Soil Mechanics Assignment 1

JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY
COURSE : CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIT CODE : ECE 2303
UNIT : SOIL MECHANICS I
NAME : OTIENO PATRICK ODUOR
REG. NO. : EN251-6615/2016
TITLE : ASSIGNMENT 1
LECTURER : MR. RONO
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DATE : 9TH OCT 2017
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CAPILLARY RISE IN SOILS AND HOW IT AFFECTS EFFECTIVE STRESS IN SOIL
What is capillary rise in soil?
Capillary rise in soil refers to the ability of water to rise in soil without the assistance or
opposition of external forces like gravity. The rise is caused by higher adhesive force between
soil particles and water molecules than cohesive force between water molecules themselves.
What is infiltration?
The movement of water from the soil surface into the soil
What is redistribution?
The subsequent movement of infiltrated water in the unsaturated zone of a soil. This can
involve exfiltration (evaporation from the upper layer of the soil), capillary rise (movement
upward from the saturated zone to the unsaturated zone due to surface tension), recharge
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(movement of water from the unsaturated zone to the saturated zone) and interflow (flow that
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moves downslope). Percolation is a general terms for the downward flow in the unsaturated
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zone.
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Infiltration and redistribution depend critically on the material and hydraulic properties of soils
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Factors affecting the infiltration rate
•Water input rate from rainfall, snowfall or irrigation
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•The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile

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•The degree to which pores are already filled with water when the infiltration process
begins •Variations in hydraulic conductivity through the soil profile
•The inclination and roughness of the soil surface
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•Chemical characteristics of the soil surface

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•Physical and chemical properties of water

•Organic surface layers - leaf litter, etc, has large openings
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•Frost – a frozen surface can be nearly impermeable

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•Rain compaction of the soil

•In-washing of fine sediments carries into larger pores
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•Human modification of the soil surface

•Swelling and drying - some soils like vertisols, have clay minerals that swell land shrink
with wetting and drying. Swelling can reduce the effective surface porosity. During dry
periods, surface cracks that develop can accept high infiltration rates.
What is effective stress in soil?
Effective stress in soil refers to the force that keeps soil particles together. For instance,
the effective stress in lay soil is higher than the effective stress in sand soil. A mound of clay soil
will hold together better than a mound of sand.
What is soil water pressure?
Soil water pressure Soil water pressure P and hence pressure head Ψ are defined as < 0
in unsaturated soil, and >0 (greater than the atmospheric pressure) in saturated soil. At the
water table, p=0. Negative pressure P is also called tensioner suction. Negative pressure head ψ
is also called tension head, matric potential, or matric suction.
The regions between soil grains can viewed as capillary tubes; the water there has
tension inversely proportional to the curvature of the menisci. As water content decreases, the
water sits deeper in the regions between the soil grains (the capillary tube is effectively
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narrower) and hence the radius of curvature of the menisci decreases, meaning higher water
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tension, and the and the water is held more tightly to the soil grains. A vertical soil water
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pressure gradient hence promotes a migration of water from higher pressure (where the water
is less tightly held to the grains. i.e., lower tension) to lower pressure, where it is held more
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tightly (higher tension). Hence we can get water flow from suctioning an unsaturated soil.
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Effect of capillary rise on effective stress in soil
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Just as water rises in a capillary tube, water will rise above the water table into small
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pore spaces around the soil particles. The soil may be completely saturated for some distance
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above the water table, above which the soil may be wet but the water content in the soil will
decrease with elevation. Surface tension in water explains why water does not drain out of wet
sand or moist clay. Negative water pressure makes the water stick to the particles and pull the
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particles towards each other and causes compressive particle to particle contact forces. If the
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sand or clay is submerged in water, the negative pressure is lost and the soil particles collapse.
Negative pore pressure is higher in clay soil than in sand. This explains why clay soil shrinks
when dry and swells when wet. The swelling and shrinkage should be taken into account during
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construction as they may cause major distress to roads and light structures.
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The principle of effective stress by Karl Terzaghi states that the effective stress in soil may
be calculated by subtraction of pore pressure from the total stress. Vertical effective stress is
calculated from the pore pressure and vertical total stress. It should however be noted that
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pressure at a point is equal in all directions but stress at a point may vary in different directions.
In Soil Mechanics, compressive stresses and pressures are considered positive and tensile
stresses are considered negative.
FLOW NETS
What is a flow net?
A flow net is a graphical construction used to calculate groundwater flow through soil. It
is a diagram used in studying the flow of fluid through a permeable substance, in this case, flow
of water through a soil structure having two nests of curves, one representing the flow lines
which follow the fluid path and the other showing equipotential lines which connect points of
equal head.
What is a flow line?
A flow line is a line along which a water particle moves through a permeable soil
medium. Also known as a streamline.
What is a flow channel?
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A flow channel refers to a strip between any two adjacent flow lines.
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What is an equipotential line?
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An equipotential line is a line along which the potential head at all points is equal.
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CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOW NETS
1. Flow lines or stream lines represent flow paths of particles of water
2. Flow lines and equipotential line are orthogonal to each other
3. The area between two flow lines is called a flow channel
4. The rate of flow in a flow channel is constant (Δq)
5. Flow cannot occur across flow lines
6. An equipotential line is a line joining points with the same head
7. The velocity of flow is normal to the equipotential line
8. The difference in head between two equipotential lines is called the potential drop or head
loss (Δh)
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9. A flow line cannot intersect another flow line.
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10. An equipotential line cannot intersect another equipotential line
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RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF A FLOW NET
1. Head drops between adjacent equipotential lines must be constant (or, in those rare cases
where this is not desirable, clearly stated, just as in topographic contour maps)
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2. Equipotential lines must match known boundary conditions.

