Linguistic Views in Methodology
The Generative
The Traditional View
- focus on the written language
and its grammatical structures
- prescriptivist approach: how a
language should be used
- not concerned with the usage
of the language for
communication purposes
- language as a tool for
understanding the literature
- how to form grammatically
correct sentences along with
the knowledge of vocabulary
Structuralism
- Ferdianand de Saussure
- language as a system of
structurally related elements to
convey meaning
- language can be analyzed as a
formal system of differential
components
- for speech and not reading or
writing
- habits which are
systematically different from
those in other languages
- teaching the language rather
than teaching about the
language
- focused on everyday language
- descriptivist approach: how a
language is actually used;
depicting the language at the
level of sound, word and
- the significance of language as
a system
- the role that linguistic units
such as sounds, words,
sentences play within this
system
- theoretical basis of the
audiolingual method
Transformational View
- Noam Chomsky
- opposed to the empiricism (all
concepts originate in
experience) The Communicative
- emphasis on an underlying View
level for all utterances of the
- Dell Hymes
native speakers
- the functional view
- emphasis on mental activity
- language as a vehicle in order
- human beings have the
to express functional meaning
capability to learn a language
conveyed through structure
- inborn ability instead of
- emphasis on semantic and
practice that enabled human
communicative aspects of
beings to obtain the rules of a
language rather than the
language and comprehend or
linguistic units
produce unlimited numbers of
- linguistic competence, not
utterances
sufficient for a person to be
- competence vs performance
able to use a language
- competence: the knowledge
communicatively
of the language
- communicative competence:
- performance: the actual use of
the appropriate and effective
the language
use of language in line with the
- most of this knowledge of
contextual factors influencing
language is innate; people are
the choice of words and
born wired to acquire language
structures
and needs only actually learn
the distinctive features of the
languages they are exposed to
- the creativity of language
knowledge, related to
competence

Behaviorism
- learning as habit formation
-learner as a passive imitator
who responds to environmental
stimuli
- tabula rasa: behavior is
shaped by means of positive or
negative reinforcement
- reinforcement: increasing
probability of a specific
behavior (positive: presenting a
motivating / negative:
ways of processing information
removing a certain unpleasant
stimulus)
- punishment: decreasing the
future frequency of a specific
behavior (positive: presenting a
negative consequence /
- language learning as the result
negative: removing a certain
desired stimulus)
- neglected the importance of
mind in the formation of verbal
behavior
- stimulus-response theory:
learning as a process of
automatic habit formation
happening via reinforcement of
a mechanical relation between
a stimulus and the desirable
- learning language needs to be
response
- errors are bad habits, need to
be immediately corrected
- uses drill exercises
Learning Theories
Cognitive Theory
- based on internal and mental
processes in language learning
- second language acquisition:
interaction between language
and cognition
- internal process: processing
information and thoughts
involved in cognitive activity
- learning strategies: special
that enhance comprehension
and learning
- focus on transferring,
simplification, generalization,
and restructuring
of internal mental activity
- emphasize that knowledge
and new learning is organized
in a mental structure
- learners act, construct, plan
and analyze their own learning
- positive and negative
feedback is important
new information reorganizes
existing knowledge
meaningful in order to be
effective and permanent
Connectionism
- cognitive framework
Humanism - doesn’t consider language
- language learning as a process
learning to involve either innate
that engages the whole person,
knowledge or abstraction of
not just the intellect
rules and principles
- consideration the emotional
- language learning results from
and spiritual needs of an
increasing strength of
individual is important
associations (connections)
- first as a human being and
between stimuli and responses
then as a learner
- frequency of input an
- emphasis on individuals’ basic
important causative factor in
needs
learning
- emotions, feelings, attitudes,
- from input, learners extract
needs, interests, beliefs and
the rules of the language
motivations of the learner is
through cognitive processes
important
- doesn’t accept innate rules
- preparing the necessary
and the existence of any innate
conditions and classroom
language-learning module
atmosphere
- L2 input is important as input
- both helps learners easily
is the source of both the units
learn things but also develops
and the rules of language
their personality in various
- language includes units which
ways
are intertwined in mind, so
- self-actualization, because the
acquisition occurs through
only reason for individuals to
associating elements or ideas
learn
with one another by means of
experiences
Terminology
Approach
- Theories about language
and language teaching and
learning
- info about the necessary
conditions for language
learning
- Axiomatic: can't be proven

Method
- Overall plan
- Practical application of
theoretical findings and
positions
- Needs to be based on an
approach
- Procedural

Technique
- Implementational
- Activities, practices and
tasks used in the classroom
- Consistent with a method
and in harmony with an
approach
 Approach
A set of assumptions,beliefs and theorires abou the nature of
language and language learning
- structural view: language as a structurally related units
(grammatical, phonological, lexical)
- functional view: language as a vehicle to express functional
meaning
- interactional view: language as a vehicle to express and maintain
interpersonal relationships with others

Method
Design
The relationship of these theories to classroom materials and
activities

Procedure
The techniques and practices that are derived from one's approach
and design
 1

BEFORE METHODS ERA

THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD
 an old and traditional method
 first used to teach classical languages like Latin and Greek
 oral language was not the focus of this method as it was used to teach dead languages
 did not follow any approach
 lessons are taught in students’ first language by making use of translation
 purpose of learning a foreign language is to read the literary texts in the target language and to
develop the learners intellectually.
 classical method, traditional method; grammar school method and Prussian method
Learning Theory:
 Deductive teaching
 Translation is the main way of learning the language
Language Theory:
 The role of the language is to help learners understand the literature of the target language
 Language consists of abstract grammatical rules
 written language > spoken languag
 The students also learn the structure of their mother tongue.
Goals and Objectives:
 aims at teaching translation, reading and understanding the literature in the target language
The Role of Culture:
 Culture is limited to the literature and the fine arts of the target language
The Role of Mother Tongue:
 has a significant function in teaching vocabulary and grammar
 classroom instructions occur in the first language.
The Role of the Teacher:
 the only and strict authority in the classroom
 teacher-centered
The Role of the Student:
 the passive receivers of the new information transmitted from the teacher
 expected to be passive, teacher-dependent and memorize the rules and the new vocabulary
with mother tongue equivalents
Teaching Language Areas:
 Grammar and vocabulary are primary language areas
 written language is given importance
 spoken language is neglected
 pronunciation is not focused
Teaching Grammar:
 deductive teaching
 translation
Teaching Vocabulary:
 new words are never taught in a meaningful context
 lists of isolated words with their meanings in the students’ first language
 synonyms and antonyms.
 Cognates
 2

Teaching Language Skills:

 the written language is superior over the spoken language
 writing and reading skills are aimed to be developed
 speaking and listening skills are neglected
 emphasis on accuracy and form
 fluency and meaning are not focused
 . Students practice and develop their reading skills through extracts from the literature and
reading comprehension that they are expected to answer.
Interactions:
 little interaction between the teacher and the students
 no interaction among the students at all
Error Correction:
 immediate error correction comes from the teacher in a strict manner
 errors are not tolerated
 explicit correction
Materials:
 extracts from the literature in the target language
 real life situations and texts including daily language use do not have any role
Syllabus Type:
 a structural syllabus
 each unit is named with a grammatical structure
 from simple to complex
The Feelings of the Students’:
 not based on humanistic approach.
Evaluation:
 students are asked to translate sentences from the target language
 “fill-in-the-blank” type test items
 synonyms, antonyms, and cognates can be asked in formal tests
 reading comprehension questions
 write paragraphs or compositions for evaluation.
Techniques:
 Translation of a Literary Passage
 Reading Comprehension Questions
 Antonyms / Synonyms:
 Cognates
 Deductive Application of Rule
 Fill-in-the blanks
 Memorization
 Using words in Sentences
 Writing Composition
 3

REFORM MOVEMENT
 criticizes Grammar Translation Method
 grammar should be taught inductively
 meaningful contexts to teach structures and new words
 students should learn the target language as in the way they acquire their mother tongue
 listening, speaking, reading and writing
 students should be first exposed to spoken language before they see it in written form
 translation should be avoided
 paved the way for the appearance of the Direct Method

DIRECT METHOD
 as a reaction to the Grammar Translation Method
 teaching a foreign language through conversations, discussion and reading in the language
itself, without the use of the students’ first language, without translation and without teaching
grammar explicitly
 direct and spontaneous use of the target language
 inductive teaching
 also known as Berlitz Method, Maximilian Berlitz,
o Never translate: demonstrate o Never use the book: use your lesson plan
o Never explain: act o Never jump around: follow your plan
o Never make a speech: ask questions o Never go too fast: keep the pace of the student
o Never imitate mistakes: correct o Never speak too slowly: speak normally
o Never speak with single words: use sentences o Never speak too quickly: speak naturally
o Never speak too much: make students speak o Never speak too loudly: speak naturally
much o Never be impatient: take it easy
Learning Theory:
 a direct relation between form and meaning
 learning a foreign language resembles to first language acquisition
 inductive teaching
 learning akes place naturally through the direct exposure to the foreign language
Language Theory:
 language is for oral communication
 the use of the students’ mother tongue in the class is prohibited
Goals and Objectives:
 to be able to communicate and interact in that language by learning to think in the target
language
The Role of Culture:
 life style, customs, traditions, daily habits, food and history of the target culture along with its
art and literature
The Role of Mother Tongue:
 no role in the teaching and learning process in the classroom
 students are not allowed to speak in their mother tongue
 the teachers never explain anything in the first
 4

The Role of the Teacher:

 as authoritative and dominant as they are in the Grammar Translation Method
 the primary source of input
 act as a model for the target language
The Role of the Student:
 active participants and processors of comprehensible input in the target language provided by
the teacher
Teaching Language Areas:
 first developing correct pronunciation skills is aimed
 vocabulary teaching is also significant in order to understand the input the students are
exposed to
Teaching Grammar:
 inductive teaching
Teaching Vocabulary:
 pictures, realia, sample sentences
 first language is never utilized
 concrete vocabulary is presented and taught via objects and demonstration and miming
 abstract vocabulary is taught by association of ideas
 words in daily language are aimed to be taught, not old-fashioned and less common vocabulary
Teaching Language Skills:
 follows the natural order for developing language skills
 listening, speaking, reading, and writing
 fluency over accuracy
 speaking and listening skills are at the centre
 reading and writing skills are developed in parallel with listening and speaking
Error Correction:
 may not be immediately corrected during the communication activities
 self-correction is strongly emphasized
Materials:
 materials including daily language use and frequently used words are commonly used
 reading passages about daily issues, life styles etc. of the target culture
 situation-based dialogues
Syllabus Type:
 based on are situational and topical syllabuses
The Feelings of the Students:
 no reflections from Humanism
Evaluation:
 in terms of their ability to use the target language communicatively
Techniques:
 reading aloud
 question and answer exercises
 conversation practices
 dictation
 meaning-based fill-in-the-blank exercise
 drawing (for listening)
 paragraph writing
 5

THE ORAL APPROACH AND SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING

 focus on oral language
 is a more systematic method with regards to the principles and procedures on the selection of
the content
 emphasis primarily on vocabulary and grammar control
 teaching a foreign language situationally,
 the situational language teaching started to be referred as the Oral Approach.
Learning Theory:
 Behaviorism
 language learning as habit-formation
 errors are immediately corrected
 the process of language teaching includes three stages:
1. receiving the knowledge or the material
2. fixing it in memory through repetition
3. using it in actual practice until it becomes a habit.
Language Theory:
 the structural view of language
 speech is considered as the main element of language
 structure is at the core of speaking ability
 linguistic structures and the new words
Goals and Objectives:
 a practical command of the four basic skills of a language, which can be achieved by means of
structure.
 accurate pronunciation and production of linguistic structures.
 ability to answer automatically and correctly in conversations.
The Role of Culture:
 consist of everyday behavior and attitudes and lifestyle
 presented in the dialogues
The Role of Mother Tongue:
 doesn’t have any role in the classroom
 believed to be interfering in the learning process
The Role of the Teacher:
 teacher-centered
 the role of a model to provide the students with the accurate production of language
 the situation provider to set a context for language use
 a skillful conductor to make sure that the students have enough practice to have a control over
their vocabulary, pronunciation,grammar knowledge and skills
 skilled manipulators, using questions, commands, and other cues to elicit correct utterances
from the students
The Role of the Student:
 simply listen and repeat what the teacher says to develop a habit
Teaching Language Areas:
 the primary skill to be developed and practiced is pronunciation
 vocabulary and grammar knowledge are also emphasized
 pronunciation practices, presentation of new structures and words, oral practice through
drilling and reading the dialogues on the new structures and words.
 6

Teaching Grammar:
 inductively through dialogues
 simple forms should be taught before complex ones
Teaching Vocabulary:
 emphasis on vocabulary, an essential element of reading skill
 the form of new words is displayed with examples and in dialogues
 never conveyed through translation
Teaching Language Skills:
 language skills are learned more effectively when they are presented orally first, then in written
form
 listening, speaking and reading skills
 writing seems to be neglected.
Error Correction:
 doesn’t tolerate the
 barriers to language learning
 immediately corrected by the teacher.
Materials:
 course-books which include situations and graded grammatical structures and vocabulary
 use of visual aids such as wall charts, flashcards, and pictures
Syllabus Type:
 structural and situational syllabuses
The Feelings of the Students’:
 not any principles or information regarding the feelings of the students
Evaluation:
 tested in terms of their pronunciation skills, automatic control of structures and vocabulary via
discrete-point tests, in which each item assesses a single linguistic structure.
Techniques:
 substitution and repetition exercises
 demonstrations and body languages
 using realia, pictures
 dictation
 controlled oral-based reading and writing activities
 7

THE METHODS ERA

AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
 during the World War 2
 an urgent need for soldiers and spies to speak and understand foreign languages
 also known as Army Method
 the first scientific method since it has roots in both psychology and linguistics
Learning Theory:
 Behaviorism
 language learning is basically defined as a process of mechanical habit formation
 the habits of students’ mother tongue interfere with students’ attempt to master the target
language
 Contrastive analysis: comparing and contrasting two languages in order to uncover the
similarities and differences between the two
 the learning process emphasizes active and simple practices, habit formation and conditioning
rather than intellectual analysis
 memorization of dialogues, repetitions and pattern drills
 reduce the mental burden and increase the effortless and frequent repetition and imitation
Language Theory:
 Structuralism
 language as a system of structurally-related elements such as phonemes, morphemes, words,
structures and sentence patterns
 each language has a finite number of patterns
 language is primarily spoken
Goals and Objectives:
 enable students to speak the target language automatically without stopping to think
The Role of Culture:
 not only art and literature of the target language
 also everyday behaviors, and lifestyle of the target language society
The Role of Mother Tongue:
 not allowed in the classroom
 the medium of instruction is in the target language
The Role of the Teacher:
 an orchestra leader, who direct and control the language productions and the behaviors of the
students
 good models displaying the correct language productions for the students
 also expected to know the differences between the students’ first language and the target
language to foresee the probable errors committed by the students.
The Role of the Student:
 imitators of the teacher or the native speakers
 supposed to engage in mechanical drills to repeat the pronunciation and the structures to
memorize and use them automatically.
Teaching Language Areas:
 great importance should be given to correct pronunciation through repetitions
Teaching Grammar:
 inductive teaching
 8

Teaching Vocabulary:
 strictly limited and learned in contexts through dialogues.
Teaching Language Skills:
 emphasis on listening and speaking
Interactions:
 majority of the interaction is between teacher and students and is initiated by the teacher
Error Correction:
 should be prevented and/ or corrected immediately
 inhibit learning the language.
Materials:
 essential for the students not to be exposed to the printed word
 later on, course-book is used to provide dialogues to establish context for teaching the
language
 tape recorders and audiovisual equipment
Syllabus Type:
 a structure-based one
 from simple to complex.
Techniques:
 Dialogue memorization
 Minimal pairs
 Dialogue completion
 Grammar games
 Mechanical drills
o Repetition drill
o Backward build-up (expansion) drills
o Chain drill
o Single- slot substitution drill
o Multiple-slot substitution drill
o Transformational drills

SILENT WAY
 Caleb Gattegno
 based on Cognitive Theory
 human beings are creative; therefore, mimicry, memorization, repetition and parrot do not
lead to real learning
 language is not confined to a limited number of utterances as opposed to Structuralism
 Silence is used as a tool by the teacher in order to make the students autonomous learners (i.e.,
responsible for their own learning process
1. learning is facilitated if the students discover rather than memorize or repeat
2. learning is supported by physical objects
3. problem-solving is at the centre of learning
Learning Theory:
 Cognitive Psychology
 language learning is not defined as habit formation
 rule formation or hypothesis formation
 teaching is subordinate to learning,
 9

Language Theory:
 language as groups of sounds which are arbitrarily associated with specific meanings
 language is separated from its social context with artificial situations
 induce the grammar rules
 vocabulary is a central element
 semi-luxury vocabulary: the words that are frequently used in daily life by the native speakers
of the target language
luxury vocabulary:
the words which are used to communicate more specialized ideas like political or philosophical
opinions etc.
Goals and Objectives:
 to be able to use the target language for self expression
 autonomous learners
The Role of Culture:
 an inseparable component of language
 language reflects its culture
 everyday life, art, literature of the target language and society
 should be taught to the students.
The Role of Mother Tongue:
 can be employed to give instructions when necessary
 the feedback
 the meaning of the new vocabulary or the input is made clear by focusing on the student’s
perceptions, not by translation
The Role of the Teacher:
 a technician or an engineer who facilitates learning
 teachers’ silence leaves the responsibility to the shoulder of the students
 not the model
 do not correct the students’ errors
 provide feedback using their gestures, mimics and body language
 lead the students toward correct answers by nodding or negative head shakes.
The Role of the Student:
 autonomous learners
 actively take part in exploring the language
Teaching Language Areas:
 starts teaching the target language first by focusing on the sounds
 pronunciation is the emphasized language area
Teaching Grammar:
 a focus on the linguistic structures of the target language
 grammar is not taught deductively
 from simple to the complicated grammatical structures
 starts teaching grammar with the imperative
 numeration
 prepositions of location
Teaching Vocabulary:
 visual aids and color-coded word-charts
 translation is never used
 10

 meaning is achieved through perceptions (senses)

 the functional vocabulary which has high utility (prepositions and numbers, pronouns,
quantifiers, words dealing with temporal relations, and words of comparison)
Teaching Language Skills:
 pronunciation is emphasized at the very beginning
 the melody of the language
 all four skills are worked on from the beginning
 the students are expected to produce the language orally first
Interactions:
 the teacher is silent
 student-student verbal interaction
 students can learn from one another.
Error Correction:
 inevitable and natural signs of learning
 teachers make use of students’ errors decide to where further work is necessary
 correction never comes from the teacher
 self correction is encouraged
 peer correction is also frequently used, but it should be done in a cooperative manner
Materials:
 a set of colored rods (Cuisenaire rods)
 color-coded pronunciation and vocabulary wall charts (Fidel charts)
 a pointer
 reading/writing exercises
 all of these materials are employed to illustrate the relationships between sound and meaning
in the target language
 books and worksheets for practicing reading and writing skills
 picture books
 tapes; videotapes, films, and other visual aids
 of secondary importance, and used to supplement the classroom use of rods and charts.
Syllabus Type:
 structural syllabus
 planned around grammatical items and related vocabulary
 not a linear syllabus
The Feelings of the Students’:
 during feedback sessions which are carried out in mother tongue
 encouraged to cooperate with one another in order to create a relaxed and cooperative
language learning environment
Evaluation:
 the teacher continuously monitors and evaluates the students’ learning.
Techniques:
 teacher’s Silence
 color-coded sound charts
 Fidel chart: a set of charts presenting all the possible spellings of each sound of the target
language.
 self and peer correction
 the colored Cuisenaire rods
 11

 self-correction
 gestures
 Word chart
 structured feedback

SUGGESTOPEDIA
 1970s, Georgi Lozanov
 human brain could process great quantities of material if people are simply given the right
condition for learning
 a state of relaxation
 the use of Baroque and Classical music
 getting rid of the negative thoughts and replacing them with positive attitudes and ideas
 the decoration, furniture, and arrangement of the classroom
 the use of music
 the authoritative behavior of the teacher
 based on Humanism
 mentally and emotionally preparing the students for language learning process
 adults are often afraid of making mistakes
 psychological barriers that halt adults from progressing and learning and this
 aims at revealing the learners’ full mental potential by removing these barriers and making
them ready for learning
 suggestology is used

SUGGESTOLOGY
harnessing and redi-recting the mental capacity to
foster maximum learning

DESUGGESTION
- removing pschological barriers that prevent
the students from learning
- to make better use of our reserved
capacity, the limitations we have need to be ‘
desuggested’
SUGGESTION
- loading the learners with positive and
facilitating memories about the language
and language learning
- through suggestion we can facilitate the
creation of new, richer patterns of
conscious/unconscious responses

Positive suggestion:
(1) Direct suggestion: It appeals to the
students’ consciousness.
Ex: a teacher tells students that they are
going to be successful
(2) Indirect suggestion: It addresses to the
students’ subconscious
Ex: through the choice of a dialog’s title.
 12

 developed for the following reasons:

