Choral and Orchestral Conducting: History, Priorities, and Strategies

By
Hyunchul Hwang

A Project Paper Submitted to

the Faculty of Claremont Graduate University
in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Musical Arts.

Claremont, California
2018

Copyright by Hyunchul Hwang 2018

All rights Reserved.




ProQuest Number: 10845363




All rights reserved

INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.

In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.






ProQuest 10845363

Published by ProQuest LLC (2018 ). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author.


All rights reserved.
This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.


ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346
 APPROVAL PAGE

This project paper has been duly read, reviewed, and critiqued by the Committee listed below,
which hereby approves the manuscript of Hyunchul Hwang as fulfilling the scope and quality
requirements for meriting the degree of Doctor of Musical Arts.

Dissertation Committee:

Robert Zappulla, Ph.D., Chair

Claremont Graduate University
Professor of Music

Nancy van Deusen, Ph.D., Member

Claremont Graduate University
Professor of Music

Stephen Gothold, DMA., Member

Claremont Graduate University
Adjunct Professor
 Abstract of the Project Paper
Choral and Orchestral Conducting: History, Priorities, and Strategies

By
Hyunchul Hwang

Claremont Graduate University: 2018

The purpose of this paper is to address the history of conducting and discuss the

differences and similarities between choral and instrumental conducting. In addition to the

differences and similarities between choral and orchestral conducting techniques, this paper

will discuss how the role of the conductor has developed, and how choral and instrumental

conductors have evolved differently since the nineteenth century.

The first chapter will focus on the historical background of conducting along with the

separation of choral conducting from instrumental conducting. Chapters two and three will

discuss the conducting techniques in both choral and orchestral conducting through gesture,

articulation, cues, and beats as well as what kind of performance practice issues remain both

sides. Finally, the paper will survey or interview professional conductors who conduct both

choral and orchestral music, and ask them to address questions about differences, priorities,

strategies, and challenges of both spheres of conducting.

 DEDICATION

To my wife, Ruisha and my family, without whose loving support

I could never have done this.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am sincerely grateful to my doctoral committee: Dr. Robert Zappulla, and Dr. Nancy van

Deusen, for their challenging me from the beginning of D.M.A program to completion. I have

learned so much from these two professors during my graduate studies by their knowledge and

encouragement. I am also so grateful to the other member of my committee, Dr. Stephen

Gothold, for his insight and support during this study, broadening my knowledge of conducting

skills, and guiding my progress on this project paper. I could never have done this without him.

Finally, I would like to thank professional conductors who willing to answer my survey in order

to support deep thought and ideas on this project. I extend my sincere appreciation to my wife,

Ruisha, for her loving support and patience throughout my doctoral degree program.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE ..................................................................................................................................... ⅰ

APROVAL PAGE .............................................................................................................................. ⅱ

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................................... ⅲ

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................... ⅳ

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................. ⅴ

TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................................................................................................... ⅵ
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................... 1
CHAPTER 1. HISTORY OF CONDUCTING .......................................................................................... 3
I ................................................................................................................................................ 3
II ............................................................................................................................................. 17
Summary................................................................................................................................ 20
CHAPTER 2. ORCHESTRAL CONDUCTING ...................................................................................... 22
The Right Hand ...................................................................................................................... 23
The Left Hand ........................................................................................................................ 25
The Baton Technique ............................................................................................................. 27
Cueing .................................................................................................................................... 30
Preparation ............................................................................................................................ 33
Instrumentation..................................................................................................................... 35
Instrumental Seating ............................................................................................................. 37
CHAPTER 3. CHORAL CONDUCTING .............................................................................................. 39
Conducting Gestures ............................................................................................................. 39
Text & Diction ........................................................................................................................ 45
Vocal Tone ............................................................................................................................. 47
Vocal Registration.................................................................................................................. 48
Preparation ............................................................................................................................ 49

vi
 Choral Pedagogy .................................................................................................................... 50
CONCLUSIONS ............................................................................................................................... 52
BIBLIOGRAPHY .............................................................................................................................. 56
APPENDIX A. SURVEY INVITATIONS .............................................................................................. 60
APPENDIX B. SURVEY QUESTIONS ................................................................................................ 61
APPENDIX C. SURVEY DATA .......................................................................................................... 64
APPENDIX D. LIST OF RESPONDENTS ............................................................................................ 69

vii
 1

INTRODUCTION

Gestures are entirely personal. You can’t try to impose them on someone else. They are
as personal as a voice…. The relationship between music and gesture has a physiological
aspect that depends on each individual. Karajan always conducted with very rounded
gestures, whereas Solti’s are extremely angular. Both obtained the results they wanted,
with orchestral sounds particular to them. Each technique has its merits—the resulting
interpretation doesn’t sound any better or worse because the conductor’s gestures are
angular or rounded.1

