PHI1101 (Reasoning and Critical Thinking)

Vincent Bergeron

CHAPTER 3 (DEDUCTIVE ARGUMENTS: VALIDITY AND SOUNDNESS)

If it rains, I’ll go to Boston

I won’t go to Boston
---------------------------------
So It doesn’t rain

The sun rises every morning

-------------------------------------
So the sun will rise tomorrow

If I go to Boston, then Sarah goes too

Sarah goes to Boston
------------------------------------------------
So I go to Boston

Deductive validity: an argument is deductively valid if and only if it would not be

possible for the conclusion to be false, if all of its premises were true

Or

An argument is said to be deductively valid if and only if its conclusion would

have to be true if all its premises were true

1
Some people like hockey
Some people like beer
--------------------------------
So some people like both hockey and beer

2 is greater than 3
3 is greater than 4
-----------------------
So 2 is greater than 4

Washington is the capital of the USA

Ottawa is the Capital of Canada
-----------------------------------------------
Paris is the capital of France

All cats are mammals

All mammals are animals
--------------------------------
So all cats are animals

Soundness: a sound argument is a valid argument with all true premises

Classify the following arguments as valid or invalid. If you say that an argument
is invalid, describe a possible situation in which the premises would be
true and the conclusion false. (p. 38)

1. If today is the first day of Spring, then this month is March. Today is not
the first day of Spring. So this month is not March.

2. If today is the first day of Spring, then this month is March. This month
is not March. So today is not the first day of Spring.

All lawyers are educated. Some rich people are educated. So some
lawyers are rich.

5. The human race won’t survive unless we do something about global

warming. We will do something about global warming, however. So
the human race will survive.

2
I. Give examples of the following, if possible (if it is not possible to provide an
example, explain why not): (p. 44)

1. A valid argument with all true premises and a true conclusion.

2. An invalid argument with all true premises and a true conclusion.

11. An argument which is sound but not valid.

5. A valid argument with at least one false premise and a true conclusion.

7. A valid argument with at least one false premise and a false conclusion.

3
Some A are B

1. When we say ‘Some A are B’, this should not be taken to imply that
some A are not B. Thus ‘Some A are B’ still counts as true when all A are
B.

2. We say that ‘Some A are B’ is true even in cases where there is only
one such A. Thus, in order to avoid any possible misunderstanding, you
could substitute ‘At least one A is B’ for the expression ‘Some A are B’.

Problems: True or false? Explain. (p. 46)

1. Some valid arguments have true premises.

2. Some sound arguments have false premises.

3. Some sound arguments have true premises.

4. Some valid arguments have false conclusions.

5. Some sound arguments have false conclusions.

8. Any argument with all true premises and a true conclusion is valid.

4
III. Classify the following arguments as: (a) Sound; (b) Valid, but not sound;
(c) Neither valid nor sound. (Note: the answers to some of the questions will
vary depending upon when you do them). (p. 46)

1. Today is Wednesday, and Wednesday is the day after Tuesday. So

yesterday must have been Tuesday.

3. Not all frogs are green. Some green things are plants. So some frogs
are not plants.

5. Ottawa is more populous than Beijing and Beijing is more populous

than Mumbai. So Ottawa is more populous than Mumbai.

7. Lester Pearson is the Prime Minister and Lester Pearson is a

Conservative. Therefore, the Prime Minister is a Conservative.

9. Today is not the first day of Summer. Summer begins in June. So today
is not in June.

17. Some dogs are not brown. So some brown things aren’t dogs.

Implication and equivalence

When an argument is valid, we also say that the premises imply the
conclusion.

A, B, C, therefore Z, is the same as

A, B, C imply Z

Z follows from A, B, C

When A implies B and B implies A, we say that A and B are (logically)

equivalent.

Two statements are logically equivalent if and only if it is not

possible for one to be true while the other is false.

5
Consider the following pairs of statements. Are they equivalent? If not, does
either one imply the other? (p. 48)

1. (a) Sam and Dave can sing.

(b) Sam can sing.

3. (a) Sam and Dave can sing.

(b) Sam or Dave can sing.

5. (a) Some birds cannot fly.

(b) Not all birds can fly.

7. (a) If Harrison doesn’t resign, the Liberals won’t win a majority in

the next election.
(b) The Liberals will win a majority in the next election only if
Harrison resigns.

13. (a) The plants will die unless they’re watered.

(b) If the plants are dead, they must not have been watered.

17. (a) Joe believes that Sam is lying.

(b) Sam is lying.