these areas are estimated at 150 dwellings per
8. Ethnic affiliation in the city. acre as compared to 11 dwelling units per acre
9. Housing in squatter areas - for the orig- for the whole of metropolitan Karachi. 8
employment generating areas. The main body of areas are all the services normally provided by KMC
the "bustees" lie in the north of the city to other areas. These services are (1) water,
along the channel of the Lyari River, and in (2) Karachi Municipal Corporation (K.M.C.) Sweep-
areas with easy access to S.I.T.E. (Sind In- ers, (3) sanitation and garbage collection facili-
dustrial and Trading Estates). This pattern is ties, (4) roads and streets, (5) central sewer-
repeated at other industrial zones of the city age, drainage, (6) electricity, gas, and (7) trans-
like in Lyari and Karangi. In this category portation services. However, some of the slums
another set of squatters have been included have undertaken to provide these services through
called "goths" or old sindhi villages that communal activity. This is discussed fully in the
They can be categorized as old settlements rath- 3.1.5. Squatter ("Katchi Abadi") Improvement Program.
3.1.4. Conditions in the Squatters. has set out certain policy decisions concerning
Most of the squatters have a low level regularization and up-grading of Katchi Abadis.
of municipal services. The rationale is that It is interesting to quote from an official report
ally pay no taxes - they are not entitled to any "Most of them earn a decent living as labour-
ers, petty traders or servants, but because
municipal service. The presence of any service of their low and often irregular income, they
cannot afford to buy or rent a house and there-
in this area is incidental and not planned. fore resort to construction of unauthorized
39
dwelling on a self-help basis... That the In this way they hope the regularization program
problem of housing shortage for low-
income groups cannot be solved by demoli- will be self-financing.
tion of houses which, although illegally
constructed, are sometimes of good quali- Before legalizing a settlement they hope to
ty and/or value to the residents. Gov-
ernment has come to understand that is go through a regulatization procedure. The first
should, on the contrary, preserve this
housing stock and concentrate its efforts question they ask is whether the settlement
on improvement of these settlements." 9
can be regularized. This will depend on
The salient features of the Regularization
location of the land and its urban functions ac-
0
and Improvement policy on the KDA1 are as
cording to the city master plan. Secondary fac-
follows:
tors would be size and density. Thus they hope
1. Action to improve living conditions of
to provide considerable leverage to deny regular-
squatters will consist of provision of
ization if they feel that the settlement is a
security of tenure to the residents
disruptive element in terms of the overall Karachi
through regularization of their occupancy.
Metropolitan plan. The steps to regularization
2. Upgrading of overall conditions through
would involve:
provision of basic urban infrastructure.
(i) Checking of the land if the land does not be-
For the financing of Katchi Abadi improve-
long to any other lease issuing authority.
ment programme the directorate expects the squat-
(ii) If the land does not belong to any other
ters to pay at least the cost of the land lease
authority, resumption of transfer pro--
and cost of improvement will be achieved
cedures.
through lease charges for serviced land.1
40
(iii) Land transfered to lease-issuing author- straightened, space for civic amenities
is adequately distributed over the area
ity free of charge or a nominal amount. and requirements for present and future
infrastructural improvements are met." 12
Market value can only be charged in excep-
The way the directorate proceeds with the
tional cases, since excessive acquisition costs
physical planning is in two steps:
of land are likely to burden the project to
(i) The first step is preparation of a conceptu-
such an extent that the self-financing of the
al plan which relates "Katchi Abadi" as an
project and the project as a whole could be
integrated unit.
jcopardized.
(ii) Detailed planning divides the area into
Anticipated physical planning procedure
planning units, which attempt to coincide
that the directorate intends to follow is seen
with the socio-ethnic communities (in mo-
as
hallas, colonies) in the settlement. The
"Security of tenure requires long term
leases, but long term leases freeze the detailed regularization plan serves as a le-
layout of the settlement for a long
period. Adaptive planning before reg- gal basis for leasing and to show location
ularization is therefore necessary.
The physical layout of the settlement dimension and land use of individual plots,
is adapted to facilitate implementa-
tion of planned infrastructural im- as well as details of proposed infrastruc-
provements. At the same time, pos-
sible future demands for additional tural improvements.
upgraded infrastructure (as a result
of raised standards, increased popu- Their attitude toward preservation of exist-
lation density, etc.) are taken into
account. So, apart from demarcation ing housing stock is quite circumspect:
of plots on a regularization plan,
physical planners see to it that, when In view of the aim of the policy to pre-
necessary, streets are widened and serve the housing stock of Katchi Abadis
41
and improve the living conditions of the
population, planners see to it that demo-
lition of houses or parts thereof is kept
to a minimum and that the planned physi-
cal layout meets the particular require-
ments of the low income groups. Since
area upgrading will generally be reflec-
ted in enhanced property prices, Katchi
Abadis should as a principle, be planned
TABLE 4 in such a way that prices of houses and
plots in the area remain within the pay-
Future Plans of Squatters if Allotment ing capacity of low-income residents.
Takes Place, Karachi--1973 So, physical planners have to find a bal-
ance between present urban standards and
future requirements on the one hand, and
Plans Number Percentage the necessity to keep property prices in
Responsible of total the area within the paying capacity
of 13
low,income groups on the other hand."
No plan 140 53
This shows a considerably enlightened attitude
Make a better house 36 14
compared to past practice of indiscriminate evic-
Rebuilding the house 30 12
tion of squatters.
R.C.C. and/or 2 story 45 17
(a) On the subject of infrastructural works.
Let out or sell 10 4
The directorate finds it more difficult to affect
Type of Settlement
back alleys should be left to the initiative of
Number of Rooms
No Hope Some Hope Hope the people themselves.
No room 2 -- --
(b) Sewerage Disposal.
1 room 69 54 38
The directorate feels that closed water
2 rooms 24 46 40
Total 105 113 106 be ideal for refuse and waste water disposal but
Source: Adapted from Harst, "Low income Housing,"
IBA, Karachi University, 1974, p. 20. feel there are major impediments to achieving
soon rains
group of persons
TABLE 6
(iv) residents of Katchi Abadis, who mainly come
Incidence of Private Facilities by Type of Settlemer,
As Percentage of Total Number of Dwelling
Units in Thirteen Squatter Areas--Karachi--1974
from rural areas, are usually unaware of
(c) Budgeting.
Source: Adapted from Harst, "Low Income Housing, IBA,
Karachi University, 1971, p. 21.
Budgeting a regularization and improvement
squatters.
44
(d) Community Participation. confidence in the intentions of the Government,
The directrate feels that any decision ef- and are reluctant to pay regularization plus
fecting "Karachi Abadis" should be taken with co- improvement charges until some improvement
laboration with the residents of this area. Hence works have been carried out. Moreover, resi-
public participation is formalized through "peri- dents may be allowed to pay thier lease char-
ods of public objections."16 During this period ges in installments and consequently funds are
of 2-4 weeks (announced in local dailies) concept expected to be collected over an extended per-
plan, lease rates and detailed plans are dis- iod of time. 1 7
Objections are discussed by a committee con- the directorate intends to take it is clear
sisting of representatives of the directorate that a lot of the upgrading especially of the
and squatters. The committee decides on the ob- neighborhoods has to be performed through
jections and as soon as final approval is ob- communal self-help or mutual help. Before
(e) "Katchi Abadis" Regulatization and Improve- specific steps have to be taken to organize
This has been established in order understand the specific tasks they must per-
to develope funds through development of a seed form to achieve these goals. This is dis-
capital and a revolving fund. This is done as cussed more fully in Chapter 4.
aFor each question, it seems to this author, the sample was divided into
six income groups ranging from Rs. 0-100 to Rs. 501 and above and the
majority in a group was in favor of a particular service, the entire
group has been listed as giving top priority to that particular service.