Some musicians’ views of choral and orchestral conducting can differ greatly with respect

to gesture and style of leadership. When instrumental players work with choral conductors,

they can be uneasy with a conductor’s gestures, patterns, or musical leadership. The reverse is

true: many singers are uncomfortable working with orchestral conductors. Therefore, as a

young conductor, I wish to explain and explore the art of conducting.

This paper will address the history of conducting and discuss the differences and

similarities between choral and instrumental conducting from past to present. Moreover, it will

not discuss only differences and similarities between choral and orchestral conducting

techniques, but also research how the role of the conductor has developed; and how choral

and instrumental conductors have devolved in different ways since the nineteenth century.

The first chapter will focus on the historical background of conducting along with the

separation of choral conducting from instrumental conducting. Chapters two and three will

discuss the conducting techniques in both choral and orchestral conducting through gesture,

1
Jean Vermeil, Conversations with Boulez: Thoughts on Conducting, tr. Camille Naish, (Portland: Amadeus Press,
1996), 64.
 2

articulation, cues, and beats as well as what kind of performance practice issues remain in both

sides. Finally, the paper will survey or interview professional conductors who conduct both

choral and orchestral music and ask them to address questions about differences, priorities,

strategies, and challenges of both spheres of conducting.

Hopefully, this paper will provide for musicians or non-musicians alike the means to

understand differences and similarities between choral and instrumental conducting and lead

to an understanding and appreciation of the complex art of conducting.

 3

Chapter 1

Conducting is the act of communicating musical ideas to an ensemble through gesture.2

The origin of the word is derived from the Latin ‘conductus/ductus’ which means ‘to lead or to

guide logically to a step-by-step process to a conclusion.’3 The contemporary definition of

conducting is “the directing of choirs and orchestras, either with the hands or with a baton to

ensure the coordination or unanimity of a performing group.”4 Before the 19th century,

significant aspects of conducting were little known. Earlier conductors such as singers or

violinists or keyboardists were often themselves involved in performing. Where are early

documents of conducting? One of the earliest descriptions of conducting comes to us from the

Tracatus de musica by Elias Salomon in the late 13th century. It is written that the conductor

(one of the singers)

has to know everything about the music to be sung. He beats time with his hand on the
book and gives cues and rests to the singers. If one of them sings incorrectly, he
whispers into his ear, “You are too loud, too soft, your tones are wrong,” as the case
may be, but so that the others do not hear it. Sometimes he must support them with his
own voice if he sees that they are lost.5

And another the early document was from manuscript illuminations of the 15th century,

indicating a leader nearest the lectern leading and singing along with the choir through raising

his hands that are indicating the tactus, or leading the melodic motion. These early documents

2
Robert W. Demaree, Jr. and Don V Moses, The Complete Conductor (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995), 2.
3
Nancy van Deusen, The Cultural Context of Medieval Music (Santa Barbara, Calif: Praeger, 2011), 189.
4
Roland Jackson, Performance Practice: A Dictionary-Guide for Musicians (New York: Routledge, 2014), 98.
5
Harold C. Schoenberg, The Great Conductors (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967), 25-26.
 4

appear to a leader for a group or ensemble, they do not give explanations. However, In 1490,

Adam von Fulda (1445-1505) who was a German musical author who first mentioned: “the idea

of the tactus” as consisting of two beats, a positio, and an elevatio which mean down and up.6

This down and up movement was applied to opposing note lengths in duple meter, and it was

extended for the triple meter by delaying the upbeat or elevatio to make it fall on the third beat

of a measure while maintaining the same overall pace.7 In the 16th-century, several musicians

also mentioned the tactus to other singers as vertical motions of the hand and arm. Agricola

(1486-1556), a German composer and theorist mentioned in detail that the tactus ‘is a steady

and even motion of the singer's hand … by means of which the notes of the song are led and

measured. All the parts must follow it if the song is to sound good’.8 Moreover, Tomás de

Santa María (1510-1570), a Spanish music theorist also said that instrumentalists should learn

to ‘mark the tactus and the half tactus with the foot since the hand cannot do so while

playing.’9 It demonstrates that an understanding and command of tactus as the early concept

of conducting was necessary to perform music more efficiently with the growing number of

singers in the choral polyphony of the 16th century.