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3. Flow lines can never cross.

4. Refraction of flow lines must account for differences in hydraulic conductivity.
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5. For isotropic media (what you have).

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a) Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right angles.

b) The flow line-equipotential polygons should approach curvilinear squares, as shown in
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the Figure to the right.

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6. The quantity of flow between any two adjacent flow lines must be equal.
7. The quantity of flow between any two stream lines is always constant.
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PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTION OF A FLOW NET

1. Draw the boundaries of the flow region to scale so that all equipotential lines and flow lines
that are drawn can be terminated on these boundaries.
2. Sketch lightly three or four flow lines, keeping in mind that they are only a few of the infinite
number of curves that must provide a smooth transition between the boundary flow lines. As
an aid in spacing of these lines, it should be noted that the distance between adjacent flow lines
increases in the direction of the larger radius of curvature.
3. Sketch the equipotential lines, bearing in mind that they must intersect all flow lines,
including the boundary streamlines; at right angles and that the enclosed figures must be
(curvilinear) squares.
4. Adjust the locations of the flow lines and the equipotential lines to satisfy the requirements
of step 3. This is a trail-and-error process with the amount of correction being dependent upon
the position of the initial flow lines.
5. As a final check on the accuracy of the flow net, draw the diagonals of the squares. These
should also form smooth curves that intersect each other at right angles.
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APPLICATION OF FLOW NETS
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The graphical properties of flow nets can be used in obtaining solutions to a variety of seepage
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problems including:
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1. Checking for the probability of piping beneath dams: At the toe of a dam when the
upward exit hydraulic gradient approaches unity, boiling condition may occur leading to
erosion in soil and consequent piping. A number of dams on soil foundations have
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collapsed due to the sudden formation of pipe shaped discharge channel. As the stored
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water rushes out, the channel widens and consequent failure follows. This is also called
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piping failure.
2. Estimation of seepage losses from reservoirs: It is possible to use the flow net in the
transformed space to calculate the flow underneath the dam.
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3. Determination of uplift pressure below dams: from the flow net, the pressure head at
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any point at the base of the dam can be determined. The uplift pressure distribution
along the base of the dam can be drawn and summed up.
4. Determination of velocity of flow: If the velocity at any reference point is known, the
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flow net gives the velocity at any point using the continuity equation.
5. Helps in design of boundaries: Flow net analysis helps in the design of efficient
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boundary shapes.
6. Helps in avoiding separation and the points of stagnation in the design of boundary
shapes.
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JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND TECHNOLOGY

COURSE : CIVIL ENGINEERING

•The saturated hydraulic conductivity of the soil profile

•Chemical characteristics of the soil surface

•Physical and chemical properties of water

•Frost – a frozen surface can be nearly impermeable

•Rain compaction of the soil

•Human modification of the soil surface

2. Equipotential lines must match known boundary conditions.

3. Flow lines can never cross.

5. For isotropic media (what you have).

a) Flow lines must intersect equipotential lines at right angles.

the Figure to the right.

PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTION OF A FLOW NET

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