Aurangi is a settlement in Karachi con- who are settled in the township belong to dif-
sectors, as well as sectors which shelter un- Auranvi is a microcosm of the ethnic hetero-
authorized settlements. It was officially genity of Pakistan. There are Punjabis, Balu-
planned by the Karachi Development Authori- chis, Sindhi, Pathans, and immigrants from dif-
ty in 1965 and about 5000 hut dwellers from Mauripur ferent parts of India.21 Most of the local
were first shifted in October, 1965.18 After population has either been relocated - from
this period refugees from various other squat- other parts of the city - or has been rehabili-
ters were moved to this area and resettled in tated - like in the case of immigrating
15 sectors of almost 2000 acres. Biharies. The interesting aspect of this settle-
After this period there was a significantly ment is that people live in relative harmony and
large expansion of almost 200,000-300,000 dis- no instances of ethnic strife have been reported.
placed people from Bangladesh in 1971 of the so In fact the cohesiveness in the community is re-
called Biharies.19 These people moved into ad- markable. Numerous neighborhoods have takeu
jacent areas of already developed sectors. upon themselves to improve their environment
Aurangi, like other slums in Karachi, con- tion to solve their needs for such basic
amenities as sewerage disposal, drainage, 47
TABLE 8
water-supply, electricity, transportation,
3. Baluchis 3
to the 15 sectors that have been developed. The
4 Punjabis 3
initial development was only partial with a
area.
3.2.3. Physical Conditions: Authorized Areas. ters have the potential to improve their envi-
There are 15 sectors housing almost ronment and their economic status given the right
500,000 people that are living in approved incentives and given the necessary skills.
plots. All approved sectors have their main 3.2.5. Current Self-Help/Mutual Help Activities
water, electricity, sewerage, etc., have over In Aurangi in both the authorized and un-
the years been laid out. However, the infra- authorized sectors, it is being observed that
structure is not maintained so people have sup- people are forming community organizations.
plemented these services. Water is supplied These community organizations are of varying
with community taps. One tap serves 20 houses.23 sizes. In all, Aurangi Federation is reported
The basic amenities have not been provided tors of Orangi. Another is the Benarasi cloth
by the government. Hence, there are no paved weavers and traders. The Federations have rep-
water supply - a municipal tanker supplies wat- usually people who are respected in the commun-
er every day but this supply is grossly inade- ity or are relatively more educated, and are
49
active in the area for political lobbying for
251-500 31. (19%) 36% (37%) 31% (28%) thier environment. They have started to publish
401 or more 18% ( 6%) 27% (14%) 38% (19%) small brochures which explain how to build wat-
Tot al 100% 100% 100%
er wells; how to build latrine pits; how to
(2 ao answers)
Source: Adapted from Harst, "Factors Affecting Housing Improve- remove garbage; and other issues of communal
ment in Low-Income Communities, Karachi, Pakistan."
Ekistics, Vol. 39, No. 235, June 1975.
interest are addressed through newsletters. 2 5
Source: Adapted from Harst, "Low Income Housing," loans, membership in bisi community, and sale
IBA, Karachi University, 1974, p. 10.
26
of property.
Souirce: Adapted frorm harst, "Low incomte Housing," periodically and at the end of each period
IBA, Karachi Univer;ity, 1974, p. 20.
29
investing in the house.
52
3.2.8. Conclusion. growth in unauthorized areas is lack of securi-
From the foregoing observation about com- ty of tenure. We observe similar response from
31
munal activities toupgrade their environment we studies done in other Asian cities and in
can draw some very important conclusions about Colombia. Thus as the KDA water supply tank-
felt needs of the community and the present con- er supplies water to Mominabad people are hope-
One thing that came out clearly is especial- legitamized. If one compares this area to cen-
ly in the unauthorized settlements is that they tral city squatters one observes that central
have accorded the biggest priorities to: 30 city squatters32 under threat of eviction, have
3. provision of roads and streets, it was observed that the relationship between
4. sewerage disposal facilities, number of services present and the hope for al-
These priorities are similar to those elsewhere The next most felt need was of water-supply.
The most fundamental impediment to rapid have to resort to either private delivery of
53
water, water-carriers, or have resorted to dig- by the municipal trucks. Other possibilities
ging water wells. The only issue is that their are design of pit latrines which can be cleaned
a family can resort to well making through sub- Garbage removal is a severe problem. Peo-
One of the more critical problems the com- several areas 34 that people have erected gar-
munities are trying to resolve, in both author- bage incinerators. These are as yet not very
ized and unauthorized settlements, is the issue popular although once an awareness and social
of sewerage disposal. There is no covered sew- pressure to burn the garbage materializes, this
erage disposal system for these communities. promises to take care of potentially hazardous
However, we have seen that in areas where peo- environmental problem of squatters.
sources and built covered drains to latrine sort to some form of economic activity at home.
pits. These pits continue to pose a health When no economic activity occurs at least one
hazard as they are exposed and raw sewerage member of the family seems to have regular em-
ought to be treated with chemicals or removed ployment to allow a constant income. The
54
small shops, manufacturing activities, sub- When security of tenure is present there
letting of rooms, poultry farming. Hence, is a rapid rate of development. A major part
their need for space is much greater than what of the family's income is invested into the
is provided on site and service minimum plot, extension of the house. It was found that, as
80 sq. yds. Their space need would be closer Aurangi is an area of hope and some hope, 80%
to 120-160 sq. yds.6 In fact this brings of the houses are "semi-pucca". If the un-
us to the question whether a house to a low- authorized settlements are regularized there
income dweller is mere shelter or an econom- will be a much greater investment in the area.
ic investment. The site and service project Another observation is that people do not
anticipates an initial down-payment which prefer communal latrines. They have mostly
reduces the liquid assets of most potential provided themselves with at least a crude
a house. In fact, an owner of a site and Communal cohesiveness is very strong. Peo-
service plot ends up paying a double rent, ple are keen to improve their environment. How-
in the situation when he does not occupy ever, some sort of economic incentive seems to
his plot but instead lives in a squatter be a strong stimulant to collective action.
area.
55
In some areas people are not convinced or are
to be understood better.
Marketing Facilities.
The various current programs being executed raised from the public sector. The program
in Karachi will undoubtedly improve the housing initially depends on public trust and the
situation, however, they overlook certain issues: public's ability to save. We have already
1. They are concerned with the house as a seen from the default in payment of House
physical shelter and neglect all other con- Building Finance Loans that people's sav-
commitant socio-economic, phsycholog- ings are not regular and enforcement of pay-
ical, political and cultural issues ment once a lot is allocated is difficult.
which are very critical while consider- The fate of Metroville I project, where
ing a housing strategy for the low- owners have not built on this plot for over
2. The total estimated cost for the distribu- comings of such capital intensive projects
ted investment plan for housing between which do not recognize the liquidity30 status
31
1975-1985 is approximately Rs. 4000 mil- of their assets and the double rent issues.
lion will be spent, out of which Rs. 600 3. The program overlooks the fact that squat-
million will be for site development and ters once settled in an area develop socio-
Rs. 320027 will be for minimum and essen- economic ties with the rest of the commu-
tial construction. This is a phenomenal nity and are reluctant to leave thier present
57
area of residence. Similar observations the improvement and regularization program.
have been made in Columbia and in Sites It is not as capital intensive as other
and Services project in Pakistan and else- schemes and relies mostly on people's will-
where. Any relocation which does not ingness to improve their environment through
respect economic or income generating ac- self-help and mutual help activities.
tivity of the dwellers within their resi- The socio-economic benefits of self-help
dential zones will have dubious success. have not been adequately studied but let it
4. The programs also segregate the various suffice that given the current policies on
levels. However, studies in squatter viable option for the populace of most de-
consciousness.