1. to help students eliminate the feeling that they cannot be successful.
2. to help students eliminate the negative association they may have towards studying
3. to help students overcome the barriers to learning.
Learning Theory:
 human beings tend to use 5-10% of their mental capacity
 limitations and negative emotions and opinions or experiences need to be desuggested to be
able use our full potential
 five principles through which desuggestion and suggestion operate
o Authority Concept: People have the tendency to remember best when new information
comes from a reliable authoritative source. This authority has nothing to do with
authoritarianism, traditional strictness; however, it is the non-directive prestige which
creates confidence and intuitive desire to follow the example
o Infantilization: Authority is also employed to suggest a teacher-student relationship like
that of “parent-child” relationship. In the child’s role the learner takes part in role
playing, games, songs and gymnastic exercises that help the older student regain the
self confidence, spontaneity and receptivity of the child
o Double-planedness: The students learn both from the instructions, linguistic input
(consciously) and from the environment by means of the classical music (subconscious).
o Intonation & Rhythm: Varying intonation, tone and rhythm of the presented material
help to avoid boredom. The teacher should present the material with different
intonation patterns and in a playful manner.
o Concert pseudo-passiveness: Teaching materials presented with varying rhythm,
intonation, and tone should be accompanied by music in the background. Baroque and
classical music work very effectively for this purpose.
Language Theory:
 no theory of language
 communication is a two-plane (stage) process
o language - in the first plane
o factors, which affect the linguistic message - in the second plane
Goals and Objectives:
 to activate students’ mental potential
The Role of Culture:
 everyday life of the target society and fine arts
The Role of Mother Tongue:
 used to make the meaning of the dialogues clear
 helps decreasing stress and anxiety
 as the proficiency level of the students increases, the frequency of the use of the first language
decreases
The Role of the Teacher:
 the authority
 students learn better if they get the information from a reliable authority
The Role of the Student:
 the role of a child
 advised to adopt a new identity to avoid the fear of making mistakes
 13

Teaching Language Areas:

 learn best when their conscious attention is focused not on the language structures, yet on
using the language communicatively
 pronunciation is developed during the communicative activities
Teaching Grammar:
 explicitly but with a minimum amount of time spent
 direct instruction of the linguistic structures is done in the students’ first language.
Teaching Vocabulary:
 vocabulary teaching and development are emphasized
 the success in teaching large number of words
 meanings of the unknown words can be supplied in students’ first language
Teaching Language Skills:
 oral communication is emphasized
 speaking and listening are important
 writing and reading are also important
Major Phases of Desuggestopedia
o The receptive phase
“presentation stage” where the teacher presents the input in a playful manner together with
the Classical or Baroque music playing in the background
(a) The first concert (the active concert):
- The teacher reads the dialog or story, matching his or her voice to the rhythm of the music
playing
- to activate whole brain; that’s, both the left and the right hemispheres
- the students are supposed to follow what the teacher reads from a hand out on which they
have both the target language and the translation
(b) The second concert (the passive concert):
- The students are asked to close their eyes and listen to the teacher’s voice accompanying
with the Classical music in the background while the teacher is reading the dialog at a normal
rate of speed
o The activation phase
“practice stage” because the students are involved in various activities prepared to help them
get familiar with the new material
(a) Primary activation:
- The students playfully reread the target language dialog out loud, as individuals or in groups
- The teacher may ask them to read the dialogue sadly, angrily or cheerfully
(b) Secondary activation (Creative adaptation):
- The students engage in various types of activities prepared to help them learn the new
language material and use it spontaneously
- Singing, dancing, dramatizations, and games, through which the student have fun and focus
on communicative intent rather than linguistic structures
Interactions:
 interaction among the students (often through pair and group works) as well as between the
teacher and the student are fostered
 14

Error Correction:
 errors are not treated with immediate corrective feedback as the focus is on communication
 the teacher makes use of “recast” as the corrective feedback
 not to interrupt the communication and the relaxed classroom atmosphere
Materials:
 dialogues are employed with their translations in the students’ first language
 the textbook posters
 peripheral learning: the cases when the students learn the language by looking at the posters
on the wall without noticing that they actually pay attention to them
 novelty contributes to increasing students’ motivation; thus, learning activities are varied
Syllabus Type:
 in a way, the syllabus type is a mixture of structural and lexical syllabus
 the majority of the attention is on the vocabulary development
The Feelings of the Students’:
 the major aim of the method is to prepare the students mentally and emotionally for the
language learning process
Evaluation:
 not assessed using formal tests because of the risk of increasing the students’ anxiety and
stress level
 the teacher carries out the evaluation by observing the students’ in-class performances
Techniques:
 Comfortable classroom set up
 Positive suggestions
 Peripheral learning
 Choosing a new identity
 Visualization
 First Concert and Second Concert
 Primary Activation and Secondary Activation
 Games
 Dramatization and role plays

Community Language Learning

 Charles A. Curran, who was a specialist in counseling and a professor of psychology
 application of psychological counseling techniques to language learning is also known as
Counseling-Learning.
 a method based on humanism since it puts the feeling of the learners at the centre of the
language learning and teaching process.
 In Community Language Learning, lessons take place as in the following:
(1) deciding on the topic with the students
(2) a conversation in the first language
(3) translation in chunks by the teacher
(4) recording of the conversations
(5) a transcript with first language equivalents
(6) activities based on the conversation
 15

Learning Theory:
 techniques of counseling might be implemented to teach the language
 putative learning and passive (behavioral) learning are not the desired type of learning since it
neglects the engagement and involvement of the self
 a holistic approach to language learning due to the cognitive and affective characteristics of
human learning
 whole-person learning
 an interactional condition where teachers and learners are engaged in communication
 the development of the students’ relationship with the teacher is central
 the psychological requirements for successful learning, SARD:
1. Security: If the students do not feel secure, they will find it hard to have a successful
learning experience.
2. Attention and Aggression: Loss of attention is viewed as the students’ learner’s lack of
involvement in learning. Aggression refers to the demonstration of what has been
learnt as in the way a child looks for a chance to show what s/he knows.
3. Retention and Reflection: Retention will best occur when the material is somewhere in
between novelty and familiarity. Reflection refers to the principle that the students
need quiet reflection time in order to learn.
4. Discrimination: The students should discriminate the similarities and the differences
among target language structures.
Language Theory:
 language as a vehicle for communication and for developing creative thinking
 what you learn and share with others
Goals and Objectives:
 creating a non-defensive, safe and secure classroom environment, where the student can trust
each other and the teacher and where they form a communit
 a result of the cooperative classroom and considering the class as a whole person.
 learning to use the target language communicatively can only take place after ensuring a non-
competitive learning condition
The Role of Culture:
 integrated with the language
 should be taught to the students.
The Role of Mother Tongue:
 should be used to make students feel more secure and less anxious
 the target language is used more and more later on
 language alternation: explaining the message or lesson first in students’ mother tongue then in
the target language. Also, the teacher translates what the students say in their first language to
the target language during the classroom.
The Role of the Teacher:
 teachers as language counselors
 make the students feel relaxed and get rid of the threatening factors in the classroom
The Role of the Student:
 the students are client-learners
 expect empathy and guidance from the teacher
 16

Teaching Language Areas:

 all language areas are worked on and developed and the pronunciation is also given
importance
Teaching Grammar:
 mother tongue equivalent
 the students induce the rules from their own utterances
 can be explicit if necessary.
Teaching Vocabulary:
 translations of the words are given to the students.
Teaching Language Skills:
 listening and speaking
 the students decide on what to speak
 say whatever they want to say in their first language and the teacher translates them
 reading and writing skills are developed alongside the speaking and listening
Error Correction:
 in a non-threatening way.
 repeating the correct form without emphasizing the owner of the error.
Materials:
 no textbook is used
 the content of the lesson is negotiated with the students
 materials may be designed by the teacher when the students have reached to a certain
proficiency level
Syllabus Type:
 no pre-planned syllabus because the content of the lesson is determined by the students
 the syllabus is developed on the basis of students’ communication needs.
Evaluation:
 no particular mode of evaluation or test type
 an integrative classroom test that the teacher has prepared is more likely to be used
Techniques:
 Transcription: This technique is utilized to record student-generated language. The students
write down the utterance they have produced and recorded.
 Reflection on Experience: Students are invited to talk about their language learning experiences
and their emotions about the process.
 Reflective Listening: Students listen to their own voices and utterances which have been tape-
recorded. Sometimes, the teacher also reads the transcript while students are listening.
 Human Computer: The teacher repeats the correct form as many times as the students need,
specifically for correct pronunciation. The teacher never explicitly corrects the student’s error,
but employs “recast” as corrective feedback.
 Small Group Tasks: Students learn from each other while working on a task in groups.

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

 the coordination of speech and action will enhance language learning
 developed by James Asher drawing from developmental psychology and humanistic pedagogy
 a humanistic method since the game-like movements and activities reduce stress
 also structural because of its principle of using imperative verbs as the core language input
 also called Comprehension Approach due to the significance of listening comprehension
 17

 the main idea from child language acquisition; speaking is considered as a natural result of
listening comprehension
 language learning should focus on comprehension and the teaching of speaking skill should be
postponed until comprehension skills are established
Learning Theory:
 three important hypotheses regarding learning:
o Innate Bio-program:
- an innate bio-program that follows the similar process to first language acquisition
while learning a foreign language
- a naturalistic method of language learning and accepts the natural order of acquiring
language skills
o Brain Lateralization:
- activating both hemispheres of the brain for an effective and permanent learning
- left-brain is responsible for language comprehension and production as well as
analyzing, and criticizing
- the right-hemisphere is responsible for psychomotor skills, acting, drawing, games,
non-verbal language and metaphors
o Stress (an affective filter):
- the lower the stress is, the greater the language learning takes place
- if the teacher focuses on meaning conveyed through physical actions rather than on
abstract grammar forms, stress and anxiety can be avoided
Language Theory:
 primarily considered to be oral
 likened to the acquisition of first language, during which the students first listen and experience
a silent period and then oral language production follows
 the skillful use of the imperative form
 command drills are frequently employed as a vehicle for internalizing the vocabulary and
grammar of the target language
Goals and Objectives:
 to establish a stress-free course and environment to reduce the learners’ inhibitions towards
language learning
 to make students respond physically to the verbal input
 to form the baseline to be able to use the language communicatively
The Role of Mother Tongue:
 the meaning of the structures and the words are conveyed by means of physical movements
and demonstration
 sometimes the students’ first language is also used at the beginning of the language learning
process
 later it is very rarely utilized since the input is made clear via actions, there is no need to do so
The Role of the Teacher:
 the director of a stage play as the lesson is organized around bodily kinesthetic activities,
actions and movement
The Role of the Student:
 the role of actors and actresses in a play
 later, they are expected to speak the language, so they are considered to be ready to direct the
teacher or their classmates
 18

Teaching Language Areas:

 Grammar and vocabulary
 pronunciation is delayed for later stages when the students start to produce oral language
Teaching Grammar:
 the imperative form plays a crucial role
 depending on the proficiency level of the students, single-word chunks or multi-word chunks
 requires the teacher to be creative in producing commands with other grammatical structures
(Ex: to teach “If clause type 1”, “Stand up if you were born in İstanbul” or “Smile if you are
wearing glasses”)
Teaching Vocabulary:
 new lexical items presented in imperative forms
 verbs are the core vocabulary to be taught
 objects, particularly available in the surrounding environment are chosen to teach
 to teach the words in chunks, rather than in isolation (Ex: clap your hands, comb your hair,
etc.)
Teaching Language Skills:
 The natural order of the skills for learning
(1) listening
(2) speaking
(3) reading
(4) writing
 listening and physical response skills are emphasized over oral production
 listening is very crucial as comprehension constitutes the baseline of the method
 the students are not forced to produce the language orally at the beginning, so they are given
some space to go through a silent period
Error Correction:
 an inevitable part of the language learning process
 tolerant towards students’ errors
 major errors should be corrected to avoid fossilization
 the corrective feedback gently in order not to humiliate the students and not to increase the
stress
Materials:
 no written texts are used
 objects in the classroom, visual aids, and bodily-kinesthetic language tasks
 the imperative mood is the most common language function used and taught even with the
advanced level students
Syllabus Type:
 a sentence-based syllabus with grammatical and lexical criteria
 the meaning of the utterances rather than to the grammatical structures
The Feelings of the Students’:
 at the centre of the method
 the teacher does not push the students to speak the language.
 perfection is not expected by the teacher
 the level of stress and anxiety should be decreased by means of funny commands to make the
students enjoy the course
 19

Evaluation:
 formal evaluations conducted simply by giving commands to the students
 the evaluation is basically carried out through observations.
Techniques:
 Commands: Imperative form to give commands
 Role reversal: After the students have gained sufficient proficiency in the target language, they
switch roles with the teacher and command the teacher and classmates to perform actions.
 Action sequence: The teacher can produce chain of imperatives for the students to perform
(e.g., “Walk to the door, open the door, leave the class and knock on the door”).

WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH

 developed by a group of US educators who were interested in teaching the literacy skills;
reading and writing
 the main purpose to was to enable the students to apply the language in real-life, social
situations that are relevant to the needs and interests of the students
Language theory:
 language as a vehicle for establishing personal relations with the people
 adopts an interactional perspective towards language
Learning theory:
 knowledge is not transmitted from the teacher to the students
 socially constructed by building on the previous experiences
 emphasis on learning authenticity as only applying what has been learned in a real situation can
help the students internalize the language content
The Role of the Teacher and of the Student:
 mainly addresses to the needs of the students by focusing on real-life events and contexts
 learner-centred learning and teaching
 the students should have a say over the choice of instructional materials, topics, activities and
the partners they would like to work with
 the teacher is a facilitator and an active participant in the learning community
 students are cooperative learners and evaluators of their own and their classmates’ learning
Teaching Language Areas, Grammar, Vocabulary and Skills:
 a holistic view towards language; language is a whole and should not be broken down into its
units like grammar, vocabulary, reading and writing
 all language skills are taught integratively
 reading is done for the sake of comprehension and for real purposes, and writing is done for
real audiences not to practice writing skills
Error Correction:
 natural signs of learning not a failure, so they are tolerated but major errors are corrected
Materials:
 artificial texts, materials and exercises not employed
 authentic literature, materials and tasks are used.
Techniques:
 Individual and small group reading and writing activities
 Reading authentic texts and writing to a real audience
 Portfolios including authentic tasks
 Student-made books, journals or magazines
 20

 Story writing, e-mail, CV and letter writing

 The use of process-writing

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
 The psychologist and professor of neuroscience, Howard Gardner
 pluralistic view towards intelligence the concept
 intelligence should not be considered only in terms of logical/ mathematical or linguistic
abilities
 eight intelligence types
 every individual possesses all of these intelligence types yet with different levels
 Multiple Intelligences Theory can be used to develop curriculum, plan instruction, select course
activities and related assessment tools
 instruction designed to help students develop their strong aspects can also trigger their
confidence to develop areas in which they are not as strong
Intelligence types:

 Verbal / linguistic intelligence: using language to present your ideas, to express your feelings
or to persuade others
 Logical / mathematical intelligence: reasoning, logical thinking; handling mathematical
problems
 Visual/spatial intelligence: creating and interpreting visual images; thinking in three
dimensions
 Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence: feeling and expressing things physically; doing hands on work
 21

 Musical/rhythmic intelligence: creating and feeling a rhythm to express a mood; detecting and
analysing musical themes
 Intrapersonal intellengence: (within the self) understanding your own interior thoughts and
feelings in a very clear way
 Interpersonal intellengence: (between people) understanding the feelings, needs, and
purposes of other
 Naturalist intelligence: understanding nature, seeing patterns in the way nature works;
classifying things
Language theory:
 does not regard language only as a set of linguistic units
 language is not restricted to “linguistic” perspective
 encompasses all aspects of communication such as rhythm, pitch, tone as well as body, music,
and interpersonal relations
Learning theory:
 does not hold a particular learning theory
 learners have different individual learning styles, preferences and intelligences; hence, teachers
should be aware of these differences, and accommodate the way they teach the language
content to the students’ need
 organizing the instructional materials and tasks around different intelligence types maximizes
the effectiveness of teaching and learning
Other Assumptions of Multiple Intelligence Theory
 does not provide any purposes in linguistic forms
 provides necessary conditions to make students aware of the best way to design their own
language learning experience
 “Variety is the spice”: rich and balanced mixture of learning activities appealing to different
intelligences
 “One size fits all”: every student has to engage in all the exercises to develop all types of
intelligence
 the teachers should choose the most suitable and effective multiple intelligence activity among
many others
Syllabus Type
• Awaken the intelligence
•The students can be given opportunities to be sensitized to the properties of objects and
events by means of multisensory experiences (i.e., touching, smelling, seeing, hearing and
STAGE 1
tasting).

• Amplify the intelligence

•Students are enabled to develop and strengthen the intelligence.
STAGE 2

• Teach with/for the intelligence

•The intelligence is linked to the aim of the language class via worksheets, pair and group
STAGE 3 works and discussions.

• Transfer of the intelligence

•Students are invited to reflect on what they have experienced in the earlier stages. They
STAGE 4 also relatetheir in-class experiences to the outside world.
 22

NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING (NLP)

 an alternative form of therapy developed in 1970s by John Grindler and Richard Bandler
 not a language teaching and learning method in nature
 examined successful people’s thought patterns, beliefs and behaviors with the purpose of
coming up with a set of assumptions to teach other people to make them successful as well
 through relaxation techniques like breathing exercises or guided imagery activities, the
students are relaxed emotionally and made mentally alert
 our behaviors are deeply affected by our thoughts and emotions
 trains the students to eliminate their negativity and decrease anxiety and transform them into
positive ones
 concerned with how people affect each other and how the successful people’s attitudes and
beliefs can be imitated by others
 Modeling is a central concept
 aims to train people develop self-awareness and effective communication so as to fulfill their
aims

NEURO-LINGUISTIC
PROGRAMMING

Neuro part of NLP Linguistic part of NLP Programming part of NLP

the way we use language to

based on the idea that we
experience the world
through our senses and
represent it in our minds via
our neurological processes
make sense of the world,
conceptualize and
experience.
In NLP, linguistics is the
study of how the words you
speak influence your and
other's experiences.
related to training ourselves
to think, speak and act
positively with the aim of
releasing our potential and
reaching our aims.

 4 principles central to Neuro-linguistic Programming:

(1) Outcomes: Knowing what you want to achieve. When this principle is considered in terms
of ELT both on the parts of teachers and learners, setting a target initiates the process of
success.
(2) Rapport (Uyum/ahenk): minimize the differences and maximize the similarities between
people so as to constitute rapport not only with themselves but also with others. Since
language means communication, while learning and teaching a foreign language, rapport can
ease the complex and difficult process of language learning and/or acquisition.
 Interpersonal relations between the teacher and the students are given much
importance in NLP. This metacommunication; that’s, rapport, linkage and authority can
 23

facilitate language learning to a great extent since students feel comfortable and safe
when trying to learn to communicate in a new and different language.
(3) Sensory acuity: to identify what other people express verbally and non-verbally, which is
very much related to the VAKOG system.
 VAKOG system: People experience, process and store information in different ways
through their senses, which is called as representational system
Visual
Auditory
Kinaesthetic
Olfactory
Gustatory
(4) Flexibility: changing the means that have not done any good to reach your goals is what
people need to do.

LEXICAL APPROACH
 focuses on the exclusive need for building vocabulary knowledge in the foreign language
 concentrates on developing the students’ proficiency with lexis, or words and word
combinations
 based on the idea that a significant part of language acquisition is the ability to understand and
produce lexical phrases as chunks
Language Theory:
 suggests that only a small proportion of language consists of entirely novel creations
 the rest consists of multi-word chunks that are fixed and memorized patterns
 these lexical chunks are used in everyday interactions
 Lexical chunk: the pair or group of words that are commonly found together
 Collocation: the readily observable phenomenon whereby certain words co-occur in natural
text with greater than random frequency
 Types of chunks
o words (book, pen)
o polywords (by the way, upside down)
o word partnerships (community service, absolutely convinced)
o institutionalized utterances (I’ll get it; We’ll see; That’ll do; If I were you )
o sentence frames and heads (That is not as . . . as you think; The
fact/suggestion/problem/ danger was . . .)
o text frames (first of all…., secondly….., finally…., on the one hand… on the other hand…)
o collocations (totally convinced, strong accent, blame somebody for, charge with)
Learning Theory:
 does not hold a coherent learning theory
 instead of a learning theory, follows certain assumptions:
o Seeing the new lexical items several times is a necessary condition for learning to
occur.
o Noticing the lexical chunks in the given input is necessary yet not adequate condition
for the input to turn into uptake.
o Noticing the similarities, differences, limitations and example usages foster learning,
even though formal instructions do not work.
 24

o Language acquisition takes place with the accumulations of examples through which
the students induce the rules of the target language and make provisional
generalizations.
o The nature of the language acquisition is non-linear, so a linear syllabus cannot be
considered sufficient for learning to take place.
Teaching Language Areas, Grammar, Vocabulary and Skills:
 language consists of grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar
 lexis is central to language and meaning, but grammar has a secondary role
 vocabulary learning and teaching is considered superior to grammar
 vocabulary teaching is carried out in chunks since it is easier for the brain to recall the words in
chunks as if they were one piece of information
 inductive teaching of grammar
Techniques:
 Keeping a vocabulary notebook
 Collocation practice
 Exercises for lexical phrases
 Extracts from computer corpora
 Computer concordance program
 Extensive listening and reading
 Repetition and recycling activities
 Guessing the meaning of lexical items from context
 Noticing lexical items
 Working with dictionaries

COMPETENCY-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (CBLT)

 an educational movement that suggests identifying educational goals in terms of precise
measurable description of the knowledge, skills, and behaviors which are expected at the end
of a course of study
 an application of the principles of CBE to language learning and teaching
 The competency-based education (CBE) approach allows students to advance based on their
ability to master a skill or competency at their own pace regardless of environment
 CBLT emphasizes what learners are expected to achieve with the target language at the end of
the learning process
 considers outputs very essential and significant rather than the learning process
 starting with a clear picture of what is expected from the students, then developing curriculum,
designing instruction, and assessment tools to ensure that learning eventually occurs
 focuses on the outcomes of language learning process
 Competency Descriptions
o Knowledge and learning competencies
o Oral competencies
o Reading competencies
o Writing competencies
Language Theory:
 the functional and interactional view on the nature of language
 language learning should always be combined with the social context it is used in
 25

 seen as a medium of interaction and communication between people who want to achieve
specific goals and purposes with the purpose of meeting the students’ needs
Learning Theory:
 designs the language content on the basis of the skills and sub-skills that the students are
supposed to have at the end of the language learning and teaching process
 the focus of the learning moves from what students know about language to what they can do
with the language
Syllabus Type:
 The syllabus is designed around skills and sub-skills together with the necessary field
knowledge.
 Objectives play a significant role in the syllabus design.
Evaluation:
 Evaluation is conducted through norm-referenced testing, and the students receive grades for
their performances taking into consideration how much they meet the given standards.
Features of CBLT
 A focus on successful functioning in society: The aim is to enable students to become
autonomous individuals who can deal with the demands of the world.
 A focus on life skills: Language is taught focusing on functions of communication with concrete
tasks. Students are taught just those language forms/skills required by the situations in which
they will function.
 Task-or performance-centered orientation: What counts is what students can do as a result of
instruction. The emphasis is on overt behaviors rather than on knowledge or the ability to talk
about language and skills.
 Modularized instruction: Language learning is broken down into manageable and immediately
meaningful chunks. Moreover, objectives are broken into focused sub-objectives so that both
teachers and students can get a clear sense of the language learning progress.
 Outcomes that are made explicit in advance: Outcomes are public knowledge, known and
agreed upon by both learner and teacher. They are specified in terms of behavioral objectives
so that students know exactly what behaviors are expected of them.
 Continuous and ongoing assessment: Students are pre-tested to determine what skills they
lack and post-tested after instruction in that skill. If they do not achieve the desired level of
mastery, they continue to work on the objective and are re-tested.
 Demonstrated mastery of performance objectives: Rather than the traditional paper-and-
pencil tests, assessments are based on the ability to demonstrate pre-specified behaviors.
 Individualized, student-centered instruction: In content, level, and pace, objectives are defined
in terms of individual needs; prior learning and achievement are taken into account in
developing curricula. Instruction is not time-based; students progress at their own rates and
concentrate on just those areas in which they lack competence.