Another aspect of conducting technique in early sources was ‘time-beating.’ In 1611, an

Italian musician Don Agostino Pisa (?) wrote two treatises about conducting - the first was

‘Dichiarazione della Battuta Musicale,’ a short work with basic information and the second was

6
Jackson, 98.
7
Ibid.
8
Spitzer, John, Neal Zaslaw, Leon Botstein, Charles Barber, José A. Bowen, and Jack Westrup. "Conducting." Oxford
Music Online. 2001. Oxford University Press. Date of access 9th January 2018.
9
Ibid.
 5

‘Battuta della Musica Dichiarata,’ an expanded and revised version of the first treatise.10 These

treatises state that the first beat begins in the air and, descending, ends on the beat; the

second beat rises from there to a point above. 11 French and German musicians followed this

explanation within a hundred years; and it became the standard work on the subject of

conducting for the next two centuries.12

Time-beating became even more necessary for the polychoral style of the early 17th

century. André Maugars (1580-1645), a French viol player, described polychoral singing in

Rome:

The leading conductor beat the measure for the main choir, accompanied by the best
voices. With each of the others there was a man who did nothing but keep his eyes on
the leading conductor, to confirm his own beat to the leader’s; in this way all the chorus
sang in the same time, without dragging.13

However, later in the 17th century, there were complaints about the noise of ‘audible

time-beating.’ A versatile musician and essayist, Johann Bahr (1655-1700), wrote a sarcastic

description of time-beating:

In some places when the organists conduct they have a frame which has on it a wooden
arm which they can push up and down with the foot, which made me nearly sick from
laughing. Others tap their foot against the floor so that it bangs and resounds loudly
through the entire church, in a very annoying manner.14

10
Don Agostino Pisa, Breve dichiarazione della Battuta musicale (Rome: Bartolomeo Zannetti, 1611). Cited in
Galkin, 33.
11
Jackson, 99.
12
E. Galkin, A History of Orchestral Conducting in Theory and Practice (New York: Pendragon Press, 1988), 33.
13
Andre Maugars. “Response to an Inquisitive Person on the Italian Feeling about Music”, in The History of Music in
Performance, tr. Carol MacClintock (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1982) p. 118.
14
Johann Bahr, Musikalische Discurse (Nuremberg: P.C. Monath, 1719), 171. Quoted in Galkin, 195.
 6

In the 17th century, a time-beater as an early conductor used a staff for conducting. A

conductor indicated the time of a piece by hitting a large staff on the floor. There is the story

about Jean Baptiste Lully (1632-1687), who he used a large staff while directing a performance

of his Te Deum in 1687. He struck his foot with it by mistake, causing a wound which eventually

killed him. At this time, conductors often used a staff; but the primary purpose was for keeping

the tempo and pacing the music together.

With the basso continuo practice at the beginning of the 17th century, directing music by

an instrumentalist gradually became the primary role of the conducting. Finally, players who

led with their instruments were able to lead the ensemble primarily through the way they

played, without audible beating. In the 18th century, two instruments were considered to be

instrumental for directing an ensemble: keyboard (organ, harpsichord, piano) and violin. The

keyboard player was often the Kapellmeister or Director who organized, rehearsed, and

coached the singers and the ensemble. According to C.P.E Bach (1714-1788):

The keyboard, entrusted by our fathers with full command, is in the best position to
assist not only with the other bass instruments but the entire ensemble in maintaining a
uniform pace… The tone of the keyboard, correctly placed, stands in the center of the
ensemble and can be heard clearly by all.15

However, as orchestras grew during the eighteenth century, the basso continuo was

gradually removed and the violinist led the ensemble by playing the melody and standing in

front. The violinist was able to lead the orchestra by tapping the neck of the violin in the air,

making other movements or playing louder.16 Leopold Mozart (1719-1787) argued that