Fig: 6
Harst, DJ. van der. "Low Income Housing."
Source:
JRP Project Iv, Institute of Business
Administration, University of Karachi,
1974. p. 2
59
TABLE 13
Type of Houses
no hope 0 3 18 1 0 22
some hope 0 0 21 9 0 30
hope 0 0 19 15 4
Source: Adapted from Harst, "Low Income Housing," IBA, Karachi University, 1974,
p. 8.
60
Footnotes:
23. Quratul Ai. op. cit., p. 5. 32. Sarin, Madhu, "Focus towards Urban Slums:
Slum and Squatter Settlements in the ESCAP
24. Khan, Akhtar Hameed. "Orangi Pilot Pro- Region, United Nations, 1980. p. 12.
ject". Karachi 1981. p.
33. Turner, John C., AIP Journal 1968, p. 358 and
25. On a visit to Orangi federation, I was 359.
handed the newsletters. However these
publications are being financially asis- 34. Harst, J. Van der, Low Income Housing. In-
sted by a philanthropic organization stitute of Business Adminstration, University
which is concerned with community develop- of Karachi, Pakistan, 1974. p. 39.
ment in squatter areas of Karchi.
This chapter examines the various types nent house closely akin to that which shelters
of indigenous housing that are built by the the higher income groups.
1
squatters in the slums of Karachi. This will The JRP-IV team for Urban Development has
establish a guideline for proposed housing carried out extensive research in determining
Any proposed building system must recog- has come up with six categories based on quality
nize the need of the squatters to build over of material used in construction. However this
an extended time frame. Another issue that is category only lists techniques of construction
extremely important to the Squatter is that that are known in this area and certainly any
house is not merely a shelter but is also an techniques which could provide squatters with
economic investment. So architectural design more permanent dwelling at the same cost, it is
which permits expansion of his dwelling both hoped, would be welcomed by squatters. Some de-
vertically and horizontally will be preferable. finitions concerning the categories follow:
Studies indicate that there are several 1. Very Temporary: All elements - except the
categories and types of slum dwellings and door - are made of matting, reeds, and jute.
that the rate of development and improvement 2. Temporary: At least one wall (either com-
is closely dependent on legal status of ten- pound or housewall) is made of tin, wood,
ure and the hope-inducing incentive it has on mud, or stones (except complete nudhouse).
the squatter. The ultimate aim of the squat- No use of cement made.
63
3. Prolonged Temporary:
following are the three major categories of hou-
a. Like temporary, but durable over a
ses in a squatter settlement in Aurangi and oth-
period.
er squatter areas of Karachi.
b. All walls and roof made of mud.
"Juggi"
c. One wall made of cement blocks.
The juggi primarily consists of bamboo and
d. Both walls of cement blocks, but
reed mats. There is no specific method of build-
inferior roof and door.
a juggi - each builder more or less builds it
4. Semi-Permanent: Both walls of unplastered
through his knowledge or understanding of con-
cement blocks, sheet roof (either asbestos
struction and usually within a few days. The
of corrugated).
frame of a juggi consists of bamboos. The bam-
5. Provisional Permanent: At least one wall
boos supporting the main frame are placed in holes
plastered; or all walls unplastered, but
1 to 2 feet under the ground and later packed with
the buildings has a story.
mud and gravel composite. Horizontal bamboo pie-
6. R.C.C.: Walls of plaster and cement
ces placed horizontally and tied to the vertical
blocks and roof made of reinforced con-
poles provide rigidity to the frame. The distance
crete.
between poles is usually 4 feet center to center.
4.2 Current Housing:
Sarkanda: A reed-mat consisting of parallel
The following figures show various types of
stalks knotted together with rope. It is used for
indigenous houses starting from a very tempor-
thatching both the walls and the roofs.
ary "juggi" house to a "pucca" house. The
64
Construction of a Juggi:
Different construction methods can be em- walls, sun-baked mud-bricks are used. The dwel-
ployed for making mud houses. Essentially each lers, if they can use this method, find this
dweller builds more or less as he wants depend- more time consuming than the first method but
ing on his knowledge and skill. Van der Harst prefer this method as it makes the wall strongor
lists 3 types of mud-houses using his categor- and vertical and horizontal alignments are more
1. In one type, frequently found in Kar- Sarkandas and bamboos. This bamboo frame is
achi the wet mud is piled up to a height of 2 very similar to normal Juggi-wall. This method
to 3 feet. This low wall is left to dry to has considerable advantages. The reed-mats and
harden. In summer the wall dries within 3 bamboos will last longer which keeps the costs
days; in winter this may take as much as 10 to down as compared to the cost of their applica-
12 days. After the wall is dry another layer tion in a Juggi. The Sarkandas offer protec-
of mud is packed to a height of 5 to 6 ft. tion against rain, unless it is a very heavy
When the second layer is finished a final lay- rainfall. This type of wall is stronger as most
er of mud is piled to a height of approximately of the load is subsequently carried by the mud
There are three different major types of this case thick bamboos or strong, small beams,
roofs identified by the JRP-IV group. placed 1-1/2 feet to 4 feet apart, provide the
In this type of roof a heavy beam spans da" or a plastic water-proof membrane is placed
the opposite walls of a room. If the room is on top of the beams. This is topped with a
larger, several beams may be used. There may "Chatai" (mat) and this is finally given a coat
edges of the other two walls and on the main 3. The Juggi-mud adapted house.
beam. One pair of Sarkanda is subsequently In this type where the Juggi walls were
placed on top of the smaller beams which is plastered with a layer of mud wall, retain their
itself covered by a Chatai (mat). A 1/2 original Juggi roof - discussed earlier in Jug-
another 4-5" thick layer of mud is applied In the case where the mud-house is built
on ton A final mud coat of 2 inches then by packing the mud, the mud is usually dug up
completes the roof. close to the site of the dwelling. When sun-
2. The light mud-roof. baked bricks are used, they can either be made
A heavy beam is not necessary, as the on site or bought in sizes of 12"x8"x6" for a
67
nominal price of 100 bricks for Rs. 36.00. a wall-paint. This white mud is not found
The walls are built by the dweller himself everywhere and has to be bought in the market
The walls are occasionally plastered. the crack and provides a hard cover to the wall
In the first kind a rough mixture of busa and protects the wall from insects.
donkey dung is used. This plaster is kept Building a mud-house is labor consuming.
thoroughly wet for 1 to 3 days, mixed and All the dwellers interviewed by JRP-IV group
then plastered onto the wall. After the claimed to have built the houses themselves.