Current Communicative Approaches

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
 to improve the learners’ ability to speak the target language communicatively
 British linguist D.A. Wilkins
 a functional and communicative perspective to language which formed the baseline of a
communicative syllabus
 26

 the primary aim of language is communication and employed functional-notional syllabus

 showed how language could be categorised on the basis of notions such as quantity, location
and time, and functions such as making requests, making offers and apologising
 the major goal of the approach is to develop communicative competence by establishing real-
life situations that require genuine communication
 Dell Hymnes and communicative competence
 Communicative competence: the ability to use and interpret the language appropriately and
effectively according to where, whom, when and why you are talking to. The context plays a
crucial role in shaping the language used during the interaction.
 criticized the linguistic competence introduced by Chomsky in terms of its inadequacy for
communication skills in the target language
 Chomsky’s ‘linguistic competence’ was too limited because it doesn’t justify social and
functional rules of the language
 communication is carried out through functions which is what we do with the language such as
refusing, apologizing, congratulating, arguing, persuading, promising, and requesting (which are
also called speech acts)

Socio-linguistic
Competence:
Discourse Competence: The ability to be aware
The ability to of:
understand how ideas -social rules of the
are connected via language such as
patterns of organization politeness and formality
cohesion and coherence rules
rules -nonverbal behaviors
-cultural references such
as idioms, expressions

Strategic Competence:
The ability to use
Linguistic Competence: techniques to:
The ability to -make up for lack of
understand and use: language knowledge
- vocabulary and gramar -plan and assess the
-puncuation and spelling effectiveness of
COMMUNICATIVE communication
-syntactic morphological
rules COMPETENCE -achieve conversational
fluency
-adapt the text for the
audience and purpose

Language Theory:
 a functional view of language
 language is employed for communication and interaction
 a system for expressing meaning
 language is not composed of only grammatical features but functional categories as well
 27

 7 basic functions of language:

1. The instrumental function: using the language to get things
2. The regulatory function: using the language to control others’ behaviors
3. The interactional function: using the language to create interaction with others
4. The personal function: using the language to express personal emotions and meanings
5. The heuristic function: using the language to learn and to discover
6. The imaginative function: using the language to create a world of imaginations
7. The representational function: using the language to communicate information
 The purpose of language teaching is to develop communicative competence of the learners’.
Learning Theory:
 does not provide much about the learning theory
 activities which involve real communication are believed to facilitate learning
 meaningful and authentic language supports the learning process
 communicative activities
1. Information gap: The situations where one doesn’t know what the other person will
say.
2. Choice: The speaker chooses what to say among many options according to the context
of communication since one function can be fulfilled with more than one grammatical
structure.
3. Feedback: The communication is fulfilled through mutual understanding. The listener
makes it clear that the intended message is understood.
 one function can have many different linguistic structures (Ex: Function - Asking for permission
/ Linguistic structures - (1) May I go out? (2) Would you let me go out? (3) Can I go out?)
 Negotiation of meaning: a series of activities conducted by addressor and addressee to make
themselves understand and be understood by their interlocutors.
Culture:
 daily life of the native speakers
 non-verbal behavior and the body language has a significant role in teaching culture
Materials:
 meaning is central to learning the language.
 should be conveyed through visual aids, realia, model sentences and context.
The Role of the Mother Tongue:
 very rarely used since the medium of instruction is in the target language
 the students need as much exposure to the target language as they can get in order to become
successful
The Role of the Teacher:
 the role of a facilitator for the students’ learning
 the needs analyst, manager of classroom activities, who monitors students’ performance
The Role of the Student:
 communicators who are responsible managers of their own learning
Error Correction:
 delayed correction is preferred.
Teaching Grammar and Vocabulary:
 grammar and vocabulary come from the function, situational context, and the roles of the
interlocutors
 learners need the knowledge of form, meaning and functions
 28

Teaching Language Skills:

 the four skills from the beginning
 the major focus on fluency rather than accuracy
 Accuracy: the ability to use the language correctly
 Fluency: the ability to use the language spontaneously and effectively.
 emphasizes speaking and listening
 listening and speaking - focus of target language instruction
Techniques:
 Authentic Materials: Genuine materials from newspapers, magazines, videos from real English
TV channels, menus, time tables, etc. are utilized.
 Scrambled Sentences: The sentences are given in wrong order and asked to create a unified
and meaningful discourse by making use of cohesion and coherence rules.
 Language Games: The students are engaged in language games in order to practice the target
language communicatively to win the game.
 Picture Strip Story: This activity provides opinion gaps for the students to discuss which events
should come first or what happens in the next picture
 Role Play: It provides the opportunity to practice the target language in various social settings.
If the role plays are not pre-planned, it also provides genuine communication.

NATURAL APPROACH
 Stephen Krashen, an applied linguist and Tracy Terrell, a teacher of Spanish
 adults can still acquire second languages and that the ability to pick up languages does not
disappear at puberty
 Krashen’s contribution to Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device (LAD)
 adults follow the same principles of Universal Grammar and they have access to their LAD even
after the puberty
 adults can acquire all other aspects of a second language but the phonological features via their
LAD
 the difference between adults and children is that adults hold abstract problem solving skills
that help them consciously process the grammar of a foreign language
 adults can both acquire and learn the foreign language, yet children can only acquire it
 The Natural Approach vs. the Natural Method (The Direct Method)
Language Theory:
 primary function of language is communication
 the focus is on teaching communication skills
 language is essentially lexicon
 the importance of vocabulary and vocabulary teaching
 language view of the Natural Approach is composed of ‘lexical items’, ‘structures’ and
‘messages’.
Learning Theory:
 5 hypotheses for learning and acquisition to take place
1. The Acquisition- Learning Hypothesis
- Acquisition is an unconscious and intuitive process of constructing the system of a
language.
- Learning refers to a process in which conscious rules about a language are
developed.
 29

- Adults can learn a foreign language through formal instruction; however, children
can only acquire the language subconsciously and naturally.
- Learning cannot lead to acquisition.
2. The Monitor Hypothesis
- Since the nature of the acquisition and learning a foreign language is different, their
responsibilities also differ.
- Conscious learning can function only as a monitor or editor which checks and repairs
the output of the acquired system.
- Acquisition is responsible for fluently using the acquired language.
3. The Natural Order Hypothesis
- The acquisition of grammatical structures proceeds in a predictable order.
- Certain grammatical structures are acquired than others.
- Errors are signs of naturalistic developmental language learning processes and
during acquisition, similar developmental errors can be encountered in learners’
productions, irrespective of their first language.
4. The Input (i+1) Hypothesis
- Learners can best acquire a foreign language when they are exposed to
“comprehensible input”.
- People need to understand the input that is slightly beyond their current proficiency
level.
- The nature of the comprehensible input should be i + 1; meaning if the learners
proficiency level is at level “i”, the input they are exposed to should be “i+1.”
- Input should neither be beyond their level of understanding nor so close to their
current level.
- The ability to speak fluently cannot be taught explicitly; it occurs gradually and
independently over time.
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
- In order for acquisition to take place, the learners should have emotional state or
attitudes.
- There is a need for an adjustable filter that freely passes, impedes, or blocks input
necessary to acquisition.
- Three kinds of affective or attitudinal variables are: (1) motivation, (2) self-
confidence (3) anxiety.
- The best acquisition will occur in situations where anxiety is low and defensiveness
is absent.
Goals and Objectives:
 The main goal of the language is to communicate and convey the intended meanings and
messages. This can only be fulfilled by learning the lexicon of the target language.
 The learners are allowed to experience a Silent period; in other words, they aren’t pushed to
speak the target language until they feel ready and comfortable to do so. In the meantime,
they are exposed to comprehensible input that is slightly above their current proficiency level
of the target language.
Materials:
 Whatever is used in the classroom should be authentic.
 Artificial texts and course-books are not utilized and it is the teacher’s responsibility to decide
what to bring to the class.
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Teaching Grammar:
 language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious grammatical rules or drill
exercises
 the rules of the target language are expected to be discovered and grasped by the learners
through input, the meaning of which is clear to them
The Role of the Student:
 processors of comprehensible input, who are challenged by input that is slightly beyond his or
her current level of competence
 The students’ roles change and develop in the course of learning process
1. In the pre-production stage: only listen to the comprehensible input and immerse the
rules of the target language. They do not speak until they feel ready.
2. In the early-production stage: expected to give short responses to simple questions
employing fixed conversational patterns.
3. In the speech-emergent stage: the use of complex utterances occurs in the format of
role plays or games.
The Role of the Teacher:
 a teacher-centered approach
 the provider of a constant flow of comprehensible input in the target language
 has to establish a harmonious classroom environment that facilitates a low affective filter
 decides on the classroom tasks taking into consideration group sizes, content, contexts, and
materials
Techniques:
 Questions-answers
 Non-verbal language, the use of gestures, mimics and body language
 Visual aids such as harts, pictures, advertisements and other realia
 Meaningful communication activities
 Whole-class discussions and debates
 Audiovisual aids

COOPERATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING

 an aspect of more general instructional approach which is also known as Collaborative Learning
 focuses on the idea that teaching should be carried out through maximum use of cooperative
activities and interactions
 favors the viewpoint that in cooperative group works the students are likely to scaffold each
other
 organized around team-work activities so that learning is dependent on the socially structured
exchange of information between learners in groups
 emerged as a way of promoting communicative interaction in the classroom and can be
considered as an extension of Communicative Language Teaching
 a learner-centered approach to teaching.
Language Theory:
 adopts an interactive/cooperative view of language
 5 basic premises:
1. Humans are born to speak and communication is regarded as the primary goal of
language.
2. The majority of the speech is organized as conversation.
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3. Conversation takes place in accordance with certain agreed upon set of cooperative
rules or maxims.
4. People learn how to fulfill these cooperative maxims in their first language by means of
casual, everyday conversational interactions.
5. People learn how the maxims are realized in a foreign language through participation in
cooperatively structured interactional tasks.
Learning Theory:
 the theories of Vygotsky and Piaget: the baseline of cooperative language learning
 social interaction necessary for language learning
 Vygotsky: interaction both facilitates language learning and becomes a causative force in
acquisition
 focuses on language learning in natural settings through the use of interaction in pairs or/and
group work
 interaction within one heterogeneous group can lead to a maximum of language learning if the
students work collaboratively avoiding competition
 5 defining elements for learning to take place
o Positive interdependence: The members of the group are required to cooperate and
contribute to each others’ learning and the completion of the task
o Individual and group accountability: All members of the groups are accountable for the
complete final outcome and they have to contribute and learn. However, each student
is assessed individually as well as a whole group.
o Interpersonal skills: Working in teams and groups necessitates certain social skills. To
function in interpersonal relations, one needs to have communication, trust-building,
leadership, decision making, and conflict resolution/management skills.
o Face-to-face promotive interaction: The members of the groups have the opportunity
to teach themselves in face-to-face situations. They orally explain how to solve
problems, teach what they know to each other, so that they promote each others’
learning.
o Group processing: Finally, when the task is completed, the members of the group
evaluate the task completion process and reflect on how well the team is functioning
and how to function better next time. Therefore, they take decisions about what
behaviors to continue or change.
Goals and Objectives:
 to enhance cooperation rather than competition
 to develop critical thinking skills
 to develop communicative competence through socially structured interaction activities.
The Role of the Student:
 a member of the group who should work collaboratively
 the managers of their own learning
 each member of the group is responsible not only for his/her own learning but also for helping
other group members learn
The Role of the Teacher:
 the teachers have the role of a facilitator for learning
 group members are assigned by the teacher because it is the teacher who knows the students
and their performance the best
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Syllabus Type:
 not particular form of language syllabus
Techniques:
 Peer tutoring
 Conversation cards and paired interviews
 Think-pair-share
 Free conversations
 Information-gap activities
 Problem solving and jigsaw activities
 Cooperative projects
 Sharing opinions and debating

TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING

 bringing real-life contexts into the classroom
 emphasis on using language as a tool for completing tasks rather than as a subject in its own
right
 at the centre of the planning and instruction of the language learning and teaching processes
are the tasks
 the purpose of enabling the students to be able to speak the target language communicatively
 several common principles with Communicative Language Teaching:
o Activities which consist of real interaction are crucial for language learning
o Activities which are used to carry out meaningful tasks foster learning.
o Language which is meaningful to the students facilitates the language learning process.
 the definition and the characteristic of a task is important
 task: an activity or action which is carried out as a result of processing and understanding the
language
 should have the following features:
o clearly and carefully stated meaningful purpose
o clear and understandable instructions
o real-life context
o problem-solving
o interactional process
o product and feedback from the teacher
 focus on process rather than product
 basic elements are purposeful activities and tasks that emphasize communication and meaning
 learners learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully while engaged in the
activities and tasks
 activities and tasks can be either (1) those that learners might need to achieve in real life or (2)
those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom
 activities and tasks of a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty
 the difficulty of a task depends on
- the previous experience of the learner
- the complexity of the task
- the language required to undertake the task
- the degree of support available
 33

Language Theory:
 language primarily as a means of making meaning
 adopts multiple models of language because it draws on structural, functional and interactional
views of language
 lexical items are central to language use and language learning
 conversation and interaction are the main foci of language teaching and learning.
Learning Theory:
 tasks provide both the input and output necessary for language acquisition
 tasks and achievements are motivational factors
 difficulties faced in the course of learning tasks can be negotiated and fine-tuned for particular
pedagogical purpose
Syllabus Type:
 task-based syllabus
 the focus of a linguistic syllabus is essentially flawed because it concentrates on ‘what is to be
learned’
 regardless of what is taught, students follow their own internal syllabus (interlanguage) with
respect to the acquisition of grammar
 task-based syllabuses accepted that it is not possible to specify what a learner would learn in
linguistic terms
 teaching content based on holistic units of communication; namely, the tasks
The Role of the Teacher and of the Student:
 the teachers are designer, selector and sequencer of tasks and consciousness-raiser
 the students are the performers of the tasks, collaborators, communicators and evaluators of
their own learning process
Techniques:
 Information gap activity: These are the tasks in which the students are given situations to
exchange information to perform the tasks. For example, the students can exchange
information about their weekly schedules.
 Opinion gap activity: In some of the tasks, the teacher gives some prompts through which the
students express their ideas regarding a social topic to perform. For instance, the students may
be masked to find solutions for unemployment.
 Reasoning gap activity: These are the tasks in which the students derive new information from
the data they are presented. To illustrate, the students are provided with several options for
university applications. And they are asked to choose the most appropriate one for themselves
stating the reasons for their preferences.

CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
 uses the target language as an agent to teach the content, which is a subject area
 a version of bilingual education and subject-teaching which simultaneously teaches the target
language necessary for school learning and promotes thinking skills
 also known as content and language integrated learning; or language across the curriculum or
cross-curricular language learning
 emphasizes the use of the target language to interpret, express and negotiate meaning
 the language used is discourse-based, draws on integrated skills, and is purposeful or
meaningful
 Immersion Education influenced the theory of Content-Based Instruction
 34

 Immersion Education: a foreign language instruction type, in which the regular school subjects
are taught in the foreign language
 content-driven, which emphasizes teaching the content
 not any pre-planned syllabi since the choice and ordering language items arise from
communicative needs of the students
 relevance of language to the students’ academic needs motivate them in order to learn the
structures and the vocabulary.
 applied by creating thematic units organized around the core academic curriculum areas to
increase comprehensible input in the content area
 important for teachers to consider linguistic as well as cultural objectives when planning
content-based lessons
 the teacher provides support during the lessons by making use of visuals, realia, technology,
group interactions
 the development of basic interpersonal communication skills and cognitive academic language
proficiency
 vocabulary is built up easily because of the contextual clues which help convey meaning
Techniques:
 Language skills improvement
 Vocabulary building
 Discourse organization
 Communicative interaction
 Study skills
 Synthesis of content materials and grammar
 Note-taking
 Reading academic textbooks
 Writing term papers

PARTICIPATORY APPROACH
 also known as Freirean Approach
 developed by Paulo Freire
 integrates themes or contents interesting for the students
 topics come from real-life issues that have an impact on the students’ daily lives
 meaning always comes before the structure
 teaches the foreign language via social topics appealing to the students
 the teacher and students collaborate with each other
 the teacher acts more like a guide and facilitator
 the topics are generated from students’ realities and previous experience, which comprises an
authentic and meaningful learning experience
 language learning best takes place when it is experience-centered and the students are
involved personally in the activities
 syllabus is not predetermined; instead it is identified through negotiation with the students
 the knowledge and the instructional materials are co-constructed with the students
Techniques:
 Pair and group work
 Whole class discussion
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 Two-way Dialogue/Discussion
 Problem-posing and Problem-solving
 Letter, e-mail and CV writing
 Student-produced publication
 Student-generated materials

POST-METHOD ERA
ECLECTIC APPROACH/ECLECTICISM
 the label given to a teacher’s use of the principles and techniques from a range of language
teaching approaches and methods
 every educational setting is unique; therefore, teachers should make preferences regarding
which approaches and methods to select, and adapt them in relation to the features of the
students, culture, course objectives and language content to be taught
 a desirable, coherent, and pluralistic approach to language learning and teaching
 the teacher makes decisions about which aspects of the methods or approaches to adopt or
adapt depending on the course objectives, needs and characteristics of the learners
 the teacher chooses the best and the most appropriate and useful aspects of existing methods
or approaches following a systematic decision process
 increases the possibility of learning for each student since such a classroom can address to
different preferences and interests of the students via diverse techniques and practices
 provides the teacher with the flexibility to choose among many options of approaches and
methods

POST-METHOD PEDAGOGY
 does not have the limitations and restrictions that the methods intrinsically hold
 not an alternative method yet “an alternative to method”
 importance of teachers’ meeting the students’ social needs first, then their pedagogical needs
1. Particularity parameter: the kinds of techniques teachers use depend on where, when and
to whom they are teaching. In other words, the context determines how to teach, but the
sociocultural and political issues affect the ways of teaching. Any language pedagogy must
be sensitive to a particular group of teachers teaching a particular group of students who
pursue a particular set of goals within a particular institutional context belonging to a
particular culture.
2. Practicality parameter: a method should be applicable in real situation, or else the practice-
theory relationship can’t be constructed; in other words, a theory is of no use if it is not
applied in practice.
3. Possibility parameter: the teaching method should be socially, culturally and politically
suitable for the specific groups of learners. It also points to the need to develop theories,
forms of knowledge, and social practices which will work with the experiences that people
bring to the educational context.
 the teachers are knowledgeable, skillful and autonomous people who have adequate amount
of information to design their own method based on practice, which is coherent and
systematic and then practice what they have theorized
 a macro-strategic framework, which are broad guidelines to be conducted in situation-specific
lessons
 36

 put into practice through micro-strategies:

1. Maximize learning opportunities
2. Minimize perceptual mismatches
3. Facilitate negotiated interaction
4. Promote learner autonomy
5. Foster language awareness
6. Activate intuitive heuristics
7. Contextualize linguistic input
8. Integrate language skills
9. Raise cultural consciousness
10. Ensure social relevance

COMPUTER-ASSISTED LEARNING (CALL)

 an approach to language teaching and learning in which computer-based resources are
employed as a vehicle to the present, enhance and evaluate the materials to be learned
 primary purpose is to integrate technology, internet, computer, and software programs with
the face-to-face language education
 aim is not to supplant the face-to-face teaching and learning with computer and internet, but
to supplement
 provides an effective learning environment so that students can practice in an interactive
manner using multi-media content, either with the guidance of teachers or for self-learning
 supports and develops learner-autonomy
 increases student motivation
 roles of the Computer in language learning and teaching:
- tutor for language drills or skill practice
- tool for writing, presenting, and researching
- medium of global communication
Call Programs/Materials
 CALL-specific software: applications designed to develop and foster language learning, such as
CD-ROMs, web-based interactive language learning exercises.
 Generic software: applications developed for general purposes, such as word-processors
(Word), presentation software (PowerPoint) and spreadsheet (Excel), that can be used to
support language learning.
 Web-based learning programs: online dictionaries, online encyclopedias, online concordancers,
news/magazine sites, e-texts, web-quests, web publishing, blog, wiki, prezi etc.
 Computer-mediated communication (CMC) programs: synchronous (online chat) and
asynchronous (email, discussion forum, message board) communications via internet.
How to Use Computers
 Teaching with one computer in the class:
- PowerPoint, word processor, Webpages, etc.
- Classroom activities and debates can be mediated by the computer
- Interactive/smart-boards can be used to teach and practice the language
 Teaching in the computer network room: (network-based language teaching)
- Groups are assigned with the task-based team work and activities
- Computer-mediated communication (CMC): asynchronous/synchronous are utilized for
students interaction
 37

- Through computer-network rooms, students get the chance to cooperate and interact.
 Self-access learning: (independent learning)
- drills and exercises
- word processing
- resource searching
 Distance learning:
- delivering online course content
- CMC activities: email, discussion forum, chat rooms
- tandem/cooperative learning
- community building
Historical Development
1. Structural-Behavioristic CALL (1960s -1970s)
- Paradigm: Grammar- Translation & Audio-lingual
- Role of Computers: Drill and Practice
- Main Objective: Accuracy
- A computer is used as a tutor, presenting material and feedback on an individualized basis,
allowing students to proceed at their own pace and freeing up class time for other activities.
2. Communicative Cognitive CALL (1980s -1990s)
- Paradigm: Communicative Language Teaching
- Role of Computers: Communicative Exercises
- Main Objective: Fluency
- Computers are used as a tool (e.g., word processors, spelling and grammar checkers, and
concordancers) and the target language is used exclusively.
3. Integrative-Sociocognitive-Socioconstructive CALL (1990s -present)
- Paradigm: Content-based & ESP/EAP
- Role of Computers: Authentic Discourse (to perform real-life tasks)
- Main Objective: Agency (the satisfying power to take meaningful action and see the results
of our decisions and choice)
- Two types: Multimedia CALL (CD-ROMs) and Web-based CALL (on the Internet; CMC and the
Web
WEB 2.0
the traditional Web (Web 1.00)
 text-based content formatted with a programming named as ‘html’
 majority of the web-sites belonged to the companies or the web masters
 the content was only decided or changed by these people in charge
 the readers did not have the chance to add to the input provided on the web-site
 the internet connection was slower, the readers were having difficulties in downloading the
large files quickly
 limited interaction which was text-based through sending e-mails and chatting
 Web 1.0 tools: email, chat rooms, and discussion boards

Web 2.00
 the internet connection is speedier thanks to broadband connectivity and high speed wireless
and mobile connections
 users have an access to the software tools online without downloading and most of the time
for free due to more complex and developed Web-based software and applications
 38

 services, providing platforms such as YouTube, Digg, Blogger etc., where the users can generate
and share their own content, and interac
 Web 2.0 tools are described as a collaborative environment where users are given the chance
to contribute to the increase of knowledge through web-based tools, and to participate in
online communities.
 Web 2.0 users consume, create, and edit content while easily cooperating with other users
 They have more active role of potential writer, contributor, or editor
 Contributions of Web 2.00 to the Language Learning:
o Socialization
o Collaboration
o Creativity
o Authenticity
 Web 2.00 tools require digital literacy (to the ability to effectively and critically navigate,
evaluate and create information using a range of digital technologies)
 Web 2.00 tools:
o Blog: a set of personal commentaries which the log writer considers important
o Podcast: a way of distributing multimedia files such as music or speech on the internet
for playback on mobile devices and computers (iPod + broadcast)
o Wikis: a web-page which can be accessed by anyone having internet connection
o Penzu: an online tool to produce a personal journal
o Voxopop:a web-based audio tool that can be used by the students record their
speeches for others to listen and respond to
o Dvolver Moviemaker: a simple tool that enables the students to create their own
animated cartoons
o Wordle: a tool to create colorful graphic representations of texts depending on word
occurrence from any given text
 A digital native is an individual who was born during or after the general introduction of digital
technologies and through interacting with digital technology from an early age, has a greater
understanding of its concepts.
 A digital immigrant is an individual who wasn't born into the digital world but have, at some
later point in our lives, become fascinated by and adopted many or most aspects of the new
technology.
 39

TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS

Language Skills

Receptive Skills Productive Skills

Reading Listening Speaking Writing

(1) Receptive skills: meaning is extracted from the discourse.

(2) Productive skills: learners actually need to produce the language themselves.

Language areas/sub-skills:
 Grammar
 Pronunciation
 Vocabulary

LISTENING
 receiving of the sounds and active perceiving and comprehending the meaning of the
utterances
 involves processes such as predicting, anticipating, checking, interpreting, interacting and
organizing by association and accommodation of their prior knowledge
 requires certain sub-skills such as discriminating between sounds, recognizing words,
identifying structural grouping of the words, identifying the expressions and phrases that
indicate the intended meaning, and utilizing background knowledge (schemata) to guess the
content of the speech
 Content Schemata: background knowledge related to the topic of the text
Formal Schemata: the knowledge about the genre of the texts
Linguistic Schemata: the knowledge of how to form sentences within the rules of syntax, lexis,
grammar and morphology
 three processes while listening:
1. Processing sound/ Perception skills
2. Processing meaning/ Analysis skills
3. Processing knowledge and context/ Synthesis skills
 Difficulties:
o Same sounds can be produced differently or sometimes mispronounced.
o The pace of the speech cannot be controlled by the listeners.
o Speech is generally heard only once.
o The external factors such as background noise.
o Multitasking, such as note-taking, writing down directions etc.
 40

Types of Listening:
1. Discriminative Listening:
- distinguish sounds and visual stimuli
- largely focuses on sounds not meaning
- the sounds of the target language
2. Comprehensive Listening:
- comprehend the message of the speech
- knowledge of vocabulary and grammatical structures are required
3. Critical Listening:
- evaluate the message by expressing their opinions
- critically respond to the argument in the speech
4. Evaluative/Judgemental Listening:
- judgments and evaluations as to what the speakers are saying
- the truth value of the speech is often at the centre
- consider the pros and cons of an argument and evaluate their reasonableness and
compare them with our own values and beliefs
5. Appreciative Listening:
- responding to the aesthetic nature of speech and how it is delivered
- a response to the harmony of the speaker’s utterances, ideas, and the way he puts his
ideas into words
Other categories

Interaction Purpose

Reciprocal / Non-reciprocal /
Extensive Intensive
Interactive non-interactive

 Extensive listening:
o occurs outside the classroom for pleasure and general language development
o doesn’t follow any comprehension questions or vocabulary exercises
 Intensive listening:
o involves going over a piece of material multiple times in order to develop vocabulary
and grammar knowledge
o followed by detailed questions, and detailed understanding
Approaches to Teaching Listening
 Learners should also be taught some important listening strategies
o Looking for keywords
o Benefiting from non-verbal language
o Predicting the aim of the speech from the context
o Associating information with the pre-existing knowledge (activating schema)
o Guessing meanings
o Seeking for clarification
o Listening for the main idea
 41

 taught within the scope of two approaches: bottom-up and top-down approaches.
1. Bottom up processing (lexical segmentation and word recognition skills):
- Linguistic knowledge is used to identify linguistic elements starting from the smallest
linguistic unit like phonemes to the largest one like complete speech or dialogue
- a text-based process where learners resort to the sounds, words and grammar in the
speech with the purpose of creating meaning
2. Top- down processing (metacognitive awareness-raising):
- Background knowledge, prior knowledge about the topic, context and type of
speech are utilized to reconstruct the meaning.
- This background knowledge activates the schemata and enables the listeners to
interpret what is heard and expect what will come next.
o Bottom up processing can be applied while practicing minimal pairs, taking pronunciation
tests, listening for specific details, recognizing cognates and word-order pattern.
o Top-down processing is utilized in the activities such as listening for the main idea,
predicting, drawing inferences, and summarizing where learners relate what they know
and what they hear throughout the listening comprehension process.
Activities for Listening Comprehension
 more effective if they are constructed around a task
 students should be required to engage in a task in response to what they hear, which will
 answering questions
 taking notes
 dictation
 expressing agreement or disagreement
 matching exercise based on what was heard (choosing a picture to match a situation and
placing pictures in a sequence, which matches a story or set of events)
 responding physically to oral directions
 distinguishing between key sounds, stress and intonation patterns
 filling in charts and graphs
 crucial factors for an effective and efficient listening course:
o Aims should be clearly and carefully stated.
o The difficulty level and the authenticity of the listening texts should be graded
appropriately.
o Listening tasks should be combined with other skills.
o Teachers should focus on meaning in the tasks.
o Teachers should include different types of classroom listening such as discriminative,
reactive, selective, interactive, extensive, and intensive.
o Students should be exposed to various types of listening such as radio, films, lectures,
informal and formal conversations, news etc.
o An integrative approach to teaching listening should be used (a combination of bottom-
up ad top-down processing).
Stages in Teaching Listening
1. Pre-Listening Stage
- to prepare learners to the speech or conversation they will listen to
- teachers provide learners with the background knowledge
- to make any unfamiliar cultural concept or information clear for the learners to
comprehend the listening text
 42

- to pre-teach some key words that give the message in the listening text
- pre-listening activities:
 predicting the content of the listening text by answering questions
 looking at and discussing about pictures, maps, diagrams, or graphs related to the
content of the speech
 reviewing vocabulary or grammatical structures
 constructing semantic webs including the important and interrelated concepts about
the listening text
2. While-Listening Stage
- learners actually start listening to the speech or conversation
- to comprehend the listening text
- listen to the listening text for three times at most
- first, for understanding the main idea of the text; that’s, listening for the gist
- second, for detailed understanding of the text in order to answer some detailed questions
that they are distributed before they begin to listen
- third, once again with the purpose of checking the answers
- while-listening activities:
 listening with visuals
 filling in graphs and charts
 following a route on a map
 checking off items in a list
 matching the pictures with the events
 ordering the events
 listening for the gist
 searching for specific clues to meaning
 completing cloze (fill-in) exercises
 distinguishing between formal and informal registers
 questions that focus on the main idea or the tone or mood of the whole passage
 true/false questions
 note-taking and gap-filling
 listen and tick
 listen and draw/act
 multiple choice questions
3. Post-Listening Stage
- the stage where teachers can determine how well the learners have comprehended what
they listen to
- learners are often engaged in activities which require production skills
- writing and speaking activities, debates, interviews, discussions, role-plays, dramatizations,
etc. associated with the passage heard; dictogloss, which includes dictation,
reconstruction, analyzing and comparing with the original listening text

SPEAKING
 the process of establishing and conveying meaning by making use of verbal and non-verbal
language in a wide range of contexts
 being able to speak a second or foreign language accurately and fluently requires learners
o to pronounce sounds correctly
o to use appropriate stress and intonation patterns
 43

o to employ appropriate and accurate words and language structures in the context
where the interaction occurs
o to organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence
 some essential principles while teaching speaking:
o Intrinsic motivation to get the students involve in the speaking activities.
o Authentic and meaningful context relevant to the needs and the wants of the learners
o Speaking tasks that include “negotiation of meaning” by encouraging the students to
use communication strategies
o Both transactional and interpersonal speaking tasks to familiarize the students with the
language use in reciprocal and non-reciprocal interaction.
 speaking involves 3 important areas of the language

Mechanics:
pronunciation,
grammar &
vocabulary

Functions:
Social and cultural transactional
norms and (conveying
rules:taking into information) and
acoount the interactional
contextual factors exchanges
(turn-taking, (building &
rolerelations) sustaining
relationships)

Approaches to Teaching Speaking

Approaches

Language Input Language Output

Content-oriented Form-Oriented Structured Communicative

1. Input-Focused Approaches
 Content-oriented input:
- focuses on information provided in the reading or listening passagess
- emphasis is not on the form but the message
 44

 Form-oriented input:
- focuses on how target language is used
- noticing the use of vocabulary, pronunciation, and grammatical structures (linguistic
competence)
- the use of appropriate words and forms in specific contexts (discourse competence)
- pace of the speech, pause length, turn-taking, and related social aspects of language use
(sociolinguistic competence)
- instructions related to what expressions to use for asking for clarification,
comprehension checks and compensation for lack of vocabulary knowledge (strategic
competence).
2. Output-Focused Approaches
 Structure output:
- focuses on the learners’ use of accurate language forms and linguistic structures
- aim is to produce and practice the grammatical structure accurately that the teacher has
just taught to the learners, so accuracy is taken into consideration.
- constructed to make learners feel comfortable when using the newly-learnt structures
productively often in combination with previously learned items
 Communicative output:
- the primary purpose is to complete a task
- the target language communicatively during the interaction while completing a task
- fluency is the main focus rather than the accuracy
- role plays, and discussions which include information gap
Stages of Teaching Speaking
1. The Presentation Stage
 teacher works as an information provider
 content-focused or/and form-focused input in order to present the spoken language
 learners observe and listen to the teacher
 Here are different ways of presenting the input in a speaking class:
2. The Practice Stage
 learners to practice speaking in the form of controlled and guided activities
 to improve vocabulary and grammar knowledge, strategic competence as well as fluency
 structured output and communicative output activities.
 some concepts which needs to be taken into consideration when preparing the speaking
activities:
- Contex
- Correcting Errors
- Conversation Strategies (strategies like asking for clarification, paraphrasing, gestures,
initiating and ending the conversation, and turn-taking)
3. The Production Stage
 speak English freely
 learners interact in English within the scope of information-gap activities
 enables teachers to observe and monitor individual learner comprehension and learning and
provide feedback
 45

PRONUNCIATION
 the purpose of pronunciation teaching has shifted from aiming at a native-like accent to aiming
at intelligibility
 pronounce speech sounds of the language correctly, segmentals, and to pronounce sentences
fluently at the speed necessitated by each context with accurate supresegmental features;
that’s, stress, rhythm, pauses and intonation.
 to develop intelligible speech and to be able to effectively communicate in the target language
 intelligibility and correct pronunciation are aimed
 to be understood by the listeners is the main focus not making learners to have native-like
accents
 1940s-1960s => greatly emphasized imitation drills, pattern practice and dialog memorization
1970s-1980s => largely ignored Communicative approaches; focused more on fluency than
form
late 1980s – present => a key component to thedevelopment of communicative competence; a
more balanced approach that emphasize both accuracy and fluency

Approaches to Teaching Pronounciation

Approaches

Intuitive-Imitative Analytic-Linguistic Current Integrative

1. Intuitive-Imitative Approach
 learners listen to and imitate the sound and rhythms of the target language without any
explicit instruction
 audiotapes, videos, and computer-based programs and websites
2. Analytic-Linguistic Approach
 learners are provided with explicit, structured teaching of speech features utilizing
articulatory descriptions and charts of speech apparatus, phonetic alphabet and vowel
charts, and a variety of interactive speech analysis software and websites.
3. Current Integrative Approach
 pronunciation is considered as an integral component of communication
 rather than an isolated drill and practice sub-skill, it is practiced by using meaningful task-
based activities
 suprasegmental features like stress, rhythm, and intonation are practiced in meaningful
discourse beyond the sound and word level
 46

READING

Reading

Intensive Extensive

1. Extensive Reading
 the learners have the chance to select what to read for themselves for pleasure and general
language improvement
 develops at the student’s own pace according to individual reading skills
 to train the students to read directly and fluently in the target language for enjoyment without
the assistance of the teacher
 new vocabulary in such a way that their meaning can be deduced from context
 guess the meaning of unknown items
 authentic short stories and plays, or informative or controversial articles from newspapers and
magazines
 to develop good reading habits, to build up knowledge of vocabulary and structure and to
develop a taste for reading.
2. Intensive Reading
 carried out in the classrooms
 developing control of the language, speech and writing
 done at a lower speed and requires a higher degree of understanding to
o develop and reinforce word study skills
o enrich vocabulary
o reinforce skills related to sentence structure
o increase active vocabulary
o giving details and providing socio-cultural insights
 passages are often chosen by the teacher
 designed to enable students to develop specific receptive skills /reading sub-skills such as
reading for gist (skimming), reading for specific information (scanning), reading for detailed
comprehension and reading for inference.
Reading Sub-skills
 Scanning
o a quick reading technique to find specific information in the texts such as date, numbers,
names or places
o searching quickly for a specific piece of information or a particular word
o search for the keywords or ideas
o involves moving our eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases
o to find specific numbers, names, and dates
 Skimming
o skimming is used to find the general idea of the text or main events occurring in the text
o reading through a text quickly to get an overall idea of the contents
o the gist of the passage
 Inferencing
 47

o authors do not express their points, ideas or emotions explicitly in the text, but they imply
them by hiding the intended message behind the words
o read between the lines and deduce the meaning out of the reading text

Approaches to Teaching Reading

Approaches

Bottom-up Top-down Interactive

1. Bottom-up:
- reading as a decoding process
- focus on the text
- phonics approach
 letters + sounds = words
words + grammar = sentences
sentences + discourse =paragraphs
2. Top-down:
- reading as a guessing game
- focus on the reader
- whole language approach
3. Interactive:
- using both bottom-up and top-down simultaneously
- constructing meaning from the text
- focus on the interaction
- balanced approach
 interaction between the reader and the text
interaction between identification and interpretation
Stage of Teaching Reading
1. Pre-Reading Stage
 the cultural and social background knowledge relevant to the reading text
 by means of open-ended questions, the teachers have the learners predict the theme of the
text to activate the schemata
 the key words and phrases which are thought to prevent learners from understanding the text
are often taught before detailed reading
 skimming and scanning activities
o skimming activities: finding the main idea of the text, finding the topic sentence of the
paragraphs, finding the most appropriate title for the text, using the title, subtitles,
and divisions within the text to predict content and organization or sequence of
information
 48

o scanning activities: Wh-questions, fill in the gaps and charts which requires to look for
names, dates, numbers and places in the text
2. While - Reading Stage
 the actual detailed reading phase which can be carried out either silently or loudly
 read the text paragraph by paragraph loudly or read the whole passage in silence
 Information transfer activities
Reading comprehension questions
Understanding references
 referential and display questions
o display questions: the ones that the teachers ask in order to check the language use of
the students’ rather than the content of the answer. The teachers want the students to
display their language knowledge. The answer is already known by the teacher.
o referential questions: the answers of which are not known by the person asking the
question. In other words, there is an information gap between the interlocutors, which
facilitates communication.
3. Post-Reading Stage
 aimed to review the content, focus on the grammar, vocabulary, and discourse features
 consolidate what has been read by relating the new information to the learners’ previous
experiences and knowledge
 activities used in this stage enable the learners to make use of their other language skills

WRITING
 requires control of a number of variables at the same time
 content, format, sentence structure, vocabulary, register, punctuation, spelling and
capitalizatio, etc.
 should also include structuring and integrating information into cohesive and coherent
paragraphs and texts
 cohesion: the grammatical relationship between parts of a sentence essential for its
interpretation
coherence: the order of statements related to one another by sense; that’s the logical
organization of a text
register: the selection of appropriate words in line with the genre and the context of writing

Approaches to Teaching Writing

Writing

Product-oriented Process-oriented
 49

1. The Product-oriented Approach

- a traditional approach, in which students are encouraged to imitate a model text, which is
usually presented and analyzed at an early stage, and the important thing is the final output
- focuses on the end result of the act of composition
- the end result (outcome) needs to be readable, grammatically accurate and obeys the
discourse convention relating to major points, supporting details etc.
- emphasis on copying and imitating, carrying out sentence expansions from cue words and
producing sentences and paragraphs from various models and examples
2. The Process-oriented Approach
- focuses more on the varied classroom activities which promote the development of
language use, and the process including different stages is emphasized rather than only the
final product.
- generate ideas for writing
- think of the purpose and audience
- write multiple drafts in order to present written products that communicate their own ideas
- writing as a process of discovery as they discover new ideas and new language forms to
express them
- refines, develops and transforms ideas by writing and rewriting them
Stages of Teaching Writing
1. Pre-Writing Stage
 to set the scene for the actual writing process
 the warm-up session where teachers teach unknown vocabulary, and strategies for collecting
information and ideas to learners for them to include in their writings
 pre-writing activities:
- brainstorming
- clustering
- interviewing, providing models
- outlining
2. While-Writing Stage
 the actual writing process
 writing drafts
 getting feedback
 revising, and expanding.
 3 phases to teach writing
o Controlled Writing: focuses on establishing patterns, structure, punctuation and word
order. (e.g., substitution tables, models for directions for rewriting, transformation
exercises, modification conversations and dicto-comps).
o Guided Composition: teacher provides the learners with the necessary vocabulary
items and grammatical structures and students write their compositions and the
teacher gives feedback (e.g., writing a descriptive paragraph using personality
adjectives).
o Free Writing: Either the teacher or the students select the topic or the students
develop ideas on their own and write their compositions. (e.g., writing by using
pictures, writing in games, writing by giving a topic, writing a letter, writing a short
3. Post-Writing Stage
 the written products are shared with other classmates
 learners receive feedback from the teacher and sometimes from peers as well.
 50

VOCABULARY
 the most important aspects of vocabulary knowledge:
- form (spoken & written, i.e. spelling & pronunciation)
- word structure (parts of speech; common derivations, inflections)
- syntactic pattern of the word in a phrase and a sentence
- meaning
- pragmatic meaning (suitability of the word in a particular situation)
- lexical relations of the word with other words: synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy
- common collocations (e.g. a high probability, but a good chance)
 semantization: reinforcing the meaning of a word
 personalization: expanding the connection between the students’ previous knowledge and new
information and relate them to their previous experiences and lives
Steps for Teaching Vocabulary
1. Presentation
 teachers either try to elicit the meaning of the lexical items from the students or explain them
by themselves using the following techniques:
- Setting up a context
- Elicitation
- Choral and/or individual repetition
- Consolidation / concept check questions
Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary
 Demonstration
 Explanation
o Definition
o Cognates: (True) Cognates
o Word-building/Affixation
o Synonyms and antonyms
o Superordinates
o Hyponym
o Mind-map
2. Practice
o matching pictures to words
o matching parts of words to other parts, e.g. beginnings and endings
o matching words to other words, e.g. collocations, synonyms, opposites, sets of related
words, etc.
o using prefixes and suffixes to build new words from given words
o classifying items into lists
o using given words to complete a specific task
o filling in crosswords, grids or diagrams
o filling in gaps in sentences
o memory games
 51