first plaster has dried some cracks will They spent one or two hours on building their
normally appear, which is usually repaired house after finishing their daily work. It
by a similar plaster mix as in the initial takes them occasionally months before the house
Source:
69
Semi-Pucca and Pucca Houses: require greater cash outlays and unless the
dweller himself unless the dweller is a mason In both pucca and semi-pucca houses both
("mistri"). The dweller will usually hire a the load-bearing and partition walls are made
mason and serve as extra labor and supervisor. of cement blocks of varying dimensions (see
He sub-contracts the masonry work essentially page for a list of sizes available). These
because he considers it difficult and requir- walls usually rest on a foundation, one to two
ing skills he does not possess. feet deep - depending on soil conditions - made
a reinforced concrete slab as roof) is con- type the walls are often left unplastered while
sidered too complicated and the dweller pre- in the pucca type this is plastered.
tion to a contractor. This makes a sub- In the semi-pucca types the roof consists
stantial difference in the investment re- of either iron corrugated sheets or asbestos.
quired for the two types of buildings. They These sheets come in varrying sizes. These are
70
usually consists of a reinforced concrete slab, Both the semi-pucca and pucca houses can
the casting of which is sub-contracted and in- be plastered, but this operation is usually a
Doors and Windows: the mason. The plaster mortar is usually 1/2"
The choice of doors and windows usually thick on both interior and exterior walls and
depends on the individual dweller. Usually a the work is executed per surface area. The
wooden framed door is used of dimensions rang- mortar composition is usually 1 part of cement
2'x3' or 1x2' and other sizes. Occasionally In both the semi-pucca and pucca type of
metal framed doors are also used but these houses, it is estimated that the sub-contractor's
Areas:
make.
72
PLAN TYPE: JUGGI TYPE I
/e
MATERIALS USED
4,
It
4---
T
/ ~
T
2.
3.
4.
WALLS: CHATAI, SARKANDA
FENESTRATION: CHATAI, SARKANDA
FOUNDATION: NIL
~
''II" VOLUME
NO. OF ROOMS: 1
ROOM SIZE: 12' x 12'
HEIGHT: 6' x 10'
COURTYARD SIZE: None
M
AN -'i o' TOTAL AREA: 124 sq. ft.
Source:
PV Ijrl
Gw1
JUGGI II
73
PLAN TYPE:
MATERIALS USED
~riT
1. ROOF: SARKANDA, PANKA, PLASTIC
2. WALLS: SARKANDA, CHATAI
3. FENESTRATION: SARKANDA, CHATAI
4. FOUNDATION: NIL
4 VOLUME
NO. OF ROOMS: 2
ROOM SIZE: 10' x 12'
HEIGHT: 8' - 9'
COURTYARD SIZE: 20' x 24'
TOTAL AREA: 720 SQ. FT.
COST
lATERIALS USED
VOLUME
NO. OF ROOMS: 2
ROOM SIZE: 10-1/2' x 12'
HEIGHT: 8' - 8-1/2'
COURTYARD SIZE: 15' x 22'
TOTAL AREA: 720 SQ. FT.
COST
Source:
MATERIALS USED
VOLUME
'9d
LPk Wo
A
( NO. OF ROOMS:
ROOM SIZE:
1
10' x 16'
HEIGHT: 8' - 8-1/2'
COURTYARD SIZE: 12' x 16'
TOTAL AREA: 450 SQ. FT.
COST
rt.-O.'o Yb , a I<
0.1.1
Source: see Appendix A.
MATERIALS USED
VOLUME
NO. OF ROOMS: 2
ROOM SIZE: 10' x 13-1/2'
HEIGHT: 8' - 8-1/2'
COURTYARD SIZE: 11' x 24'
TOTAL AREA: 720 SQ. FT.
COST
MATERIALS USED
NO. OF ROOMS: 1
ROOM SIZE: 12' x 12'
HEIGHT: 9' - 9-1/2'
COURTYARD SIZE: None
TOTAL AREA: 144 SQ. FT.
MATERIALS USED
4
--- a
___ /
/ 12-
Th~~{- 1. ROOF: IRON CORR. SHEETS
2. WALLS: UNPLASTERED BLOCKS
3. FENESTRATION: JALLI
4. FOUNDATION: BLOCKS (LIGHT)
VOLUME
NO. OF ROOMS: 2
ROOM SIZE: 12' x 12'
HEIGHT: 9-1/2'
X
COURTYARD SIZE: NONE
Co(w f-P TOTAL AREA: 288 SQ. FT.
MATERIALS USED
NO. OF ROOMS: 2
ROOM SIZE: 12' x 12'
HEIGHT: 9-1/2'
COURTYARD SIZE: 18' x 24'
TOTAL AREA: 720 SQ. FT.
MATERIALS USED
---- 4
7----
1 1. ROOF: ASBESTOS CORR. SHEETS
2. WALLS: UNPLASTERED BLOCKS
3. FENESTRATION: NEW WINDOWS
4. FOUNDATION: BLOCK (LIGHT)
VOLUME
NO. OF ROOMS: 5
ROOM SIZE: 12' x 12'
HEIGHT: 9-1/2'
COURTYARD SIZE: 12' x 24'
TOTAL AREA: 720 SQ. FT.
COST
MATERIALS USED
VOLUME
NO. OF ROOMS: 5
ROOM SIZE: 12' x 12'
HEIGHT: 9-1/2'
COURTYARD SIZE: 12' x 24'
TOTAL AREA: 720 SQ. FT.
COST
MATERIALS USED
I
VOLUME
NO. OF ROOMS: 5
ROOM SIZE: 12' x 12'
HEIGHT: 9-1/2'
COURTYARD SIZE: 12' x 24'
TOTAL AREA: 720 SQ. FT.
COST
4.3. Analysis of Current Housing in reed and cane by tin, plastic, wooden planks or
down.
1. We find that the investment cost of 3. Although suitable for a short time,
a juggi or a mud-house is comparatively lower the juggi is ultimately replaced by more dura-
than that of a semi-pucca house. However, the ble materials. The juggi dweller must finance
than the squatter can afford at one time. When 4. The juggi offers little protection
he finally does make a transition from the from inclement weather, i.e., wind, cold, dust,
return on investment on the existing building 5. The investment cost as well as monthly
2. Although the investment cost of a jug- spite of its relatively low costs, the long per-
gi is relatively low, its monthly cost is al- iod required for construction makes it less
most as high as that of a semi-pucca house which popular. Maintenance has to be regular and
provides a better accommodation. The deprecia- especially after rain, considerable time may
tion charge of reed and cane are the main rea- be spent in repairs.
son for the high monthly cost. Eventually the 6. Large investments at a time are be-
dweller finds it more convenient to substitute yond the capacity of a low-income household.
85
When a squatter builds using bamboo and deterred from the thought of attempting the
thatch, he is keeping his investments low for herculean task of building himself let alone
believes he will be - he wants to loose a Apart from this, when he does initiate a
this paper, squatters who do not have a feel- of his dwelling, he must discard the bamboo
ing of security or tenure do not build per- or use it for other purposes - especially if
manent structures where they squat. How- he is building in cement blocks. He therefore
ever, given current government policies seeks options for incremental growth of dwel-
toward regularization of unauthorized settle- ling. Before we discuss the actual implemen-
ments more and more squatters find that they tation of incremental growth it is worthwhile
can erect permanent structures. Transition to note the reasons why the squatter would
from bamboo housing to cement block - the like to build a permanent structure.
ideal aspiration of most squatters - is not 1. The rent accrued from any permanent
one quick jump but a slow process of accumu- or semi-permanent dwelling is much higher in
lating savings, borrowing from friends, and squatter areas than temporary "kutcha" build-
obtaining loans as discussed earlier. In ings as studies by JP-IV group have shown.
87
with JP-IV.
materials.