GRAMMAR
Approaches to Grammar Teachıng

Grammar

Inductive Deductive

1. Deductive Teaching Of Grammar:

 rules are taught directly
 followed by examples in which the rule is applied
 learners are taught rules and given specific information about a language explicitly
2. Inductive Teaching Of Grammar:
 grammar is taught through examples
 students are provided with several examples or contexts from which a rule is inferred
OR
Focus on form, focus on meaning and focus on use

Stages of Grammar Teachıng: PPP

1. Presentation
2. Practice
 Mechanical Practice
- Repetition
- Substitution
- Single word prompt
- Picture prompts
- Free substitution
 Meaningful practice
- True sentences
- Situation
- Adding Something
- Choosing the best sentence
3. Production
 Reply to a letter
 Report
 Discussion
 52
FACTORS AFFECTING
LANGUAGE LEARNING

Linguistic Individual Socio-cultural

Contrastive Analysis
Age Culture
Hypothesis

Interlanguage Motivation Acculturation

Errors Intelligence/Aptitude English as Lingua Franca

Characteristics of
World Englishes
Learner/ Learning Styles

Intercultural
Learning Strategies
Competence

LINGUISTIC FACTORS
1. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis
 the major source of learner errors in the process of second or foreign language was directly
attributed to the interference from the learner’s mother tongue
 individuals tend to transfer the forms and meanings from their first language and culture to the
foreign languages and cultures both productively, when attempting to speak the language and
receptively, when attempting to understand the language
 contrastive analysis relies upon a systematic comparison of the mother tongue with the target
language in order for the researcher/teacher to predict areas of difficulty for the second
language learner
 Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis stressed that second language learning is primarily, if not
exclusively, a process of learning whatever items are different from mother tongue
 53

 difficulty/ease of learning a particular second or foreign language is determined by the

differences between L1 and L2
 errors are assumed to result from the interference from mother tongue
 contrastive analysis would predict the difficulties a learner would encounter and so enable the
teachers to concentrate on them and prevent them
2. Interlanguage
 the language developed by language learners during the process of learning a second or foreign
language
 the key factor here is the fact that learners haven’t mastered the language fully yet
 every interlanguage is unique to the person who speaks it and evolves as s/he continues to
learn the language
 contains errors sometimes resulted from inappropriate usage of rules from the mother tongue,
wrong usage of the target language’s rules or wrong or partial learning of those rules
 a natural process and a learner must make errors as an unavoidable and necessary part of
learning process
 errors are not bad as once thought but actually they are apparent proof of the fact that
learning is actually taking place
3. Errors
 Significance Of Errors
o Errors indicate how far towards the goal the learners have progressed and, thus, what
remains for them to learn.
o They provide evidence of how language is learned or acquired, what strategies or
procedures the learners tend to employ in discovering the rules.
 Mistakes And Errors
o mistake/lapse: a performance error which is a slip of the tongue, random
ungrammaticality, or other performance laps. It is a failure to use already known
information correctly.
o error: a noticeable deviation from the correct usage of the language, and reflects the
deficiency in competence/knowledge of the learner.
o Mistakes can be self-corrected by the learner as s/he already knows the rule. However,
errors cannot be noticed by the learner himself/herself as they result from the lack of the
correct version.
 Error Analysis
o Collection of data
o Identification of errors
o Description of errors
o Explanation of errors
o Error evaluation/Error treatment
 Sources Errors
o divided into two in terms of their identifiability
o overt which are unquestionably ungrammatical at the sentence level and covert which are
grammatically correct at the sentence level, yet cannot be interpreted at within the
context level.
 54

Sources of Errors

Inter-lingual Errors / Intra-lingual Errors /

Negative Transfer Developmental Errors

1. Inter-lingual Errors/Negative Transfer

 result from the mother tongue influences
 differences in mother tongue and the target language cause the learners to apply the familiar
rules to a new situation
2. Intra-lingual Errors / Developmental Errors
 result from the learners' incomplete or wrong understanding of the target language rules or
ignorance of rule restrictions
 the developmental errors caused by the learning strategies in the process of acquiring the
language
o Simplification: the use of simple present instead of the present perfect continuous
tense
o Overgeneralization/False Analogy: the use “doed” as the past tense forms of “do”; the
use of “childs” as the plural form of “child”
o Hypercorrection: in the cases where the learners omit the use of article and when they
are always corrected, they may tend to over-use the article “the” as in “I was at the
home”
o Omission/Avoidance
o Overextension: if the child has learnt the word “cat” first, s/he tends to call other
animals as “cat” too
o Underextension: a child may call only his/ her dog as “dog”, but uses “toys” to call
other dogs
o Overlooking the co-occurrence restrictions: saying “quick food” instead of “fast food”
o False concepts hypothesized/misanalysis: the learner incorrectly assumes that singular
possessive pronoun “its” is the plural form of “it” due to the –s
o Addition: “He didn’t came”
o Substitution
o Misordering: “ugly the girl”
 communication strategies can cause some errors as well
 communication strategies: a systematic technique employed by a speaker to express his
meaning when faced with some difficulty
o Paraphrase
 Approximation: Learners’ use of vocabulary item or structure that is not correct but
shares semantic features with the intended item to satisfy the speaker (e.g., pipe for
water pipe)
 55

 Word coinage: learners make up a new word to communicate the intended concept
(e.g., “airball” for balloon; “houseshoes” forslippers)
 Circumlocution: Learners describe the features of an object or action instead of using
the suitable structure. (e.g., “it´s like ja- jacket without the arms? (for the waistcoat)).
o Transfer
 Literal translation: Learners translate word for word from L1
 Language switch: Learners use L1 term without bothering to translate (e.g., balon for
balloon)
o Appeal for assistance: Learners ask for the correct term or structure (e.g., what is this?)
o Mime: Learners use non-verbal strategies to convey meaning
o Avoidance
 Topic avoidance: Learners pass concepts when they do not have the vocabulary and
structures related to them
 Message abandonment: Learners begin talking about a concept but stop in the middle
since they are unable to continue.

Errors in Terms of
Language Aread and
Aspects

Grammatical
(morphosyntactic) Punctuation errors Lexical errors Discourse errors Phonological errors
errors

 Error Treatment
o Error treatment and error correction are different. Error treatment does not necessarily
require error correction
o fossilization: the process whereby language development stops
o negative feedback: the feedback conforming that the process of communication in the
target language is a failure
o positive feedback: the confirmation of the process of communication in the target
language’s success
o uptake: when the learners respond back to the teacher correction by repairing their errors;
the student’s utterance that immediately follows the teacher’s feedback
o corrective feedback types:
 Explicit correction: the direct provision of the accurate form; the teacher clearly signals
or says that the production of the student was wrong
 Recast/Reformulation/Echo correction: paraphrases learners’ wrong utterances that
involve replacing one or more of the incorrect components with a correct form while
maintaining the meaning
 Clarification Request: the teacher indicates that the message has not been understood
or that the student’s utterance contained some kind of mistake and that a repetition or
a reformulation is required
 56

 Metalinguistic Feedback: without providing the accurate form, the teacher poses
questions or provides comments or information related to the formation of the
student’s utterance; the teacher attempts to elicit the information or the rule from the
student
 Elicitation: the teacher directly elicits the accurate form from the learners by asking
questions; the teacher lets the student complete his/her utterance through a deliberate
pause
 Repetition: the teacher repeats the student’s error and adjusts intonation to draw
student’s attention to it

INDIVIDUAL FACTORS
1. Age
It is believed that here is a critical period for foreign and second language acquisition. This is
supported by Critical Period Hypothesis, which indicates that human beings are wired to learn
foreign/second language abilities during a certain age span, and that after this period learning the
language is difficult, sometimes impossible.
2. Motivation
 integrative motivation: liking the people that speak the language, admiring the culture and
having a wish to become familiar with or even integrate into the society where the target
language is used
 instrumental motivation: the desire to gain something practical or concrete out of the second
or foreign language learning; meeting the requirements for education, applying for a job,
meeting the requirement of promotion, etc.
 intrinsic motivation: aiming to learn a second/foreign language without any external force but
with the enjoyment and satisfaction of engagement itself
 extrinsic motivation: learning a second or foreign language with an external driving force such
as earning more money, getting prizes, social approval, and avoiding punishments such as
scolding, and rejection etc.
 global motivation: a general orientation to the goal of learning a foreign language
 situational motivation: the type of motivation which changes according to the situation where
learning occurs
 task motivation: the motivation for performing specific learning tasks
3. Intelligence and Aptitude
 aptitude is contrasted with intelligence
 aptitude: the special ability involved in language learning and its effects are measured in terms
of proficiency scores achieved by the learners
 intelligence: the general ability that governs how well learners master a wide range of
linguistic and nonlinguistic units
4. Characteristics of Learners / Learning Styles
 learning style: the general approach, for instance, global or analytic, auditory or visual, which
learners use to learn a new language
 Visual (spatial): using pictures, images, and spatial understanding.
Aural (auditory-musical): using sound and music.
Verbal (linguistic): using words, both in speech and writing.
Physical (kinesthetic): using your body, hands and sense of touch.
Logical (mathematical): using logic, reasoning and systems.
 57

Social (interpersonal): learning in groups or with other people.

Solitary (intrapersonal): working alone and using self-study.
 Analytical (field independent) learners: They concentrate on grammatical structures and rules,
but do not feel comfortable with communicative activities. They tend to learn the rules and
principles of a language.
 Global (field dependent) learners: They are more sociable, and they like interaction and
communication. They do not prefer learning grammatical rules. They can be observed to
employ compensation strategies to avoid communication breakdowns or misunderstandings.
5. Learning Strategies
 learning strategies: specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques learners use in order to
improve their progress in apprehending, internalizing, recalling and using second or foreign
language
 three primary types of learning strategies:
1. Metacognitive Strategies:
- the higher order thinking skills that require planning, monitoring, or assessing the
success of a learning activity; that’s, managing the learning process overall
- identifying one’s own learning style preferences and needs, planning for an L2 task,
gathering and organizing materials
2. Cognitive Strategies:
- operate directly on incoming information, manipulating it in ways that enhance
learning
- enable the learner to manipulate the language material in direct ways
- through reasoning, analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining,
reorganizing information to develop stronger schemas, practicing in naturalistic
settings
3. Socio/Affective Strategies:
- Affective
- learners’ identifying their mood and anxiety level
- talking about their feelings
- rewarding themselves for good performance
- using deep breathing or positive self-talk to motivate themselves in the language
learning process
- Social
- asking questions to get verification
- asking for clarification of a confusing point
- asking for help
- exploring cultural and social norms while using the target language

SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS
1. Culture
 a blueprint which guides the behavior of people in a community and is incubated in family
 the ideas, customs, skills, arts, and tools that characterize a given group of people
2. Acculturation
 adopting a new identity in the target culture
 during the acquisition of language and culture acquisition, learners occasionally may
experience culture shock
 58

 four stages of culture shock:

- Stage 1: the period of excitement and euphoria over the new culture
- Stage 2: the feeling of the intrusion of more cultural differences into learners’ own images of
self and security
- Stage 3: the process of gradual recovery
- Stage 4: either assimilation or adaptation, acceptance of the new culture and self-confidence
in the new community
3. Intercultural Competence
 the ability to communicate with the members of other cultures effectively and appropriately
 a combination of attitudes, knowledge, understanding and skills applied through the cross-
cultural interaction
 enables people to understand and respect people from different cultures
 establish positive relationship where they respond appropriately, effectively and respectfully
when interacting with people from different cultures and understand themselves and their own
cultural identities
 requires empathy, understanding of people’s behaviors and perspectives, who come from
different cultures, and finally the ability to express one’s own way of thinking
4. Englısh as a Lingua Franca
 the contact language between people who share neither a common mother tongue nor a
common culture, and for whom English is the selected foreign language of communication
5. World Englishes
 all localized or indigenized varieties of English worldwide.
 identifying varieties of English utilized in various sociolinguistic contexts globally
 analyzing how the use of English is influenced by the sociolinguistic histories, multicultural
backgrounds and contexts of function
 the pluricentric approach to the study of English
 Kachru’s Circles
Expanding Circle
- The inner circle: countries in which English is the (Japan, China,
primary national language Korea, etc.)

- The outer circle: countries where English is Outer Circle

(India, Kenya,
often used in major institutions such as South Afrika, etc.)
education, civil service, and government
along with indigenous languages Inner Circle
- The expanding circle: countries in which (Great Britain,
The USA,
English is taught as a foreign language; the Australia, etc.)
ones where English is learnt as a foreign
language
 59

TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LEARNERS

 primarily due to their characteristics that result from the biological and psychological differences
 more willingness and liveliness they show as learners
 the urge for play and fun, so activities should be enjoyable in order to be a permanent and
developmentally appropriate
 activities which include exploring things, drawing, playing games, singing and solving puzzles
 shorter attention span so kinaesthetic activities and visual materials with bright colours
 their wish to please the teacher rather than their peer groups, which encourages them to try to
participate in the tasks even if they do not understand the instructions
 bodily-kinaesthetic activities while learning the language because of their biological development
and short motivation span
 imaginative, and energetic.
 enjoy imitating and they are skilful in listening and accurately mimicking what they listen to
 not just repeat what they hear, but actively engaged in formulating rules and trying out their
hypotheses to figure out the language for themselves
 often learn through implicit teaching rather than direct instruction since they do not have the
access to metalanguage
 intrinsically curious; thus, they wish to discover and have predictions
 very good at interpreting meaning without necessarily comprehending the individual words
 various types of activities addressing to visual, auditory and kinaesthetic learner styles

WHO ARE YOUNG LEARNERS?

 children from the first year of formal schooling (5 or 6 year old) to 11 or 12 years of age
 distinction between children between the ages of 5-7 and children at the age of 8-12

Young Learners

5-7 year olds 8-12 year olds

 need hands-on, concrete experiences in

order to learn effectively
 need to feel safe and secure
 their first language is still in the process
of developing fast
 can use logical reasoning and discuss
about something
 aware of the rules.
 can speak about the things that they are
doing and that they have heard and
watched
 cannot understand abstract notions
 can confuse the fiction and real world.
 can understand abstract concepts.
 can understand that the real world and
the fiction are different
 basic cultural and pragmatic notions are
formed
 can work with their classmates
cooperatively
 can be reliable and take responsibility
for class activities and routines.
 60

CHILD AS A LANGUAGE LEARNER

 developmentally appropriate instruction and practice for children
 take into account the cognitive and social needs of young children
 teachers are also supposed to know about the children’s
- social/ emotional development
- physical development
- cognitive development
- moral development
to observe and tell the readiness of the children for the language content and skills to be taught
and prepare the input and activities accordingly
 comprehensible input that is slightly above their current language level of understanding
 types of input need to be presented such as games, songs, stories, cartoons, puppets etc
(addressing to auditory, tactile and visual channels).

MAJOR THEORIES OF LANGUAGE AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Major Theories

Jean Piaget Lev Vygotsky Jerome Bruner

 PIAGET
 focus is to examine how these interactions and experiences with the environment affect his/her
intellectual development
 learning takes place when children take actions in order to deal with the problems they
encounter
 knowledge resulting from these actions is neither imitated nor innate
 constructed by children through active engagement.
 experiences and actions are fundamental to cognitive development
 cognitive development can occur in two ways as a result of activity: assimilation and
accommodation
o Assimilation happens when action takes place without any change in the child’s
behaviours.
o Accommodation requires the child’s adjusting to features of the environment in some
way.
 correspondence of accommodation in second language learning is restructuring, re-organizing
the mental representation of a language with that of target language
 active learners, thinkers and sense-makers, who construct their own knowledge depending on
their experiences with objects or ideas
 the classroom activities are the experiences providing opportunities for children to learn
 61

Stages of Child Development

The Sensorimotor Stage  lasts until the child is around 2 years old
 emphasis is on movement and physical reactions
 much of the movements is initially based on figuring out
how to perform basic motor activities
 followed by more complex tasks like crawling and in the
end walking
 language skills are basically physical (mouth and hands)
 gradually, learn how to imitate some of the sounds they
hear from their parents

The Preoperational Stage  starts at around 2 years and lasts until the age of 6 or 7
 defining characteristics of this stage is egocentricity
 talks constantly
 more like thinking aloud rather than interaction

The Concrete Operational  starts around the age of 7 and lasts until the age of 11 or
Stage 12
 capable of using logic and of solving problems in the form
of stories as long as the story deals only with facts rather
than abstract ideas
 language is used to refer to specific and concrete facts,
not mental or abstract concepts
 unable to comprehend metalanguage and explanations
about the grammatical structures

The Formal Operational  begins at age 11 or 12 at the earliest

Stage  can start to use and understand abstract concepts
 make a mental distinction between her/ his self and an
idea s/he is thinking of
 can use language to express and discuss about abstract
and theoretical concepts

 VYGOTSKY
 sociocultural theory is different from Piaget’s
 puts language and social interaction at the centre
 intellectual and language development and learning occur by socially interacting with the people
 people and social interaction play essential roles in helping children to learn
 scaffolding: the support, often in the form of language, given to the child for language
development
 important to measure the language and cognitive development of children through what they
can do with the help of others, rather than through what they can do on their own
 by making use of The Zone of Proximal Development, or ZPD, which refers to the distance
between what children can do with the help of others and what they can accomplish on their
own
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 BRUNER
 language is the most significant tool for cognitive development
 examined how adults employ language to support children’s development
 the language support that adults provide for children is called scaffolding
 formats and routines provide opportunities for children’s language development by creating
contexts for them to predict meaning
 Language Acquisition Support System
 adults provide a framework of ‘scaffolding’ which helps children to learn;
 in contexts that are familiar and routinized leads the child to the responses
 by providing the child with ritualised dialogue and constraints through questioning and feedback,
the adult prepares the cognitive base on which language is acquired
 motherese: structured, simple, slower and louder speech which makes the message
understandable for children; to establish an environment with comprehensible input for children
to acquire the language according to structured input hypothesis

TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS TO YOUNG LEARNERS

LISTENING
 the initial stage in first and second language acquisition
 before children start to produce oral language
 go through a ‘silent period’ to absorb the rules of the language
 aimed to develop their phonological awareness and listening capacity
 isolated sounds of the target language in order for them to segment sounds (phonological
awareness) and their ability to understand the spoken language and remind the content of the
speech (listening capacity)
¤ Techniques And Activities
1. Songs & Rhymes:
- most noticeable feature their rhythmic and repetitive nature and the joy they bring to the
learning activity
- develop the fluency and the automatic use of meaningful language structures
- help them transfer their natural energy and eager into meaningful learning experiences.
- should contain simple and easily understood language
- should be related to the topic or include words aimed to teach in class
- should contain repetitive lines
- should allow children to easily do actions
2. Listen And Do Activities:
- Total Physical Response activities
- by combining auditory, visual, and tactile channels, which engage children actively into the
lesson
- only one command at a time when teaching 5-7 year-old children, since they are not ready
to comprehend multi-step instructions
- TPR can also be combined with storytelling when and if the story includes repeated
sentence patterns that can be acted out
TPR drawing, finger plays (little chants that are sang while moving fingers) and riddles, and syllable
clapping, rhyming word activities, etc.
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SPEAKING
 the balance between controlled and guided activities and allow children to enjoy natural talk in
the classroom
 make use of different genres appropriate for children such as conversational interactions,
extended talks, narrative (stories), dialogues, riddles, role plays and games
 need to make sure they always provide a valid reason for speaking
 the more realistic the need for communication, the more effective the activity will be
 language patterns and words in such ways to enable them to feel that they are meaningful and
necessary through personalization
 activities should be constructed on the themes and contexts that are interesting and familiar for
children, which will increase participation.
 when demands are too high in the tasks, children tend to produce single words or formulaic
sequences rather than engage in longer interaction.
 should also help children build inner strength to deal with confusing and new situations by
presenting puzzles to overcome and solve, and they should ensure success in the end.
 both question forms and affirmative forms of the sentences to prepare the baseline for short
interactions with question-answer format (
 the only place where children are exposed to the target language, teachers should use English as
much as possible
 games are one of the most appropriate techniques in practicing speaking as they are intrinsically
motivating and creating contexts for children to interact in the target language
¤ Techniques And Activities
1. Look and say
2. Guess my animal
3. Find the odd one out
4. Poems or chants
5. Tongue twisters
6. Jingles
7. Information gap activities

LITERACY SKILLS (READING & WRITING)

 adapt their literacy skills to the features of the target language
 four approaches:
1. Phonics teaching
- focuses on letter-sound relations
- from the bottom-up.
- the sounds of the different letters in the alphabet and how they are combined
2. Whole words Approach
- single words and pictures to learn the meaning and the written form
- through flashcards
- the most frequently used words/sight words in the target language.
3. Whole sentence reading
- the recognition of sentences and phrases
- words are taught in chunks.
4. Language experience approach
- start reading and writing at sentence level.
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- often based on the oral practice of the written sentences that the children have said
- as many different types of written input as possible
- stories, songs, riddles, chants, poems, jingles and games
- different and real language usages in different genres.

VOCABULARY
 YL at the ages of 3-7 are not expected to have metalinguistic knowledge, pragmatic knowledge
and cultural content of the word
 children construct some kind of conceptual map and start to acquire words as in superordinates,
synonyms or antonyms
 concrete words to teach, abstract vocabulary is delayed for later stages
 the frequency of the words is the primary aspect to consider
 repeated exposure to the words aimed to teach
 children should be presented the words and lexical chunks in different contexts (recycling).
 explicit (intentional, planned instruction) and implicit (incidental learning) vocabulary teaching
strategies
1. Explicit Vocabulary Teaching
- the planned, intentional and direct instruction
- drawing pictures and diagrams
- using pictures and real objects
- miming and acting out
- demonstrating
- explaining the meaning of the words simply.
- thematic organization (e.g., transportation and related words)
- whole-parts relationship (e.g., body and its parts)
- ordering words/degrees/antonyms/synonyms
- Ad-hoc categories: collection of things that go together (e.g., things that we can take to the
picnic)
2. Implicit Vocabulary Teaching
- during extensive reading and listening
- the unintentional way of teaching and learning
- .do not aim to learn new words while reading or listening
- deducing the meaning of the unknown words from the context
- also when children play games and sing songs.

GRAMMAR
 inductive grammar teaching
 presented in meaningful contexts, often in stories, dialogues, songs, games and chants
 children first understand the meaning and discover the rules themselves out of the context
 . teaching deductively, necessitates thinking about abstract notions and concepts, children
cannot benefit from deductive grammar
 guided noticing activities
- listening and noticing
- presenting new language with puppets
 activities offering structuring opportunities
- information gap activity
 65

- cloze activities for word classes

- drills and chants
 proceduralising activities
- describing
- dictogloss

TYPES OF SYLLABUSES
1. Topic-Based
- topics such as “animals, school, friends, environment etc.
- topics set the scene and create the context for teaching vocabulary and functions
- cross-curricular topics (topics from other subject areas) are also selected
2. Story-Based
- for developing fantasy and imaginary world as well as language skills
- stories, fairy tales and folk tales enable children to lower the affective filter as they enjoy
reading them
3. Task-Based
- combines language teaching and learning with problem solving activities, investigations, and
creativity
- emphasizes form and meaning using authentic tasks and situations.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE PEDAGOGY

 Children acquire language best in a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere.
 Culture is closely related to language and is an essential component of instruction.
 Children acquire language through a focus on meaning rather than on grammar.
 Children involve many senses in the acquisition process.
 Meaning in the target language is established, in a school setting, through thematic, integrative
approaches incorporating the content of the general curriculum.
 Meaning is established through visual cues, and demonstrations.
 Children acquire language through extended listening experiences and negotiation of meaning.
 A relevant, meaningful context (comprehensible input) is essential for effective language
acquisition.
 Children acquire language through the tasks appropriate to their developmental level.
 More manipulation is necessary for younger students.
 Breaking the task into parts and steps supports children in completing the tasks.
 The rate and the degree of the target language acquisition are affected depending on the
individual differences and learning styles.
 Learner-centred instruction facilitates second-language acquisition.
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CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
WHAT IS CLASSROM MANAGEMENT?
 emphasizes methods of facilitating positive student behaviour and achievements
 teachers’ attitudes, gestures and body languages, intentions and personality as well as
relationships with their learners
 also need certain organizational skills and techniques
 essential skill for classroom management
- to be able to observe and interpret classroom events and think of possible options available
to them
- to make appropriate decisions between these options
 the process of making sure that lessons run smoothly in spite of children’s disruptive behaviour
or preventing these disruptive behaviours
 . A well-managed classroom will not only ensure learning, but also build a teacher-student
relationship that is grounded on respect, trust and cooperation
 children respond well to routines and rituals
 helps them know what to expect during each part of the class time you spend together

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AREAS

ACTIVITIES
 Setting up activities
 Giving instructions
 Monitoring activities
 Timing activities (and the lesson as a whole)

GROUPING AND SEATING

 Forming groupings (individual, pairs, groups, mingle, plenary)
 Arranging and rearranging seating
 Deciding where you will stand or sit
 Reforming class as a whole group after activities

AUTHORITY
 Gathering and holding attention
 Deciding who does what (i.e., answer a question, make a decision, etc)
 Getting someone to do something
 Setting classroom rules
 inappropriate behaviour should be followed by consequences rather than punishment
 consequences are considered as an end result of a child’s inappropriate act.
 should not be viewed as something imposed, such as sanctioning, but rather as an appropriate
outcome for an inappropriate act.
 a consequence should make sense, be a logical ending for an action
 the effect of behaving inappropriately.
 establishing explicit behavioural expectations requires outlining rules and
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CRITICAL MOMENTS
 Starting the lesson
 Dealing with unexpected problems
 Maintaining appropriate discipline
 Finishing the lesson
Strategies to handle with the student discipline situations
 Remain calm and composed.
 When correcting misbehaviour, communicate in the most private, respectful, and positive
manner.
 Make all discipline decisions after the “heat of the moment.”
 Use appropriate humour to de-escalate conflict situations.
 When you feel as if you or your student is too emotional to handle a particular situation, suggest
postponing the discussion until both are prepared to talk it out.
 Instead of blaming, use I-messages to explain why the behaviour was disruptive. Instead of
saying “You’re disruptive” try saying “I lose my concentration when you are talking in class.
 This helps to avoid an angry retaliation.
 Attempt to de-escalate situation by providing distractions. These distractions give people the
opportunity to cool off.
 Use stress management techniques such as deep breathing or repeatedly tensing and relaxing
your muscles.
 Address only student behaviour rather than personal traits.

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES

 Using the board and other classroom equipment or aids
 Using gestures to help clarity of instructions and explanations
 Speaking clearly at an appropriate volume and speed
 Use of silence
 Grading complexity and quantity of language

WORKING WITH PEOPLE

 Spreading your attention evenly and appropriately
 Using intuition to gauge what students are feeling
 Eliciting honest feedback from students
 Really listening to students

KEY FACTORS
SEATING
 to create situations and contexts for communication and student participation
 how seating arrangements are done is significant to sustain student interaction and positive
relationship among students and between the students and the teacher
 teacher should consider what grouping, seating, standing arrangements are most appropriate for
each activity
 traditional seating, horseshoe seating, pairs, opposing teams, enemy corners, face-to-face, buzz
groups, wheels
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CLASSROOM INTERACTION
 of great importance to increase the student interaction
 to create a context where the target language can be used for communication
 to manage the class successfully as well
 to-do list to maximize student interaction in the class:
- Encourage a friendly, relaxed learning environment – one with trusting, positive, supportive
rapport.
- Ask questions instead of always providing explanations.
- Allow time for students to listen, think, process their answer and speak.
- Really listen to what students say: what they mean, what language mistakes they commit.
- Create more chances for students to speak and allow them to finish their own sentences.
- Use gestures to avoid unnecessary teacher talk.
- Make use of pairs and small groups to maximize opportunities for students to speak.
- Arrange seating so that students can see each other and talk to each other (circles, squares,
horseshoes, etc.) – allow the whole class to be the focus.
- Encourage interaction between students rather than only between student and teacher.
 things that can prevent learning to occur:
- Too much teacher talking time
- Echo
- Helpful sentence completion
- Complex and ambiguous instructions
- Not checking understanding of instructions
- Asking ‘Do you understand?’
- Insufficient authority and being over-polite
- Lack of self-confidence, material, and activity
- Over-helping and over-organizing

PREVENTING DISRUPTIONS
 to keep students focused on learning and reduce the likelihood of classroom disruption
- Wittiness: Communicating that you know what the students are doing and what is going on in
the classroom.
- Overlapping: Attending to different events simultaneously, without being totally diverted by a
disruption or other activity.
- Smoothness and momentum in lesson: Maintaining a brisk pace and giving continuous activity
signals or cues (such as standing near inattentive students or directing questions to potentially
disruptive students).
- Group alerting: Involving all the children in recitation tasks and keeping all students “alerted” to
the task at hand.
- Stimulating seatwork: Providing seatwork activities that offer variety and challenge.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

 Hold and communicate high behavioural expectations.
 Establish clear rules and procedures, and instruct students in how to follow them; give primary-
level children and those with low socioeconomic status, in particular, a great deal of instruction,
practice, and reminding.
 Make clear to students the consequences of misbehaviour.
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 Enforce classroom rules promptly, consistently, and equitably from the very first day of school.
 Work to instil a sense of self-discipline in students; devote time to teaching self-monitoring skills.
 Maintain a brisk instructional pace and make smooth transitions between activities.
 Monitor classroom activities; give students feedback and reinforcement regarding their
behaviour.
 Create opportunities for students (particularly those with behavioural problems) to experience
success in their learning and social behaviour.
 Identify students who seem to lack a sense of personal efficacy and work to help them achieve
an internal locus of control.
 Make use of cooperative learning groups, as appropriate.
 Make use of humour, when suitable, to stimulate student interest or reduce classroom tensions.
 Remove distracting materials (athletic equipment, art materials, etc.) from view when instruction
is in progress.
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MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT
CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS
Curriculum
 a general and broader concept which embodies general statements and philosophy of language
teaching and learning, the learning objectives and outcomes, the role of the teachers and students
 It refers, to the substance of a program of studies of an educational institution or system such as
school curriculum, the university curriculum, and the curriculum of Turkish Schools
 It refers to the course of study or content in a particular field of study as in English language
teaching curriculum
 A broader concept and includes the rationale, philosophy and methodology of language, language
learning and teaching, the detailed explanation and presentation of learning aims, objectives and
outcomes as well as the application of a program
Syllabus
 more localized and covers what actually takes place in the classroom together with the content,
techniques and activities.
 It prescribes the content to be covered by a given course and forms only a small part of the total
school curriculum
 displays the content, activities, tasks and suggestion of methodology to be covered in the
classroom

APPROACHES TO SYLLABUS DESIGN

Syllabus Design

Product-oriented Process-oriented

Grammatical /
Situational Skill-based
structural

Lexical Functional-notional Task-based

Content-based
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PRODUCT-ORIENTED
 the focus is on the knowledge and skills which learners should gain as a result of instruction
 focuses on the products/outcomes rather than the process itself
1. Grammatical-Structural Syllabus:
- a collection of the forms and structures of the language
- on the basis of the complexity and simplicity of grammatical items
- specifies structural patterns as the basic units of learning
- organizes these according to such criteria as structural complexity, difficulty, regularity, utility
and frequency
- learner is expected to master each grammatical structure in a linear way
2. Situational Syllabus:
- language is related to the situational contexts in which it occurs
- predict those situations that the learners will encounter
- prepares and selects the language content on the basis of these situations
- seeing the dentist, going to the cinema and meeting a new student
- to teach the structures and vocabulary which are commonly used in certain situations
3. Lexical Syllabus:
- organizes the content on the basis of the words to be taught
- takes lexis as a starting point
- an important part of learning a language consists of being able to understand and produce
lexical phrases as chunks
- lexis or chunks selected are the commonest ones according to the frequency in the language
corpus
4. Functional-notional Syllabus:
- the communicative purpose and conceptual meaning of language
- the content of the language teaching is a number of the functions that are performed on
using the language, or on the notions that language is utilized to express
- functions such as inviting, requesting, agreeing, apologizing; and notions embrace age, color,
size, comparison, time, etc.
- the needs of the students have to be explored and analyzed by different types of interaction
and communication a learner may be involved in

PROCESS-ORIENTED
 focus on the skills and processes involved in learning language
 focus on the learning experiences themselves
 emphasis on the processes writers use to complete their tasks rather than just the features of
the products of writing
1. Skill-based Syllabus:
- a collection of particular skills that may play a role in using language
- merges linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse)
together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening, speaking, reading and writing
- to learn the specific language skills.
2. Task-based Syllabus:
- supports using tasks and activities to encourage learners to utilize the language
communicatively so as to achieve a purpose
- speaking a language is a skill best developed through interaction and practice
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- tasks must be relevant to the real world language needs of the learner
- meaningful and authentic
- a series of multifaceted and focused tasks that the students want or need to perform with
the aid of the language they are learning
- tasks such as information- and opinion-gap activities
- perceive the language subconsciously while consciously concentrating on working on the
meaning behind the tasks
3. Topic/Theme-based Syllabus:
- language is organized in relation to the various types of interesting topics.
- uses ‘themes’ as a starting point
- designs language structures and words in accordance with the topic/themes chosen
4. Content-based Syllabus:
- content provides the point of departure for the syllabus
- content is usually derived from some fairly well-defined subject area
- other subjects in a school curriculum such as science or social studies, or specialist subject
matter relating to an academic or a technical field such as mechanical engineering or
medicine

Othery Types of
Syllabus

Synthetic Analytic
syllabuses syllabuses

Structural Lexical Task-based

Skill-based
Functional Notional

Topic/theme-
based

Content-based

Synthetic Syllabus
 segment the target language into discrete linguistic items for presentation one at a time
 different parts of language are taught separately
 step by step
 acquisition is a process of gradual accumulation of parts (e.g., structures, lexis, functions, and
notions) until the whole structure of language has been built up
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 at any one time the learner is being exposed to a deliberately limited sample of language
 overlap with the product-oriented approach to syllabus design
Analytic syllabuses
 learners are exposed to language which has not been linguistically graded
 more likely to result from the use of experiential rather than linguistic content
 situations, topics, themes or, other academic or school subjects
 present the target language whole chunks at a time, without linguistic interference or control
 rely on learner’s assumed ability to perceive regularities in the input and to induce rules
 overlap with the process-oriented approach to syllabus design.

SHAPES OF SYLLABUS DESIGN

1. The Linear Format:
- adopted for discrete element content
- particularly grammar or structures
- sequencing and grading are of paramount importance
- linguistic and pedagogical principles determine the order
- strict in the sense that teachers cannot change the order of units or skip some.
2. The Modular Format:
- well suited to courses which integrate thematic or situational contents
- course is broken into independent non-linear units, each of which is complete in itself and
does not usually assume knowledge of previous modules
- objectives are flexible
- the modules could be skill-based with different modules for listening, speaking, reading and
writing, and sub-skills of these larger skills.
- codules could be situational dealing with the language needed for shopping, emergency
services, travel, the post office and the bank
3. The Cyclical Format:
- teachers and learners to work with the same language content (e.g., structures, lexical
items) more than once
- the level of difficulty/complexity increases each time learners are reintroduced with the
previously learnt items.
4. The Matrix Format:
- maximum flexibility to select topics from a table of contents in a random order
- well suited to situational content
- similar to the cyclical format, yet the main difference is that the change when meeting old
material again is one of diversity rather than complexity
- the same items are met with different contexts
- the same grammatical structures are focused on across a variety of topics and contexts

MATERIALS AND MATERIAL TYPES

Authentic Materials
 Written and spoken resources, created by native speakers of the target language for native
speakers of the target language.
 not created or edited for educational purposes.
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Instructional Materials
 Written and created for pedagogical purposes in order to address to specific groups of learners.
 prepared using grammatical structures and words which are appropriate to the proficiency level
of the learners.

TYPES OF MATERIALS
1. Narrative Materials
- the written or oral texts that narrate a real or fictional story
- consist of the necessary structures and words that are appropriate to the proficiency level,
needs of the learners as well as the learning objectives and outcomes of the program
- cartoons, fairy tales, poems, novels, stories, plays, tongue twisters, diaries, journal entries,
fables, chants and songs
2. Informative Materials
- the oral and written materials used for giving new information during the communication.
- advertisements, lists, catalogues, recipes, maps, tables, brochures, instructions, captions,
menus, posters, picture dictionaries
3. Interactive Materials
- materials which take interaction and communication as the basis
- necessitate conditions to create opportunities for interaction between the teacher and the
learner
- cards, conversations, e-mails, notes, memos and messages, letters

PRINCIPLES FOR MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT

 Materials shouldn’t include any types of error.
 Materials should achieve impact through the use of various types of novel, attractive and
enjoyable activities and tasks accompanied with the reading and listening passages
 Materials should help students to feel at ease
 Materials should consider the fact that the positive effect of instruction is often delayed.
 Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning styles and affective behaviors.
 Materials should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful
 Students need to be ready to acquire what is being taught. Hence, the teachers should consider
the readiness of the learners for the structures and vocabulary aimed to teach.
 Materials should not rely too much on controlled-structured-based activities; in contrast, they
should provide the learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve
communicative purposes.
 Stimulate emotive responses through the use of music, song, literature, art, and so on, through
making use of controversial and provocative texts, through personalization, and through inviting
learners to articulate their feelings about a text before asking them to analyze it.
 Make sure that these output activities are designed so that the learners are using language
rather than just practicing specified features of it.
 Design output activities so that they help learners to develop their ability to communicate
fluently, accurately, appropriately, and effectively.
 Make sure that the output activities are fully contextualized in that the learners are responding
to an authentic stimulus (e.g., a text, a need, a viewpoint, an event), that they have specific
addressees, and that they have a clear intended outcome in mind.
 75

 Try to ensure that opportunities for feedback are built into output activities and provided for the
learners afterwards.
 The materials need to be written in such a way that the teacher can make use of them as a
resource and not have to follow them as a script. There must be a flexibility to the course that
helps teachers and learners to make principled decisions about texts, tasks, learning points,
approaches, and routes in relation to learner needs and wants.

STEPS IN MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT

by teacher or learner(s) of a need to fulfill or a problem

IDENTIFICATION
to solve by the creation of materials

of the area of need/problem in terms of what

EXPLORATION language, what meanings, what functions, what skills
etc.

CONTEXTUAL of the proposed new materials by the finding of

REALISATION suitable ideas, contexts or texts with which to work

of materials by the finding of appropriate exercises and

PEDAGOGICAL
activities AND the writing of appropriate instructions
REALISATION
for use

PHYSICAL of materials, involving consideration of layout, type

PRODUCTION size, visuals, reproduction, tape length etc.

Needs analysis is of great importance in materials development process. Only then can the teachers
design instructional materials appropriate for the students' age, wants, interests, needs and the
objectives of the lesson.
 76

MATERIALS ADAPTATION
External factors consist of the characteristics of particular teaching situations (e.g., learner
characteristics, physical environment, resources, and class size).
Also age, interests, level of proficiency in the target language, aptitude, academic and educational level,
mother tongue, motivation and attitudes to learning, preferred learning styles, personality.
Internal factors are related to the content, organization and consistency (e.g., choice of themes, skills
covered, level of the language, and grading of exercises).

WHY ADAPT?
some common deficiencies of existing ELT materials, which lead us to adaptation:
 fail to fulfil the goals and objectives of schools where the materials are used
 cannot be finished during the time available to the teacher.
 require facilities or equipment or other supporting materials that are not available.
 not engaging the learners’ personality, interest, age and needs.
 detrimental to the learners’ culture.
 the mismatch between what is needed and what is provided by materials.

OBJECTIVES OF ADAPTATION
1. Localisation: Recognizing the need for contextual relevance and appropriateness.
2. Personalization: Relating the content to the learners’ interests and experiences.
3. Individualization: Addressing to individual learning styles of the students.
4. Modernization: Changing content or language which is outdated.

Materials are very often adapted with the following aims in mind:
- Making dialogues communicative
- Making learning activities relevant and purposeful
- Meet your learners’ needs, both external and psychological
- Use models of real, authentic language

Important principles to consider in the materials adaptation process:

- Teachers should not adapt materials too casually, (e.g. based on his or her own preferences or
tastes.)
- Materials adaptation should not be done at the expense of completeness and overall framework
of the materials.
- Materials deleted or added should not go beyond a reasonable proportion, otherwise consider
alternative materials.
- Teachers should not adapt materials only to cater for the needs of exams or tests.
 77

ADAPTATION TECHNIQUES
1. ADDITION: When there is inadequate coverage, teachers may decide to add to textbooks,
either in the form of texts or exercise material.
a. Extending:
- supplying more of the same type
- the change is only done quantitatively
b. Expanding:
- not only quantitative but also qualitative
- adding to the methodology by moving outside it and developing it in new directions by
putting a new language skill or new component
2. DELETION/OMISSION: the opposite of addition. The teacher leaves out things that s/he finds
inappropriate, offensive, unproductive, etc., for the particular group of learners.
a. Subtracting:
- reducing the length of the material
- does not have a significant impact on the overall methodology
b. Abridged:
- omitting some part of the material and changing the overall methodology
- changes are greater when the materials are abridged not subtracted
3. SIMPLIFICATION: a type of modification; many elements of a language course can be simplified
including the instructions and explanations that accompany exercises and activities
- Sentence structure: The sentence length is reduced, or a complex and compound sentence
is paraphrased into simpler sentences.
- Lexical content: The number of the unknown words is reduced by changing them with the
previously learnt ones.
- Grammatical structures: The advanced grammatical structures are transformed into
simpler structures; for instance, passives are converted into actives.
4. MODIFICATION: a change in the nature or the focus of an exercise or text, or classroom activity
a. Rewriting:
to make it more appropriate, more “communicative”, more demanding, more accessible to
their students, etc.
b. Restructuring:
The teacher sometimes changes the structure of the activity or task
5. REPLACEMENT/SUBSTITUTING: Text or exercise material which is considered inadequate, for
some particular reasons, may be replaced by more suitable material.
6. RE-ORDERING: Teachers may decide that the order in which the textbooks are presented is not
suitable for their students. They can then decide to sequence the tasks and activities in the
textbooks differently from the one the writer has laid down.
7. BRANCHING: Teachers may decide to add options to the existing activity or to suggest
alternative pathways through the activities. For example, in a role play activity where only one
situation is given, the teacher may add another situation to the activity and ask the students to
choose one and write a dialogue.
 78

MATERIALS EVALUATION
WHAT IS EVALUATION?
 the process of assessing the strong aspects and drawbacks of the materials to improve their
effectiveness and efficiency on the learning of the students
 carried out through a systematic data collection and analysis to arrive at a decision about the
materials.

WHY DO WE EVALUATE MATERIALS?

1. to find out the extent to which they (do not) facilitate language learning in order to identify the
popular and successful features of existing materials, their effectiveness and efficiency, which
will enable us to produce more quality materials.
 Effectiveness principle: Is the course book effective in meeting the needs of the
learners?” To answer this question, the evaluator needs to compare what the learners
knew and were able to do before they used the course book with what they know and
are able to do after they have used the book.
 Efficiency Principle: To examine whether the materials are efficient or not, a
comparison is required between the learning outcomes obtained from using one
course book with those gained by using another course book. Therefore, we ask “Does
a course book meet the needs of the learners more effectively than some alternative
course books?”
2. to choose appropriate materials, course books for specific language programs.
3. to adapt the materials in order to make them better suit the needs of the students and the
needs of teaching.
4. to make the necessary revisions to end up with better materials.