The annual costs incurred from using dif- permanent types involve major investments and such
erent building materials are discussed later in investments are not possible for the low-income
pages . It is shown that although the Juggi population, unless the government provides subsi-
(thatch hut) has a low initial investment its dies for purchase of material,which most govern-
annual costs - which include foregone interest ments of developing countries cannot afford.
costs, depreciation, and periodically recurrent So a search for alternatives must continue.
maintenance costs - are close to semi-permanent In the next chapter one such alternative proposal
types of dwellings. Hence, any proposal for for construction is described. This proposal
housing that hopes to minimize only the invest- offers a new way of construction, as well as
ment cost and overlooks annual maintenance permits incremental growth of existing temporary
for low-cost housing is made. The essential i.e., walls, beams, and domes was developed.
element of this proposal is use of fabric as This research is still in its infancy so it is
formwork in construction. The proposal of us- difficult to predict the potentiality of the
strategy is based on the following premise. This chapter is divided into two parts.
Fabrics of organic material (jute, cot- The first part explains the results of initial
ton, flax) are abundantly available at low investigation in the laboratory highlighting
prices - compared to other construction ma- especially the difficulties, as well as point-
terial - in most developing countries, especial- ing out some of the more successful results,
ly Pakistan, -India, Bangladesh and toher S.E. in using fabric as a construction material.
Asian countries. There are, however, some The second part hypothesizes an actual ap-
disadvantages of using fabrics made of organic plication of building using fabrics as formwork.
materials. Organic fabrics tend to deterior- The second part is an untested proposal and is
ate over time. This proposal hopes to exploit still in the process of development.
Formwork:
very poor mass concrete or even soil stabi- The decision that seems most sound at this
lized with organic waste like cow or donkey stage is to have a thick wall of at least one feet
dung. It has to be understood that the poor width and to in-fill it with poor concrete or
in most developing countries cannot afford to stabilized soil. The increased width of wall
purchase cement or cement blocks unless they will provide greater lateral stability. The
have accumulated savings over a long period room with thick walls of soil composite will
of time. If they use soil they can stabi- be cooler and more comfortable to live in than
lize it with small amounts of cement. This a 6" cinder block wall currently used in Semi-
will not provide the dweller with a very Pucca I or Pucca types.
done to develop a system of building walls with (ii) Develope a simple method - few opera-
fabric* in our case the fabric chosen was jute tions not involving a great deal of time - this was
Certain goals were identified before ferent ways of setting up the initial formwork.
beginning the experiments. It was hoped The constraint in our set of experiments was
that by the end of the experiments these goals that it should not take more than 10-15 minutes
will be acheived. The other aspect of the to hang the jute burlap, for a wall 3 feet high
experiment was that certain methods of setting and 3 feet long, assuming that the wall will be
up the formwork were common to all experiments built vertically in stages of 3 feet each, or w-
and this is mentioned before describing the ex- alls can be built in dimensions of 12'x9'xl' as a
periment. Any deviation from the specified continous unit, or in any iniensifnt- as required.
method is indicated in the description of methods (iii) Minimize accessory support elements
for the specific experiment. including those that must be used to reduce sur-
* see experiment 1.
A Comparison of Funicular and Non-Funicular Loading: 96
beam and sandwiching it between two others (see
gra.m) .
, LPe orynd'or' J
Experiment 1: There were two sets of ex-
A /A~I~ Ntn rti(w
periments done in Experiment 1.
",Cr-L4~~i
-Io 1,) -tI1
(ii) Wet fabric (subsequent to Experiment 1
Experiment 1.1:
Supporting beams Once the wall had been filled and compacted
'J'4'
j I,
--
r 98
served.
Experiment 1.2.
42f -~5Ai C{ Af
r d. Observation and Results:
Ih'~fl RP
A
slight reduction in the surface deformation (a
-4 - Ah6V lnVf- e20(q- observed with the dry fabric experiment. No tear-
Objective:
Objective:
Objective:
metal ties.
-
Observations:
of burlap surface.
Experiment 4:
Objective:
Experiment 5:
Objective:
Method:
Observation:
(Proposed, Not experimented in the L aboratory) 5.2.3 Floors: Beams + Roof Slab (Domes.VaultsJ
Introduction:
AL A4,, 'f
70 A The objective in these sets of experiments
5.2.4 Beams
Objective:
Method:
the catenary.
beam.
Conclusion:
Objective:
Method:
depth = 6".)
concrete mortar.
Method:
-Experiment 1.2: did not fail. They were not tested to failure.
Very smooth surface can
be obtained when using (Catenary depth = 7" after cnsting of shell.)
wet burlap.
Experiment 2:
Objective:
With a weight of 225 lbs - loaded length). The vault failed and the wires were
at mid-section- the vault failed
(This vault was weaker than others sheared completely. The failure was at the
as coarse aggregate (1/2" to3/4"
iches was used in a shell of thickness center of the vault (3' distance) and it was
1/2 inches).
116
found that at points of failure there was less
catenary framework.
Method:
Objective:
Method:
3/4".
a
wet burlap hung on frame on wet fabric went smoothly, however, there were
Objective:
It was found
Objective:
Method:
Ul~w-
VA"A' proximately 3/4". A set of 1/8" mild steel
Two layers overlap was placed on top of the mesh wire. This cre-
at perimeter and four layers
at corners. Apex with connecting ated a lip of 5" width and 2-1/2" depth all a-
mild -steel ties and one layer of
mesh. long the perimeter of the dome. Inside the
\A "/''4
A 4 -
'1 ~TI.'C lip was placed a double layer of 1" gauge
Experiment 5:
Objective:
Method:
Weight: 140 lbs dome weighed around 140 lbs. A load of 400
Loadeded ( without failure)
400 lbs/ sq. ft. lbs/sq. ft was applied at the top of the dome.
From the foregoing experiments certain slenderer (6" wide). It is clear that it will
Experiment #4 indicates that the surface cement - to increase its rigidity - and this
deformation is nominal when mild steel ties increase may be substantial to make it econ-
are used to connect the flaps. The use of omically untenable. Another point that is
flaps - can be made in many different ways and not clear is the effect of cement and humid-
quite quickly- essential in order to avoid tearing of ity on the organic fibre in time. The question
burlap - which would occur if the ties were of how the wall will behave once biirlan starts to
directly attached to the burlap. It is also disintegrate has not been answered. Will the
clear that once the aggregate within the wall have enough cohesion or bond to stand up
void has been compacted and the surface de- by itslef? Another issue that has not been
formation has occurred, further compaction resolved is in the curing of the concrete once
does not deform the surface noticeably. In it is inside the fabric-form. Burlap tends
the laboratory experiments were done with a to absorb water and this may effect water
wall one feet wide. This provides a certain of hydration required by the concrete to cure.
The experiments indicate possibilities burlap even after curing. Burlap attached it-
of using burlap for fabrication of beams. self to the concrete shell and could not be
However, the beam would have to be supported peeled off. Some problems that remain are
intermittently to avoid tearing of burlap getting a constant thickness over the shell,
and the method of anchoring the burlap to as it is difficult to measure the exact shell
the beam should not be with the use of nails thickness at each point. Mesh wire reinforce-
but instead some mechanical tie as suggested ments are easy to place and add to the strength
Fabric-Form for Domes, Vaults: found difficult to attach the mesh wire to the
The experiments indicate that burlap burlap. The domes also indicated great strenth
can be used for making various catenary forms if the perimeter was constrained or if, at least,
of any desired depth. This provides a very a mesh wire was used to line the perimeter.
cheap method of making domes. Those domes The lip is not absolutely necessary and tends
that were combined with coarse aggregate were to make the dome considerably heavier. However,
not as strong as ones made with sand-cement this would provide greater strength to the dome
aggregate. The method of applying concrete when these domes are placed in situations where
into wet burlap provided a good bond with the their perimeters are not constrained. Forms
128
having double curvature were found to be
any difficulties.
12Q
Slab :
1 K
~
The proposed design "Borion Se Makan" or
~7ALL>Y~~L~r(,CUT f
i FK("
sulting in a practical application in construction.
lbJZ* L41,
*Funicular: Form of fabric under load.
130
in Pakistan:
slopes).
AG oftyling.
jNcov- F1~'~~
- ji i~~ ? Foundations:
is the foundation. The dweller marks out the This is especially important as the strength of
dimensions of the room; in our case these exter- mortar normally used is not consistent, due
nal wall to wall dimensions are 12 feet x 12 to lack of care in either preparing the appro-
feet, and the internal room dimensions are 10 priate mix or lack of care about impurities that
feet by 10 feet. He clears the site of the often get mixed with the mortar.
the room (not necessarily to precision, and Once the 1 foot deep trench is excavated
excavates a trench approximately 1 foot deep the dweller is ready to fabricate the wall. Here
and 1 foot wide all along the perimeter of the he has a choice of two approaches depending on
simple hand held compactor or a small roller. (i) He can decide to build in 3 or 4
At this point the fabric form deviates from the stages - walls of 3'-4' height all along the
conventional construction method. The founda- perimeter of the room. This will require more
tion is not made separately but is conceived bamboo poles, but would involve less work in
as a continuous wall section going down to removing and placing bamboo poles. As these
the surface of the trench. This method pro- poles are being used as shuttering, and are
vides for a more integrated and stronger wall not being seriously damaged during the fabri-
system as there are no mortar joints or other cation process, as they ought not to be, he
points of interface in the wall system. This could recover part of his initial investment
132
walls.
to proceed as follows:
above grade.
Roof:
V6L1&V
137
rH0 Once the beam has cured, 3-4 days, the bamboo
' E!
is removed from the fabric and the next set of
A i~er-6i OUTlvf
*1:2:4 (cement : sand : gravel proportion by volume)
Domes:
as an integrated slab.
capabilities.
Future:
In order to determine costs associated tween various self-help building methods. The
with various building systems (methods and cost estimating model used aggregates cost
initially develope a cost estimating model. Such a model will break the costs into several
The current estimating models do not effec- large discrete sets of detailed components.
tively incorporate a self-help type of con- These detailed components can be broken into
is done through hired labor and the rest by as well as on levels of implementation, i.e.,
the dweller himself. Additionally the work those tasks that have to be performed by the
is staged over an extended period of time and dweller himself and those that will be sub-
the schedule of work is often randomly estab- contracted. The hierarchial structure would
lished depending on the individual's time and look like a tree structure where the terminal
economic preference. To clarify this point, branches at the nodes of the tree represent a
an individual dweller might leave finishing of more detailed components and near the
of the windows until he has completed the roof. trunk of the tree we find more generalized com-
So a model which identifies cost by components ponents representing major cost items or/and mile-
and tasks, not constrained by time schedules stones. Each generalized component will
141
represent a unique or similar set of activi- method but choose to build the roof by a
ties and skills. This set of relationships cheaper method (non-conventional) and measure
between larger generalized components and his cost for switching techniques by simply
specific set of components can be termed as changing the cost of the component in the
a parent-child set relationship. tree structure and subtract from the total
This structure can identify specific tasks and sum the savings from the switch.
components used. Each task has an associated In the following pages the hierarchial
cost. This cost can be shown directly on the tree, cost model is shown and is developed for
so that tasks and cost of performing them is comparison of costs associated with using
available at once from just looking at that part- various construction techniques.
page
uomparison of various construction tech-
habitation
H1/2/1 Component
excavation grade
and beam
fill I 1-
be further disaggregated.
critical
STEP 2: Walls
non-critical* Cost Breakdown:
of hierarchy.
Cost of House: Qty Unit Cost/Unit Total Man/Hrs. Unit Cost/Hr. Total
(Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.) (Rs.)
I. Sub-Structure
Appendix A)
Rs. 4051.75 17.50
- Rs. 4069.25
This model can be developed into a compre- which would immediately identify significant costs.
hensive table which disaggregates costs These cost models - cost brakdown structure- follow
based on various expenses, i.e., material, the set of specific cost itemization. A typical
We can apply the hierarchial estimating make assumptions which michg not be represen-
construction materials. The type of construction 1 - Labor cost in all the construction
1 - Juggi Type as in Category Type I. ing assumed that the dweller has irregular em-
temporary and permanent roof, i.e., 2 - Site conditions are considered simi-
3 - Fabric Form (proposal of author) with flat, with a uniform bearing capacity, and a
.2. soil-cement aggregate (concrete) 3 - The schedule of rates used are current
domed roof as well as concrete domed ity for 1st quarter 1982. These rates may be
slab are given in the cost breakdown.) lower in the squatter areas. Fluctuations in
147
prices over construction period have not strictly not true, as discussed earlier, unless
been taken into consideration. the dweller happens to be a mason. This enables
4 - Cost of water has been excluded - us to make comparisons between various building
this could be significant in squatter areas. systems strictly on the basis of cost of con-
assumed the dweller does not have a time con- will cost. 15% - 20% more if one were to include
straint - a target date to complete construction - the sub-contractor's profit on all masonry work
instead it is assumed that he has free time and and other works requiring skilled labor.
more or less will build over an extended period 8 - Fabric Form Type:
6 - The cost of land is not included - ler will accept the idea of building with fab-
in anycase it is common to all the types. ric, and would understnad the process of con-
The land cost is not included as these vary with struction with the aid of simple oral and vis-
government policy for land rates for specific ual instructions (graphics or even models of
7 - Semi-Pucca Type: It has been assumed .2. It is being assumed that he will
that the dweller is capable of building this be able to mix the batch of cement as per spe-
type of masonry building by himself. This is cifications - different for walls, beams, and
148
catenary dome - and will be able to quarry
Aurangi.
Foundation = None
ered zero.
Sub-Total
Category type: Juggi-Type I (for details see drawings on page 68) Component Relationship
MAJOR-MINOR - Parent-Child
Cost breakdown: **Man - Assumes 9 man/hour/day
*TOTAL(4) - 1+2+3
Parent component: Wall
Rs. 1.00 = US $.10
Sub-Total =374
Source:
152
5 -- -- 1/2 -- -- -- 5
door mat 1 each 5
void
(6'x4')
1/2
=
5
L
Sub-Total 5
Category type: Juggi Type I (For details of components see page 66)
Component Relationship
MAJOR-MINOR - Parent-Child
Cost breakdown: Man - Assumes 9 man/hour/day
*TOTAL(4) - 1+2+3
Parent component: Roof
Rs. 1.00 = US $.10
4
- - i -
Sub-Total = 378.20
rafters
thickness
nil.
t //
Cateugoty type: Sii,--P'tcc;k I (lI I Ii I tI t 1 , I M il
I(;I ) I I
MA.1(h - IN !R - P1urn.-Ch I Id
Cost breakdown: **Man --- Aieni 9 min/otair/dmy
ATOTALi(4) - 121 1
Pat ent component Sub-)t ructure H
R. 314.70 Rs . Itiives
p , I W1
16-1/2
Sub-Total
Source: Current Rates In Karachi from Karachi Development Authority, April 1982.