APPROACHES TO MATERIALS EVALUATION

I. External Evaluation & Internal Evaluation
1. External Evaluation provides us with the information about
(1) the intended audience
(2) proficiency level
(3) the context and presentation of the language content
(4) the availability of the teacher’s book
(5) the availability of a vocabulary list/index
(6) the table of contents
(7) the provision of audio/video material and revision tests.
2. Internal Evaluation is a performance of in-depth investigation into the materials. It provides us
with the information about
(1) the treatment and the presentation of the language skills and areas,
(2) the ordering and grading of the language content
(3) the type of reading, listening, speaking and writing materials contained in the books
(4) appropriacy of tests and exercises
(5) theoretical assumptions on which the design of the materials is based
(6) the extent to which activities and tasks and the content overlap with the stated objectives in
the materials.
 79

II. Impressionistic Evaluation & Systematic Evaluation

1. Impressionistic Evaluation depends on intuitions, impressions, and experience of using
materials. It involves going over the course book or the materials for a short time and arriving
at a decision as to whether it is appropriate for the specific groups of learners.
2. Systematic/Detailed Evaluation consists of assessing the materials in terms of the specification
of objectives, principles and procedures adopted or embedded in materials. A systematic
evaluation can be best carried out in a longer period. It can be conducted before while and
after using the materials for a specific amount of time.
a. Pre-use: The materials are evaluated by looking at their potential performance
b. In/While-use: The materials are assessed in terms of the suitability of the tasks, texts
with the students level, interests and needs etc.
c. Post-use: It provides retrospective assessment of the course book performance.
 80

TESTING IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

WHAT IS A TEST?
 a systematic procedure for observing learners and describing their knowledge and performance
with either a numerical scale or a category system
 may provide either qualitative or quantitative information.
 can be constructed primarily as tools to reinforce learning and to motivate the learners or as a
means of assessing the learners’ performances in the language
 the former one depends on the teaching and learning that have taken place, while in the latter
one, teaching depends heavily on the test.
DEFINITIONS
Testing
 It is a method of measuring a learners’ skills, knowledge or performance in language teaching
and learning process
 It generally consists of written exams and it is often used at the end of a learning period, such as
unit-test, mid-term-test, semester-test etc.
Assessment
 It involves the process of gathering information or evidence of the learners’ development and
achievement over a period of time in order to improve teaching and learning
Evaluation
 This is the overall and final judgment about learners’ knowledge and performance to decide if
they fail or pass the course or class

WHY DO WE TEST?
 to diagnose what the learners can do and need to learn and develop
 to inform the learners about their expectations and learning objectives
 to provide feedback on learners’ progress
 to motivate and focus students’ attention and effort
 to provide information for administrators with respect to whether the program works well or not
 to inform parents about their children’s performance

WAYS OF ASSESSMENT
1. SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
 the process of arriving at a grade for a student (either for a test or assignment, or for an entire
course)
 exams or term papers
 formal
 usually graded
 focused on letting students show a range of skills and knowledge
 require a considerable investment of time, both from students and instructors
 consequently often completed outside of class.
 “What skills and knowledge should students will have gained at the end course?”
2. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
 the assessment of student learning that is designed to develop (rather than to evaluate)
students’ skills or their understanding of specific course concepts.
 81

 typically carried out in class

 usually much more focused on particular skills or information
 often ungraded (e.g., teachers’ observation, continuous assessment).

Formative assessment Summative assessment

Grading Usually not graded Usually graded

Purpose Improvement Judgment

to give feedback to instructor to derive a grade, and to allow
and students about how well students to work intensively
students understand specific with course material
material

Focus Very focused on whether Less focused on specific skills or

students have acquired specific information; instead, allows
skills or information students to demonstrate a
range of skills and knowledge

Effort Requires little time from Requires more time from

instructors or students; simple; instructors and students;
done in class complex; done outside of class

Other ways of collecting information related to the students learning:

 Self-Assessment and peer assessment
 Project work: It requires students to complete a set of tasks designed to explore a certain idea or
concept.
 Portfolios: It is a purposeful collection of materials gathered over a period of time by the learners
to provide evidence of skills, abilities, knowledge and attitudes. They are motivating, entertaining
for the learners and encourage them to be autonomous learners
 Learner Diaries: They are the records written by the learners on their language learning
experience over a period of time. As in the portfolios, they create opportunities for the learners
to reflect on their learning and develop autonomy.
 Standardized Tests: These are the tests designed by professional testing centers to select, place
and evaluate the learners. They have a fixed and standard content as well as standard grading
step.
 82

TEST TYPES
1. PROGNOSTIC TESTS: the predictive tests employed to decide the future success of the learners
by considering their current knowledge or abilities.
a. Selection Tests: applied to the learners to accept them to a particular program or job
b. Placement tests: prepared to place learners into groups, usually by establishing their
language levels so that students who have similar levels can study together.
c. Aptitude tests: given before any language learning has taken place in order to discover the
potential areas/skills which learners are likely to be good at. Hence, they measure probable
learning ability in the future rather than actual learning achievement in the past.
d. Diagnostic tests: designed to diagnose what a group of learners can do and cannot do in the
language.
2. ATTAINMENT TESTS: assess the learners’ previous knowledge or what they have learnt.
a. Achievement Tests/Progress Tests: designed to measure the extent to which learners have
mastered the materials taught in the classroom. Internal end-of–year tests and external
school-leaving examinations are both examples of achievement tests. Results obtained from
these tests inform about the progress of the learners.
b. Proficiency Tests: assess whether learners have the necessary language skills to undertake a
task in the future (e.g. studying at an English-medium university or working as a bilingual
secretary.) They tend to be integrative.
3. CRITERION AND NORM-REFERENCED ASSESSMENT:
a. Criterion-referenced Assessment: These tests assess learners according to a criterion rather
than by comparing them with other learners (e.g., can students produce correct sentences
using present perfect tense?).
b. Norm-referenced Assessment: These tests are designed to measure how the performance of
a group of learners differs from the performance of another group of learners whose scores
are identified as the norm.
c. Individual-referenced Assessment: These tests depend on how well the learners are
performing when compared to their own previous performances.
4. DISCRETE POINT AND INTEGRATIVE TESTING:
a. Discrete Point Tests: aim at giving specific information about learners’ abilities in particular
skills or in particular language areas (e.g. knowledge of irregular past forms).
measure particular linguistic units such as phonology, spelling, vocabulary and grammar
separately.
b. Integrative Tests: measure language skills and areas as a whole rather than separately. They
require students to combine many linguistic elements. (e.g., writing a composition, speaking
during an interview, dictation and cloze tests).
5. DIRECT AND INDIRECT TESTING:
a. Direct Testing: require learners to perform the skills to be measured.
b. Indirect Testing: measure the skills and knowledge underlying the skills and abilities to be
measured. (e.g., a writing test that requires students to identify grammatical errors in
sentences)
 83

CRITERIA FOR A GOOD TEST

1. RELIABILITY:
- the consistency with which a test can be scored
- test should be consistent irrespective of the time and place of administration and the learners
who are being tested
- reliable test should be a consistent and coherent measurer of a learner’s language performance
and knowledge
- learners are expected to obtain the same score when they take the same test at two different
time periods
- in subjective tests as in writing essays, if the two teachers mark the same paper very differently
from each other, then the test is considered unreliable
- reliability is a prerequisite for validity
2. VALIDITY:
- refers to the principle that a test needs to measure what it intends to measure
- considered to have validity if they measure effectively and correctly what they have aimed to
measure
- tests with high validity, the items will be expected to be closely in relation to the tests’
intended focus
a. Content validity: if its content constitutes a representative sample of the language
skills, structures, etc with which it is meant to be concerned
Backwash/Washback effect refers to the impact of testing on teaching and learning.
b. Face Validity: the extent to which a test is subjectively viewed as covering the concept
it purports to measure. It is how the examinees and administration staff see the test.
c. Predictive validity: The test accurately predicts performance in future situations.
d. Concurrent validity: the extent to which a test gives similar results to existing tests that
have already been validated.
e. Construct validity: the experimental demonstration that a test is measuring the
construct it claims to be measuring. The test reflects accurately the principles of a valid
theory of foreign language learning.
3. PRACTICALITY: Tests should be user-friendly and practical to apply, easy to score and easy to
interpret and grade. Tests should also be time and cost effective under the heading of practicality.
4. DISCRIMINATION: Good tests need to discriminate between the learners’ ability by separating the
ones who know and can do better than those who cannot.

TYPES OF TEST ITEMS

 Open-ended/Yes-No/Wh-Questions  Transformation and rewriting
 True or false questions  Sentence or words ordering
 Multiple-choice questions  Translation
 Fill-in -the blanks  Writing composition
 Matching questions  Interviews
 Dictation
 84

TESTING LANGUAGE SKILLS AND LANGUAGE AREAS

 Listening comprehension where learners are given short utterances, dialogues, talks and lectures.
 Speaking ability, often in the form of interview, a picture description, role play, a pair or group
problem solving activity.
 Reading comprehension where questions are prepared to assess learners’ ability to comprehend
the gist of the passage and to extract key information on specific points in the passage.
 Writing ability, often in the form of letters, reports, memos, messages, instructions, paragraph and
essay writing.

GRAMMAR
 measure learners’ ability to recognize suitable grammatical structures and to manipulate these
structures.
 Tests at recognition level, assess if the learners understand the meaning of the forms and
structures (e.g., matching, multiple choice questions, true/false questions).
Tests on production level, assess if the learners can accurately produce the grammatical
structures (e.g., transformation, substitution, completion, fill-in-the blanks).

VOCABULARY
 measure learners’ knowledge of the meaning of certain words as well as the lexical chunks and
collocations in which they occur
 assess their knowledge of active vocabulary (words they can use productively) or passive
vocabulary (words they can recognize when they read or listen to someone).
 multiple choice questions, lists of isolated words, matching, antonyms, synonyms, writing
definitions, cloze test, completing sentences, using words in sentences.

PHONOLOGY
 assess the following sub-skills:
(1) ability to recognize and pronounce the significant sound contrasts of a language
(2) ability to recognize and use the stress patterns of language
(3) ability to hear and produce the intonation of the language

READING
 reading comprehension is an act of reasoning
 decoding proficiency and knowledge of vocabulary to understand
 the selection of text type and length is crucial
 word, sentence matching
 true/false questions
 multiple choice questions
 open-ended questions
 comprehension questions
 inference questions
 reference words
 putting sentences
 paragraphs in order
 85

LISTENING
 items designed to measure several sub-skills such as understanding phonemes, stress,
intonation, words and grammar
 Intensive listening can be tested through discrimination among smaller components like
phonemes, words, and discourse markers, among others.
 Responsive listening testing has a question-and-answer format
 Selective listening implies listening to a text with the purpose of scanning for certain details or
information
 Extensive listening involves tests that require learners to answer comprehension questions
after listening to the passage several times

WRITING
 needs to be assessed with a scoring guide describing components of quality, such as ideas,
organization, voice, word choice, sentence fluency, and conventions
 the process of writing to observe thinking strategies, planning strategies, revision techniques,
or editing proficiency, which would also require a performance assessment
 involve many sub-skills such as language use, mechanical skills, and content knowledge,
stylistics and judgment skills
 a chart to fill in
 letter/e-mail writing, summarizing
 dictation
 punctuation
 completing sentences
 changing the style & register

SPEAKING
 conversations
 interviews
 role plays
 discussions
 using visuals to stimulate speaking etc.
 86

HISTORICAL TRENDS IN LANGUAGE TESTING

1. THE PRE-SCIENTIFIC PERIOD / ESSAY TRANSLATION APPROACH
 1950s, no scientific researches on testing
 tests included questions on grammar translation or reading, translation and essay writing and
knowledge of grammar
 also called “intuitive period” as teachers prepared the test items on the basis of their intuitions
 no special skill or expertise in testing was required
 easy to follow because teachers will simply use their subjective judgement
2. THE PSYCHOMETRIC / STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
 associated with Lado, who, heavily influenced by audiolinguists, proposed that language should
be broken up into discrete units for the purposes of testing
 language learning is chiefly concerned with systematic acquisition of a set of habits
 involves structural linguistics which stresses the importance of constructive analysis and the need
to identify and measure the learners’ mastery of the separate elements of the target language
such as phonology, vocabulary and grammar
 testing the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing is separate from another as much as
possible
 considers measuring only non-integrated skills/discrete units.
3. THE PSYCHOLINGUISTIC SOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROACH / INTEGRATIVE APPROACH
 reaction to Lado’s views on the discrete nature of language
 cloze tests, essay writing and dictation are widely
 idea of pragmatic test was constructed
 students need to use more than one skill and one or more linguistic components
 functions and meaning relationships of language items were the focus
 involves the testing of language in context
 concerned primarily with meaning and the total communicative effect of discourse
4. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
 concerned primarily with how language is used in communication
 language use is often emphasized.
 importance of strategic competence
 test content should totally be relevant for a particular group of examinees
 the tasks set should relate to real-life situation
 does not emphasize learning structural grammar, yet it may be difficult to achieve
communicative competence without a considerable mastery of the grammar of a language
 1

APPROACHES, METHODS AND TECHNIQUES

BEFORE THE METHODS ERA
THE GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD (GTM)
 to teach classical languages like Latin and Greek
 L1 by making use of translation
 classical method, traditional method; grammar school method and Prussian method
 deductive teaching
 written language > spoken language
 emphasis on accuracy and form
 fluency and meaning are not focused
 vocabulary and grammar, classroom instructions in L1
 isolated words - synonyms and antonyms, cognates
 teacher-centered
 immediate explicit error correction
 materials: literary texts
 a structural syllabus
REFORM MOVEMENT
 criticizes GTM
 inductive teaching
 meaningful contexts
 naturak order
 first exposed to spoken language
DIRECT METHOD
 as a reaction to GTM
 through conversations, discussion and reading
 direct and spontaneous use of the target language
 inductive teaching
 L1 prohibited
 teacher: the primary source of input, role model
 first pronunciation
 the natural order
 fluency over accuracy
 self-correction
 materials including daily language use
 situational and topical syllabuses
 use the target language communicatively
THE ORAL APPROACH AND SITUATIONAL LANGUAGE TEACHING
 emphasis on vocabulary and grammar
 situationally
 behaviorism
 the structural view of language
 speech - the main element of language
 ability to answer automatically and correctly in conversations
 L1 – not used
 teacher-centered
 2

 student - simply listen and repeat

 pronunciation
 vocabulary and grammar also emphasized
 inductive teaching through dialogues
 listening, speaking and reading
 structural and situational syllabuses
THE METHODS ERA
AUDIO-LINGUAL METHOD
 Army Method, during the World War 2
 the first scientific
 behaviorism
 Contrastive analysis: comparing and contrasting two languages in order to uncover the
similarities and differences between the two
 active and simple practices, habit formation and conditioning rather than intellectual analysis
 memorization of dialogues, repetitions and pattern drills
 reduce the mental burden
 structuralism
 L1 not allowed
 teacher – role model
 correct pronunciation through repetitions
 inductive teaching
 emphasis on listening and speaking
 a structural syllabus
SILENT WAY
 Cognitive Theory
 autonomous learners
 discover rather than memorize or repeat
 learning is supported by physical objects
 problem-solving is at the centre of learning
 not habit formation
 rule formation or hypothesis formation
 teaching is subordinate to learning
 inductive teaching
 vocabulary – central element
 L1 can be employed if necessary
 teacher - a technician or an engineer, not the model
 first by focusing on the sounds -
 imperative, numeration, prepositions of location – first things to be taught
 functional vocabulary - high utility
 produce the language orally first
 self correction, peer correction
 a set of colored rods (Cuisenaire rods)
 color-coded pronunciation and vocabulary wall charts (Fidel charts)
 structural syllabus
 not a linear syllabus
 3

SUGGESTOPEDIA
 the use of Baroque and Classical music
 the decoration, furniture, and arrangement of the classroom
 humanism
 removing the psychological
 suggestology – desuggestion and suggestion
 Authority Concept: People have the tendency to remember best when new information comes
from a reliable authoritative source.
 Infantilization: Authority is also employed to suggest a teacher-student relationship like that of
“parent-child” relationship.
 Double-planedness: The students learn both from the instructions, linguistic input (consciously)
and from the environment by means of the classical music (subconscious).
 Intonation & Rhythm: Varying intonation, tone and rhythm of the presented material help to
avoid boredom.
 Concert pseudo-passiveness: Teaching materials presented with varying rhythm, intonation,
and tone should be accompanied by music in the background. Baroque and classical music work
very effectively for this purpose.
 teacher - the authority
 student – the role of a child
 using the language communicatively
 grammar - explicitly but with a minimum amount of time spent
 vocabulary emphasized
 The receptive phase (a) The first concert - the active concert (b) The second concert - the
passive concert
The activation phase (a) Primary activation (b) Secondary activation (Creative adaptation)
 Recast
 peripheral learning
 a mixture of structural and lexical syllabus
 focus on vocabulary
COMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING
 Counseling-Learning
 (1) deciding on the topic with the students
(2) a conversation in the first language
(3) translation in chunks by the teacher
(4) recording of the conversations
(5) a transcript with first language equivalents
(6) activities based on the conversation
 a holistic approach
 whole-person learning
 SARD: Security, Attention and Aggression, Retention and Reflection, Discrimination
 language as a vehicle for communication and for developing creative thinking
 what you learn and share with others
 language alternation
 teacher as a counselor and student as a client-learner
 no pre-planned syllabus
 4

TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE

 from developmental psychology and humanistic pedagogy
 Comprehension Approach
 the main idea from child language acquisition
 Innate Bio-program: similar process to first language acquisition , the natural order
 Brain Lateralization: activating both hemispheres of the
 Stress (an affective filter): the lower the stress is, the greater the language learning takes place
 use of the imperative form
 physical movements and demonstration
 grammar and vocabulary
 pronunciation is delayed
 the natural order of the skills
 a sentence-based syllabus with grammatical and lexical criteria
 the meaning of the utterances rather than to the grammatical structures
 commands, role reversal and action sequence
WHOLE LANGUAGE APPROACH
 apply the language in real-life, social situations
 interactional perspective towards language
 knowledge socially constructed by building on the previous experiences
 emphasis on learning authenticity
 learner-centred learning and teaching
 a holistic view towards language
 all language skills are taught integratively
 authentic materials.
MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
 Howard Gardner
 pluralistic view towards intelligence the concept
 eight intelligence types
 every individual possesses all of these intelligence types yet with different levels
 “Variety is the spice”: rich and balanced
mixture of learning activities appealing to
different intelligences
 “One size fits all”: every student has to
engage in all the exercises to develop all types
of intelligence
 the teachers should choose the most
suitable and effective multiple intelligence
activity among many others
 Stages:
(1) Awaken the intelligence
(2) Amplify the intelligence
(3) Teach with/for the intelligence
(4) Transfer of the intelligence
 5

NEURO-LINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING (NLP)

 not a language teaching and learning method in nature
 examined successful people’s thought patterns, beliefs and behaviors with the purpose of
coming up with a set of assumptions to teach other people to make them successful as well
 concerned with how people affect each other and how the successful people’s attitudes and
beliefs can be imitated by others
 Modeling is a central concept
 aims to train people develop self-awareness and effective communication so as to fulfill their
aims
 Neuro: we experience the world through our senses and represent it in our minds via our
neurological processes
Linguistic: how the words you speak influence your and other's experiences
Programming: training ourselves to think, speak and act positively with the aim of releasing our
potential and reaching our aims.
 4 central principles (1) Outcomes (2) Rapport (3) Sensory acuity: the VAKOG system (4)
Flexibility
LEXICAL APPROACH
 concentrates on proficiency with lexis, or words and word combinations
 the ability to understand and produce lexical phrases as chunks
 seeing the new lexical items several times is a necessary condition for learning to occur.
 noticing the similarities, differences, limitations and example usages foster learning
 formal instructions do not work
 induce the rules of the target language and make provisional generalizations
 grammaticalized lexis, not lexicalized grammar
 lexis is central to language and meaning
 grammar has a secondary role
 inductive teaching of grammar
COMPETENCY-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING (CBLT)
 precise measurable description of the knowledge, skills, and behaviors which are expected at
the end of a course of study
 allows students to advance based on their ability to master a skill or competency at their own
pace regardless of environment
 considers outputs very essential and significant rather than the learning process
 focuses on the outcomes of language learning process
 the functional and interactional view on the nature of language
 language learning should always be combined with the social context
 a medium of interaction and communication
 designs the language content on the basis of the skills and sub-skills
 what students can do with the language rather than what they know about language
CURRENT COMMUNICATIVE APPROACHES
COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING
 speak the target language communicatively
 a functional and communicative perspective to language
 a communicative syllabus
 functional-notional syllabus
 Dell Hymnes and communicative competence
 6

 Communicative competence: where, whom, when and why you are talking to
 Communicative competence: linguistic + discourse + socio-linguistic + strategic
 7 basic functions of language: instrumental, regulatory, interactional, personal, heuristic,
imaginative, representational
 Negotiation of meaning
 L1 rarely used
 focus on fluency rather than accuracy
 emphasizes speaking and listening
NATURAL APPROACH
 Stephen Krashen
 natural order
 silent period
 language is for communication
 the importance of vocabulary and vocabulary teaching
 5 hypotheses
1. The Acquisition- Learning Hypothesis
2. The Monitor Hypothesis
3. The Natural Order Hypothesis
4. The Input (i+1) Hypothesis
5. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
 authentic materials
 inductive teaching
 pre-production stage, early-production stage, speech-emergent stage
 a teacher-centered approach
COOPERATIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING
 Collaborative Learning
 maximum use of cooperative activities and interactions
 students are likely to scaffold each other
 peer tutoring
 organized around team-work activities
 an extension of Communicative Language Teaching
 a learner-centered approach to teaching
 the theories of Vygotsky and Piaget: the baseline of cooperative language learning
 social interaction necessary for language learning
 5 defining elements for learning to take place
o Positive interdependence
o Individual and group accountability
o Interpersonal skills
o Face-to-face promotive interaction
o Group processing
TASK-BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING
 bringing real-life contexts into the classroom
 language as a tool for completing tasks rather than as a subject in its own right
 speak the target language communicatively
 activities which consist of real interaction are crucial for language learning
 activities which are used to carry out meaningful tasks foster learning
 7

 language which is meaningful to the students facilitates the language learning process.
 focus on process rather than product
 emphasize communication and meaning
 learn language by interacting communicatively and purposefully
 activities and tasks can be either (1) those that learners might need to achieve in real life or (2)
those that have a pedagogical purpose specific to the classroom
 a task-based syllabus are sequenced according to difficulty
 structural, functional and interactional views of language
 lexical items are central to language use and language learning
 conversation and interaction are the main foci
 Information gap activity, Opinion gap activity, Reasoning gap activity
CONTENT-BASED INSTRUCTION
 uses the target language as an agent to teach the content
 a version of bilingual education and subject-teaching
 language integrated learning; or language across the curriculum or cross-curricular language
learning
 Immersion Education: a foreign language instruction type, in which the regular school subjects
are taught in the foreign language
 content-driven, which emphasizes teaching the content
PARTICIPATORY APPROACH
 integrates themes or contents interesting for the students
 topics come from real-life issues that have an impact on the students’ daily lives
 meaning always comes before the structure
 teaches the foreign language via social topics appealing to the students
 the topics are generated from students’ realities and previous experience
 authentic and meaningful learning experience
 experience-centered
POST-METHOD ERA
ECLECTIC APPROACH/ECLECTICISM
 the label given to a teacher’s use of the principles and techniques from a range of language
teaching approaches and methods
 every educational setting is unique; therefore, teachers should make preferences regarding
which approaches and methods to select, and adapt them in relation to the features of the
students, culture, course objectives and language content to be taught
 a desirable, coherent, and pluralistic approach to language learning and teaching
 the teacher makes decisions about which aspects of the methods or approaches to adopt or
adapt depending on the course objectives, needs and characteristics of the learners
 the teacher chooses the best and the most appropriate and useful aspects of existing methods
or approaches following a systematic decision process
POST-METHOD PEDAGOGY
 not an alternative method yet “an alternative to method”
 design their own method based on practice, which is coherent and systematic and then
practice what they have theorized
 importance of teachers’ meeting the students’ social needs first, then their pedagogical needs
 Particularity parameter, practicality parameter, possibility parameter
 8

COMPUTER-ASSISTED LEARNING (CALL)

 - tutor for language drills or skill practice
- tool for writing, presenting, and researching
- medium of global communication
 CALL-specific software, generic software, web-based learning programs, computer-mediated
communication (CMC) programs
 Teaching with one computer in the class, teaching in the computer network room (network-
based language teaching), self-access learning: (independent learning), distance learning:
 Structural-Behavioristic CALL: Grammar- Translation & Audio-lingual, Accuracy, Tutor
 Communicative Cognitive CALL: Communicative Language Teaching, Fluency, Tool
 Integrative-Sociocognitive-Socioconstructive CALL: Agency, Multimedia CALL and Web-based
 Web 1.00 vs Web 2.00
 Web 2.00 tools require digital literacy (to the ability to effectively and critically navigate,
evaluate and create information using a range of digital technologies)
 A digital native is an individual who was born during or after the general introduction of digital
technologies and through interacting with digital technology from an early age, has a greater
understanding of its concepts.
 A digital immigrant is an individual who wasn't born into the digital world but have, at some
later point in our lives, become fascinated by and adopted many or most aspects of the new
technology.
 9

TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS

Language Skills

Receptive Skills Productive Skills

Reading Listening Speaking Writing

LISTENING
 sub-skills such as discriminating between sounds, recognizing words, identifying structural
grouping of the words, identifying the expressions and phrases that indicate the intended
meaning, and utilizing background knowledge (schemata)
 Content Schemata: background knowledge related to the topic of the text
Formal Schemata: the knowledge about the genre of the texts
Linguistic Schemata: the knowledge of how to form sentences within the rules of syntax, lexis,
grammar and morphology
 three processes while listening:
1. Processing sound/ Perception skills
2. Processing meaning/ Analysis skills
3. Processing knowledge and context/ Synthesis skills
Types of Listening:
1. Discriminative Listening:
2. Comprehensive Listening:
3. Critical Listening:
4. Evaluative/Judgemental Listening:
5. Appreciative Listening:
Other categories

Interaction Purpose

Reciprocal / Non-reciprocal /
Extensive Intensive
Interactive non-interactive
 10

 Bottom up processing (lexical segmentation and word recognition skills): a text-based process
where learners resort to the sounds, words and grammar in the speech with the purpose of
creating meaning
 Top- down processing (metacognitive awareness-raising): Background knowledge, prior
knowledge about the topic, context and type of speech are utilized to reconstruct the meaning.

SPEAKING

Mechanics:
pronunciation,
grammar &
vocabulary

Functions:
Social and cultural transactional
norms and (conveying
rules:taking into information) and
acoount the interactional
contextual factors exchanges
(turn-taking, (building &
rolerelations) sustaining
relationships)

Approaches to Teaching Speaking

Approaches

Language Input Language Output

Content-oriented Form-Oriented Structured Communicative

PRONUNCIATION
 the purpose of pronunciation teaching has shifted from aiming at a native-like accent to aiming
at intelligibility
 intelligibility and correct pronunciation are aimed
 to be understood by the listeners is the main focus not making learners to have native-like
accents
 11

Approaches to Teaching Pronounciation

Approaches

Intuitive-Imitative Analytic-Linguistic Current Integrative

READING

Reading

Intensive Extensive

Reading Sub-skills
 Scanning
 Skimming
 Inferencing
Approaches to Teaching Reading

Approaches

Bottom-up Top-down Interactive

display questions: the ones that the teachers ask in order to check the language use of the students’
rather than the content of the answer. The teachers want the students to display their language
knowledge. The answer is already known by the teacher.
referential questions: the answers of which are not known by the person asking the question. In other
words, there is an information gap between the interlocutors, which facilitates communication.
 12

WRITING
 cohesion: the grammatical relationship between parts of a sentence essential for its
interpretation
coherence: the order of statements related to one another by sense; that’s the logical
organization of a text
register: the selection of appropriate words in line with the genre and the context of writing
Approaches to Teaching Writing

Writing

Product-oriented Process-oriented

 3 phases to teach writing

o Controlled Writing
o Guided Composition
o Free Writing
VOCABULARY
 semantization: reinforcing the meaning of a word
 personalization: expanding the connection between the students’ previous knowledge and new
information and relate them to their previous experiences and lives
Techniques for Teaching Vocabulary
 Demonstration
 Explanation
o Definition
o Cognates: (True) Cognates
o Word-building/Affixation
o Synonyms and antonyms
o Superordinates
o Hyponym
o Mind-map
GRAMMAR
Approaches to Grammar Teachıng

Presentation Observation
Grammar
Practice Hypothesis

Production Demonstration

Inductive Deductive
 13

FACTORS AFFECTING
LANGUAGE LEARNING

Linguistic Individual Socio-cultural

Contrastive Analysis
Age Culture
Hypothesis

Interlanguage Motivation Acculturation

Errors Intelligence/Aptitude Eng. as Lingua Franca

Characteristics of
World Englishes
Learner/ Learning Styles

Intercultural
Learning Strategies
Competence

LINGUISTIC FACTORS
1. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis: Relies upon a systematic comparison of the mother tongue with
the target language in order for the researcher/teacher to predict areas of difficulty for the second
language learner. It stressed that second language learning is primarily, if not exclusively, a process
of learning whatever items are different from mother tongue.
2. Interlanguage: the language developed by language learners during the process of learning a
second or foreign language. Learners haven’t mastered the language fully yet.
3. Errors
o mistake/lapse: a performance error
o error: reflects the deficiency in competence/knowledge of the learner
 14

Sources of Errors

Inter-lingual Errors / Intra-lingual Errors /

Negative Transfer Developmental Errors

1. Inter-lingual Errors/Negative Transfer: differences in mother tongue and the target language
cause the learners to apply the familiar rules to a new situation
2. Intra-lingual Errors / Developmental Errors
o Simplification o Overlooking the co-occurrence
o Overgeneralization/False restrictions
Analogy o False concepts
o Hypercorrection hypothesized/misanalysis
o Omission/Avoidance o Addition
o Overextension o Substitution
o Underextension o Misordering
 communication strategies can cause some errors as well
o Paraphrase o Transfer o Avoidance
Approximation Literal translation Topic avoidance
Word coinage Language switch Message abandonment
Circumlocution o Appeal for assistance
o Mime

Errors in Terms of
Language Aread and
Aspects

Grammatical
(morphosyntactic) Punctuation errors Lexical errors Discourse errors Phonological errors
errors

 Error Treatment o corrective feedback types:

o Fossilization  Explicit correction
o negative feedback  Recast
o positive feedback  Clarification Request
o uptake  Metalinguistic Feedback
 Elicitation
 Repetition
 15

INDIVIDUAL FACTORS
1. Age:Critical Period Hypothesis
2. Motivation
 integrative motivation
 instrumental motivation
 intrinsic motivation
 extrinsic motivation
 global motivation
 situational motivation
 task motivation
3. Intelligence and Aptitude
4. Characteristics of Learners / Learning Styles
 learning style: the general approach, for instance, global or analytic, auditory or visual, which
learners use to learn a new language
 Visual, aural, verbal, physical, logical, social, solitary
 Analytical (field independent) learners vs Global (field dependent) learners
5. Learning Strategies
 three primary types of learning strategies:
1. Metacognitive Strategies:
2. Cognitive Strategies:
3. Socio/Affective Strategies:

SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS
1. Culture
2. Acculturation
3. Intercultural Competence
4. Englısh as a Lingua Franca
5. World Englishes
 Kachru’s Circles
- The inner circle: countries in which English is the primary national language
- The outer circle: countries where English is often used in major institutions such as education,
civil service, and government along with indigenous languages
- The expanding circle: countries in which English is taught as a foreign language; the ones where
English is learnt as a foreign language
 16

TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LEARNERS

 the urge for play and fun, so activities should be enjoyable
 activities which include exploring things, drawing, playing games, singing and solving puzzles
 shorter attention span so kinaesthetic activities and visual materials with bright colours
 enjoy imitating and they are skilful in listening and accurately mimicking what they listen to
 Inductive teaching
 learn through implicit teaching rather than direct instruction
 do not have the access to metalanguage
 various types of activities addressing to visual, auditory and kinaesthetic learner styles
 comprehensible input that is slightly above their current language level of understanding
 types of input need to be presented such as games, songs, stories, cartoons, puppets etc
(addressing to auditory, tactile and visual channels).

3-6 years 7-9 years 10-12 years

st rd th th
Pre-school 1 -3 grade 4 -6 grade
Listening and speaking Listening and speaking Listening, speaking, reading and
Concrete and familiar vocab Concrete, familiar and new writing
No reading or writing New in reading and writing Concrete and abstract vocab
No grammar No grammar Inductive grammar
Low concentration span Chunks through songs Longer attention span
Easily excited Low concentration span More cooperation
High motivation Variety of activities Social, motor and intellectual
Active involvement Short memory skills
Short memory Revision
Learn slowly and forget easily Logical-analytical
Repetition and revision
Limited motor skills
Holistic approach

MAJOR THEORIES OF LANGUAGE AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

 PIAGET
 experiences and actions are fundamental to cognitive development
 cognitive development can occur in two ways as a result of activity: assimilation and
accommodation
 correspondence of accommodation in second language learning is restructuring, re-organizing
the mental representation of a language with that of target language
 The Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)
The Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)
The Concrete Operational Stage (7-12 years)
The Formal Operational Stage (after 12)
 VYGOTSKY
 puts language and social interaction at the centre
 intellectual and language development and learning occur by socially interacting with the people
 scaffolding
 The Zone of Proximal Development
 17

 BRUNER
 examined how adults employ language to support children’s development
 the language support that adults provide for children is called scaffolding
 Language Acquisition Support System
 adults provide a framework of ‘scaffolding’ which helps children to learn;
 motherese

TEACHING LANGUAGE SKILLS TO YOUNG LEARNERS

LISTENING
 phonological awareness and listening capacity
 Songs & Rhymes
 Listen And Do Activities
SPEAKING
 the balance between controlled and guided activities
 make use of different genres
 a valid reason for speaking
 the more realistic the need for communication, the more effective the activity will be
 meaningful and necessary through personalization
 themes and contexts that are interesting and familiar
 games are one of the most appropriate techniques
LITERACY SKILLS (READING & WRITING)
 4 approaches:
1. Phonics teaching
2. Whole words Approach
3. Whole sentence reading
4. Language experience approach
VOCABULARY
 start to acquire words as in superordinates, synonyms or antonyms
 concrete words to teach
 abstract vocabulary is delayed for later stages
 the frequency of the words is the primary aspect to consider
 repeated exposure to the words aimed to teach
 children should be presented the words and lexical chunks in different contexts (recycling)
 explicit (intentional, planned instruction) and implicit (incidental learning) vocabulary teaching
GRAMMAR
 inductive grammar teaching
 presented in meaningful contexts, often in stories, dialogues, songs, games and chants
 children first understand the meaning and discover the rules themselves out of the context
TYPES OF SYLLABUSES
1. Topic-Based
2. Story-Based
3. Task-Based
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF FOREIGN LANGUAGE PEDAGOGY
 a low-anxiety classroom atmosphere
 through a focus on meaning rather than grammar
 involve many senses in the acquisition process
 18

 through thematic, integrative approaches

 visual cues and demonstrations.
 through extended listening experiences and negotiation of meaning.
 a relevant, meaningful context (comprehensible input)
 more manipulation is necessary for younger students
 breaking the task into parts and steps
 learner-centred instruction
 19

MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT
APPROACHES TO SYLLABUS DESIGN

Syllabus Design

Product- Process-
oriented oriented

Grammatical /
Situational Skill-based
structural

Functional-
Lexical Task-based
notional

Content-based

Topic/Theme-
based

PRODUCT-ORIENTED
1. Grammatical-Structural Syllabus:
- a collection of the forms and structures of the language
- specifies structural patterns as the basic units of learning
- organizes these according to such criteria as structural complexity, difficulty, regularity, utility
and frequency
- learner is expected to master each grammatical structure in a linear way
2. Situational Syllabus:
- language is related to the situational contexts in which it occurs
- predict those situations that the learners will encounter
- prepares and selects the language content on the basis of these situations
- seeing the dentist, going to the cinema and meeting a new student
- to teach the structures and vocabulary which are commonly used in certain situations
3. Lexical Syllabus:
- organizes the content on the basis of the words to be taught
- takes lexis as a starting point
4. Functional-notional Syllabus:
- the communicative purpose and conceptual meaning of language

PROCESS-ORIENTED
1. Skill-based Syllabus:
- merges linguistic competencies (pronunciation, vocabulary, grammar, and discourse)
together into generalized types of behavior, such as listening, speaking, reading and writing
- to learn the specific language skills.
 20

2. Task-based Syllabus:
- speaking a language is a skill best developed through interaction and practice
- tasks must be relevant to the real world language needs of the learner
- meaningful and authentic
- perceive the language subconsciously while consciously concentrating on working on the
meaning behind the tasks
3. Topic/Theme-based Syllabus:
- language is organized in relation to the various types of interesting topics.
- uses ‘themes’ as a starting point
- designs language structures and words in accordance with the topic/themes chosen
4. Content-based Syllabus:
- content provides the point of departure for the syllabus
- content is usually derived from some fairly well-defined subject area

Othery Types of
Syllabus

Synthetic Analytic
syllabuses syllabuses

Structural Lexical Task-based

Skill-based
Functional Notional

Topic/theme-
based

Content-based

Synthetic Syllabus
 segment the target language into discrete linguistic items for presentation one at a time
 different parts of language are taught separately
 step by step
Analytic syllabuses
 learners are exposed to language which has not been linguistically graded
 present the target language whole chunks at a time, without linguistic interference or control
 21

SHAPES OF SYLLABUS DESIGN

1. The Linear Format:
- adopted for discrete element content
- particularly grammar or structures
- sequencing and grading are of paramount importance
2. The Modular Format:
- course is broken into independent non-linear units, each of which is complete in itself and
does not usually assume knowledge of previous modules
- objectives are flexible
- the modules could be skill-based or be situational
3. The Cyclical Format:
- teachers and learners to work with the same language content (e.g., structures, lexical
items) more than once
- the level of difficulty/complexity increases each time learners are reintroduced with the
previously learnt items.
4. The Matrix Format:
- similar to the cyclical format, yet the main difference is that the change when meeting old
material again is one of diversity rather than complexity
- the same items are met with different contexts
- the same grammatical structures are focused on across a variety of topics and contexts
MATERIALS AND MATERIAL TYPES
 Authentic Materials
 Instructional Materials
TYPES OF MATERIALS
1. Narrative Materials
2. Informative Materials
3. Interactive Materials
STEPS IN MATERIALS DEVELOPMENT
1. Identification
2. Exploration
3. Contextual realisation
4. Pedagogical realisation
5. Physical production
MATERIALS ADAPTATION
External factors consist of the characteristics of particular teaching situations (e.g., learner
characteristics, physical environment, resources, and class size).
Also age, interests, level of proficiency in the target language, aptitude, academic and educational level,
mother tongue, motivation and attitudes to learning, preferred learning styles, personality.
Internal factors are related to the content, organization and consistency (e.g., choice of themes, skills
covered, level of the language, and grading of exercises).
OBJECTIVES OF ADAPTATION
1. Localisation: Recognizing the need for contextual relevance and appropriateness.
2. Personalization: Relating the content to the learners’ interests and experiences.
3. Individualization: Addressing to individual learning styles of the students.
4. Modernization: Changing content or language which is outdated.
 22

ADAPTATION TECHNIQUES
1. ADDITION
a. Extending
b. Expanding
2. DELETION/OMISSION
a. Subtracting
b. Abridged
3. SIMPLIFICATION
- Sentence structure
- Lexical content
- Grammatical structures
4. MODIFICATION
a. Rewriting
b. Restructuring
5. REPLACEMENT/SUBSTITUTING
6. RE-ORDERING
7. BRANCHING

MATERIALS EVALUATION
WHY DO WE EVALUATE MATERIALS?
 Effectiveness principle: “Is the course book effective in meeting the needs of the learners?” To
answer this question, the evaluator needs to compare what the learners knew and were able to
do before they used the course book with what they know and are able to do after they have
used the book.
 Efficiency Principle: “Does a course book meet the needs of the learners more effectively than
some alternative course books?” To examine whether the materials are efficient or not, a
comparison is required between the learning outcomes obtained from using one course book
with those gained by using another course book.
APPROACHES TO MATERIALS EVALUATION
I. External Evaluation & Internal Evaluation
II. Impressionistic Evaluation & Systematic Evaluation
 23

TESTING IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

DEFINITIONS
 Testing
 Assessment
 Evaluation

WAYS OF ASSESSMENT

Formative assessment Summative assessment

Not graded Graded
Improvement Judgement
Less formal Formal
Carried out in class Exams or term papers
More focused on particular skills Investment of time
Completed outside of class
“What skills and knowledge should students will
have gained at the end course?”

Other ways of collecting information related to the students learning:

 Self-Assessment and peer assessment
 Project work
 Portfolios
 Learner Diaries
 Standardized Tests

TEST TYPES
1. PROGNOSTIC TESTS: the predictive tests
a. Selection Tests
b. Placement tests
c. Aptitude tests
d. Diagnostic tests
2. ATTAINMENT TESTS: assess the learners’ previous knowledge or what they have learnt.
a. Achievement Tests/Progress Tests
b. Proficiency Tests
3. CRITERION AND NORM-REFERENCED ASSESSMENT:
a. Criterion-referenced Assessment
b. Norm-referenced Assessment
c. Individual-referenced Assessment
4. DISCRETE POINT AND INTEGRATIVE TESTING:
a. Discrete Point Tests
b. Integrative Tests
5. DIRECT AND INDIRECT TESTING:
a. Direct Testing
b. Indirect Testing
 24

CRITERIA FOR A GOOD TEST

1. RELIABILITY:
2. VALIDITY:
a. Content validity
b. Face validity
c. Predictive validity
d. Concurrent validity
e. Construct validity
3. PRACTICALITY
4. DISCRIMINATION

HISTORICAL TRENDS IN LANGUAGE TESTING

1. THE PRE-SCIENTIFIC PERIOD / ESSAY TRANSLATION APPROACH
 1950s, no scientific researches on testing
 tests included questions on grammar translation or reading, translation and essay writing and
knowledge of grammar
 no special skill or expertise in testing was required
 easy to follow because teachers will simply use their subjective judgement
2. THE PSYCHOMETRIC / STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
 Lado
 language should be broken up into discrete units for the purposes of testing
 involves structural linguistics
 the need to identify and measure the learners’ mastery of the separate elements of the target
language such as phonology, vocabulary and grammar
 testing the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing is separate from another as much as
possible
 considers measuring only non-integrated skills/discrete units.
3. THE PSYCHOLINGUISTIC SOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROACH / INTEGRATIVE APPROACH
 reaction to Lado’s views on the discrete nature of language
 students need to use more than one skill and one or more linguistic components
 functions and meaning relationships of language items were the focus
 involves the testing of language in context
 concerned primarily with meaning and the total communicative effect of discourse
4. THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
 concerned primarily with how language is used in communication
 importance of strategic competence
 test content should totally be relevant for a particular group of examinees
 the tasks set should relate to real-life situation
 does not emphasize learning structural grammar, yet it may be difficult to achieve
communicative competence without a considerable mastery of the grammar of a language