157
walls 112/1 cement 2/1/1 wall I 162 each 2 324 .50/% 8.10' 10.00 - -- -- 332.10
block 2/1/2 wall II 132 each 2 264 100 6.60, 8.00 -- - - 270.60
(12"x8"x6")
2/1/3 wall III 162 each 2 324 100 8.10 10.00 -- -- -- 332.10
2/1/4 wall IV 117 each 2 234. 100 5.85 7.25 - -- -- 239.85
39.25_ _
*All costs in Ruppees.
1558.5( 38.65 1597.15
Sub-Total = 1597.15
Sheet #3
Category type: Component Re lationship
MAJOR-MINOR = Parent-Child
Cost breakdown: **Man = Assumes 9 man/hour/day
*TOTAL(4) = 1+2+3
Parent component: Voids = 148 Rs. = Ruppees, 1 Rs. = 1 $ US
13
0 1li-
138 10
Sub-Total - 48
Source: Current Rates in Karachi From Karachi Development Authority, April, 1982.
159
Sheet f/4
Category type: Semi-Pucca I Component Relationship
MAJOR-MINOR - Parent-Child
Cost breakdown: **Man - Assumes 9 man/hour/day
*TOTAL(4) = 1+2+3
Parent component: Roof = Rs. 571.40 Rs. = Ruppees, 1 Rs. - 1 $ US
12 16 396
Iron Sheets 6 each 64 384 2
(2 1/2x6)
sq. ft.
20
-- ?tI
554.41 17 0 571.4
Source: Current Rates in Karachi From Karachi Development Authority, April, 1982.
THE HIERARCHIAL COST MODEL:
LEGEND
FOR . Semi-Pucca Type 1 -- -N non-critical
Date of Estimate: (no time preference)
critical
0
161
6.2.3. PLAN TYPE: FABRIC FORM (SAND CEMENT) TYPE
at 3 feet centers.
forced.
ered zero.
Life-Expectancy = 25 years
162
Sub-Total
Note: Wall 2
Surface area - 10' x 10' = 100' (void not excluded)
Volume = 100 cu. ft.
164
25.45
I _________________ ~ J
Sub-Total
Wall 1 324.40
Wall 2 268.50
Wall 3 324.48
Wall 4 224.32
Supports 65.00
Sub-Total
'-p-i-I-
[~J
______________ I~t
25 400 25 75 -- -- -- 425
Domes Domes Catenary 16 each
domes (.for
calculatiors
see page )
965 81
1046
leveling leveling -- -- -- -- ~ ~~ ~~
H1/2
excavation digging 48 cft -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
fill 48 cft -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
compaction 48 s.ft -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --
4-
*All costs in Ruppees.
nil nil nil
Sub-Tocal = 0 (nil)
centers
sidered zero
Life-Expectancy = 15 years
173
wall(1+3 wall /1 sand-stone 120 each .50 60 .10 12.00 .18 -- -- -- 72x(2)
(including (12'xlO') (.40 cu.ft.
foundation) per cu.ft.
of wall)
2/ aggregate 84 cuft 1 84 .05 4 9 -- -- -- 88x(2)
(1:10:20)
see page
3/ gunny cloth 300 sqft .01 30.00 -- -- 4 -- -- -- 30x(2)
ties (2 per
sq. ft.)
4/ mild-steel 240 each 0.01 2.40 -- -- 2 -- -- -- 2.40(2
ties (2 per
sq. ft.)
5/ bamboo support -- -- -- -- -- 5 -- -- -- --
(cost separate)
38
_ _ _ -'^
Sub-Total
Total :. 384.80
Total carried over
33.50
Note: Wall 2
Surface area = 10' x 10' = 100' (void not excluded)
Volume = 100 cu. ft.
175
S5.45
Sub-Total
Sub-Total
Wall 1 192.40
Wall 2 158.60
Wall 3 192.40
Wall 4 134.21
Supports 65.00
Plastic 377.40
Sub-Total
18 -- 1 -- -- -- 18
voids window jalli 6 each'3.0 --
4
*All costs in Ruppees.
138 nil 1l3 8
M==M._.WMW.MW
H1/2
excavati>n digging 48 cft -- -- -- -- - -- -- --
fill 48 cft -- -- -- -- - -- -- --
compaction 48 s.ft -- -- -- --
4
l ct
*Alcosts in Ruppees.
n1il nil .nil.
Sub-Total = 0 (nil)
25 400 25 75 -- -- 425
Domes Domes Catenary 16 each
domes (for
calculatior s
see page )-
100 - 10 100
Extras Finish ( creed) see page
Asphalt
50 5 5 -- -- -- 55
(water-pr of)
40 5 6 45
Gutter
60 6 10 - 66
Ground
Drainage
123
965 81
i1046
Table 15
Voids: Total
Doors & Investment Life-Cycle
Foundation Walls Roof Windows Cost Cost
The comparison of investment cost and life- accrued from cost of regular maintenance. In
cycle costs highlight important indicators in fact the juggi dwellers' investments are consid-
terms of economic costs of selecting various erably high as he continuously replaces the
(1) Firstly, both the investment cost and like reed mat is replaced by tin sheets, etc. -
life-cycle costs of using fabric form for con- but the economic value of his dwelling does
struction come out much lower than not appreciate at the same rate. Juggis are
other systems. The building type made considered the most undesirable shelters by the
less than 50% of semi-pucca I (with roof slab, (3) Although the cost of investment in
#3), both in terms of investment cost and life- semi-pucca I is comparable to fabric-form,
cycle costs. The relative costs for fabric- the semi-pucca I has a temporary roof. If the
form will be even lower if contractors' dweller wants to expand vertically, he must
profits are calculated for semi-pucca type I - as remove this roof and replace it with a rein-
,the masonry work is invariably sub-contracted forced concrete roof slab which costs Rs. 3744/=
unless the builder is himself a mason , for a roof slab of area = 144 sq. ft.
(2) Although the investment cost of a In comparison the domed roof (using caten-
juggi is low, the life-cycle cost is relatively ary fabrication on ground), for the same covered
184
area; costs Rs. 1046 and if the dweller wants to straint to the squatter or low-income dweller
expand vertically, he provides a topping of he does prefer to build with systems which are
concrete - average thickness 6" - at additional not overly time consuming. This has been dis-
cost of Rs. 592.00. This roof will cost him cussed in disadvantages of constructing mud-
less than 50% of the conventional reinforced house which is extremely time consuming (see
tion reduces the cost of aggregate in wall, the depending on income of the dweller. In fact,
cost of poly-vinyl covering as waterproof mem- the economic advantages of using the fabric-
brane is high and brings the cost close to form would be to the poorest dwellers who will
cost of wall using sand-cement-gravel as ag- simply use mud and stones gathered from sur-
gregate. Also, maintenance costs are much rounding areas and use it as in-fill. They
higher due to humidity and damages that might can use organic materials as binder (i.e.,
necessitate repairs after heavy showers, es- cow dung, etc.). Two men could build a wall
Advantages of Using Fabric-Form: not have to dry the mud-bricks and place it one
(1) Fabric-form speeds the process of con- on top of the other; or wait for it to dry be-
struction. Although time is not a major con- fore building it in successive stages as is
185
(3) The fabric-form does not require pre- a very simple process of making voids. The
cision in wall alignments - an important ad- wooden framed doors and windows are placed with-
vantage for an unskilled and uneducated build- in the void of the fabric - such that the height
In fact, Harst has found that the big- the fabric is nailed to the frame. Subsequently
gest deterent for a dweller to build his own concrete . is poured into the wall. Once
shelter of semi-pucca type-using masonry block - the wall has hardened, the fabric is cut off
is in that he considers masonry work to be from the voids with scissors, and the door or
complicated and one that can only be performed window can be attached to the frame. (See sket-
(4) The fabric-form wall uses a 12" (6) The major advantage of fabric-form is
thick wall which is quite stable for multi- in fabrication of the beams and domes. The
story construction. This is a clear advantage beams are fabricated at roof height on the wall,
over semi-pucca I which uses a 6" thick wall so it does not have to be carried from ground
and would require extra columns if the build- to roof. This represents a major advantage,
ing were to grow vertically - very expensive if there is a constraint on manpower. The oth-
and difficult to do once the foundation and er advantage of using fabric as formwork is that
walls have been erected in 6" blocks. it excludes the use of expensive wooden shuttering.
186
In fact, one fabric can be re-used several types - but if he plans to use the fabric-form
times to fabricate beams (see sketch at a future date - he could, in the beginning,
(7) The catenary domes can be fabricated build his "juggi" with a greater floor to ceil-
From the previous discussion we can conclude requiring complex process or machinery, and
that design of any housing system should try should have the ability to be constructed by
will apply to unauthorized slums-with-hope 4. The system should permit growth both verti-
building activity does not take place. 6. The material used should be locally available
1. The building system must be simple enough and should not take a long duration to place
person, who can get instruction on the sys- 7. It should be fire resistant, water-proof,
tem through an educated neightbor, commu- insect-proof, and be able to take strong wind.
2. It must be cheap enough so that it fits making voids, i.e., windows, doors, ventila-
dwellers. This could be achieved if he 9. The delivery system should be such that he
The programme for upgrading of Aurangi non-regularized plots must be resolved. One ob-
must incorporate a comprehensive policy which serves that the regularized plots have a faster
recognizes the need for a total environmental rate of growth. Studies have shown that security
upgrading, of both the physical facilities as of tenure is the one crutial issue in rapid up-
well as the socio-economic well-being of the grading of squatters and this is confirmed by re-
individual. We can develop a set of guidelines, ports on squatter upgrading in other countries.
which incorporates a more comprehensive policy. However issues such as the loss in opportunity
Essentially the upgrading programme must recog- lost to the landowner, public or private. Can
nize the need to stimulate vocational training policies of cross-subdidization be really effec-
programmes, self-employment opportunities - tive. This remains as one of the more vital
that is accept the owners may carry out econ- incentives for slum upgrading.
increase the productivity and income of resi- Government policies must address issues of
dents. The community should not be isolated providing roads, water supply, sewerage, drain-
from the rest of the city and services, roads, age. The government should perhaps make these
transportation, etc., should be provided by the corrections only to each particular block and the
Government to integrate it within the Urban dwellers can then be asked to complete the linkages
to their homes. In this connection efforts scale manufacturing; sub-letting. 189
The existing layout should be retained as and other expenses for improvements.
tion to make paths or installation of services There is no one appropriate technology - and
and hence minimize movement of houses may pro- none should be imposed. People should be allowed
duce an irregular layout, but this provides a to build using any material they want, concrete
distinction of open to built areas. This is block, brick, mud, fabric framed structures, etc.,
an uniqueness which reinforces communities' that thye feel is most appropriate to their skill
Minimum Lot Size. terial and the built environment should not be im-
This is more of an issue with new plots. posed arbitrarily or stringently in this area.
Past minimum plot sizes should not be less than Slum Upgrading.
2 _ 2
40 m - 50 m2. From my own observation, plot Public Participation.
size of 120 m2 - 160 m 2, though extravagant, Any Government intervention must be preceded
provide adequate space for other economic ac- by discussions with the squatters about the pro-
tivities at home; i.e., shop-ownership, small gramme under consideration to insure that it has
popular support. Otherwise the project would before appropriating to dubious owners. 190
the block.
APPENDIX A
192
1. Cost-Estimation of Fabric Form Wall:
1 - stone
2 - concrete = cement
sand
gravel
wall as follows:
10 3
sand = .690 x 3 .22 ft
10 3
gravel = .690 x 33l = .44 ft
wall:
55
cement = .022 x 5 1 Rs.
1.25
270
sand = 0.22 x . 59 Rs.
100
225
gravel = 0.44 x ~ .98 Rs.
(coarse)
A = Area = L x L2 x K
have:
Factor of 1.2 for expected volume of 1 part of cement to 6 parts of sand by volume)
aggregate using only sand and cement
we have for 1.08 cu.ft. of aggregate:
mortar.
196
cement = .154 cu.ft. ; sand = 0.92 cu.ft. 4. Cost of bamboo edge frame = Rs. 16
= Rs. 9.256.
= Rs. 1.20
or Rs. 2.00/lb.
= Rs. 6.00
span = 11'
Loads:
- dead load =
5" + 3" 2
. beam = x 15" = 60 in (cross-
2 section)
= 120 + 210 + 60 + 45 =
2
Bending Moment 1 = 0.435x(ll') = 6.57 Kft.
8 = 78.84 K-in.
198
Allowable stress in the mild steel reinforce- (1) Cost of required reinforcement
or 2 bars of $ 1/2" should be enough for cement : 2 parts sand 4 parts aggregate by
Annual costs have been calculated by (2) Periodical recurrent cost (maintenance
(1) Annuity costs which include fore- This has been assumed on the basis of esti-
gone interest due to investment in house, mates currently used in Pakistan for various
ANNUAL COSTS
*All costs in Ruppees
FOR DIFFERENT BUILDING TYPES Rs. 1.00 = US $.10
ANNUAL*
(i) COSTS RECURRENT*
(p) (n) INTEREST (INTEREST + COSTS ANNUAL COSTS*
BUILDING TYPE COMPONENT COST* LIFE* RATE* DEPRECIATION) (MAINTENANCE) PER YEAR PER MONTH
ANNUAL COSTS
*All costs in Ruppees.
FOR DIFFERENT BUILDING TYPES Rs. 1.00 = US $.10
ANNUAL RECUR-
COSTS RENT
(i) (INTEREST COSTS
(p) (n) INTEREST + DEPRE- (MAINTEN- ANNUAL COSTS*
BUILDING TYPE COMPONENT COST* LIFE* RATE* CIATION)* ANCE)* PER YEAR PER MONTH
ANNUAL COSTS
*All costs in Ruppees.
FOR DIFFERENT BUILDING TYPES Rs. 1.00 = US $.10
ANNUAL RECUR-
COSTS RENT
(i) (INTEREST COSTS
(p) (n) INTEREST + DEPRE- (MAINTEN- ANNUAL COSTS*
BUILDING TYPE COMPONENT COST* LIFE* RATE* CIATION)* ANCE)* PER YEAR PER MONTH
**At 1% of principal.
TABLE 16.4 204
ANNUAL COSTS
*All costs in Ruppees
FOR DIFFERENT BUILDING TYPES Rs. 1.00 = US $.10
ANNUAL RECUR-
COSTS RENT
(i) (INTEREST COSTS
(p) (n) INTEREST + DEPRE- (MAINTEN- ANNUAL COSTS*
BUILDING TYPE COMPONENT COST* LIFE* RATE* CIATION)* ANCE)* PER YEAR PER MONTH
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