15
Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach, Essay on the True Art of Playing Keyboard Instruments, tr. William J. Mitchell (New
York: W.W. Norton, 1949), 34-35.
16
Jose Antonio Bowen, “The Rise of Conducting,” in The Cambridge Companion to Conducting, ed. Jose Antonio
Bowen (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 97.
 7

melodic lines are more important than the rhythmic and harmonic control possible at the

keyboard.17 Moreover, He also wrote that:

In music-making, if it is to be good in other respects, all the ensemble players must

observe each other carefully, and especially watch the leader (violin); not only so that
they begin well together, but that they may play steadily in the same tempo and with
the same expression.18

Accordingly, Quantz (1697-1773) also preferred violin leadership:

Whether a leader plays this instrument or that may be of no importance. Since,

however, the violin is absolutely indispensable in the accompanying body and is also
more penetrating than any of the other instruments used for accompanying, it is better
if he does play the violin.19

In the 18th century, the violinist often took the lead in tempo regulation, beat, and

expression as the size of orchestras increased. However, there was also alternating leadership

between the violinist and keyboardist. For opera and concert music, the violinist was

responsible for the orchestra and led the instrumental music, while the performer at the

keyboard focused on the singers.20

In the Paris Opera from the mid- 17th century to early 19th century, there was a time-beater

with a baton, who gave visible and audible signals to the singers, dancers, and instrumentalists

by tapping a single roll of paper or stick on a music stand.21 Lully has been mentioned, and he

seems to have directed the opera orchestra in this way. The purpose of “audible time-beaters”

seems to have been simply to hold it all together and keep everybody united at a correct

tempo. This audible beating was considered mandatory until the early 19th century despite the

17
Leopold Mozart, A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing, tr. Editha Knocker (London: Oxford
University Press, 1948), 216.
18
Ibid., 244.
19
Quantz, Johann Joachim, On Playing the Flute, tr. E. R. Reilly (London: Faber & Faber, 1966), 207-8.
20
Bowen, 97.
21
Galkin, 439.
 8

complaint of noise. Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) acknowledged that “It (audible time-

beating) is an unavoidable problem; without this noise, one would not feel the beat.”22 French

music critic Castil-Blaze (1784-1857) also noted that in opera:

When it is a question of moving large groups, that of a choral group which must begin to
sing off-stage, or of a crowd of dancers who are waiting in the corridors, the signal to
begin must necessarily be an audible one. This signal which is easily grasped by the
actors is hardly perceived by the spectators who are distracted by the pomp of the
spectacle. Moreover, the orchestra usually makes much louder sounds during these
occasions and covers the disagreeable noise of the baton.23

Even at the Gewandhaus Orchestra, which was founded in 1781 in Leipzig, and where

Mendelssohn became the first baton conductor, four keyboard conductors who preceded him

also beat audible time- tempo from the keyboard: Johann Adam Hiller (1728-1804), Johann

Gottfried Schicht (1753-1823), Johann Philipp Christian Schultz (1773-1827), and Christian

August Pohlenz (1790-1843).24 The “audible time-beater” at the opera or concert apparently

assumed the role of the conductor until the early 19th century. During the early 19th century,

conducting was carried out with a baton or stick, with a violin bow, or with a roll of paper.

In 1820, Louis Spohr (1784-1859) introduced the baton at a concert in London as stated in

his autobiography for ‘the triumph of the baton as a time-giver.’25 The reports of the first use

of the baton include Haydn, at the first performance of The Creation in 1798 26 and Weber in

22
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Dictionnarie de musique (Paris: Chez la veuve Duchesne, 1768). Quoted in Galkin, 193.
23
Francois Henri Joseph Castil-Blaze, De l'Opéra en France, (Paris: Janet & Cotelle, 1820), Quote in Galkin, 442.
24
Bowen, 97.
25
Louis Spohr, Autobiography, vol. 2. Quoted in Bowne, 100.
26
George R. Marek, Gentle Genius: The Story of Felix Mendelssohn (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1972), 219.
Cited in Bowen, 100.
 9

1821 with a roll of paper,27 Mendelssohn in London in 1829 with ‘white stick’28 as well as

Berlioz, who used a baton for the performance of his Requiem in 1837.29 This innovation of

using a baton became more typical during the next decades of the 19th century.

Weber (1786-1826) was the first conductor who articulated musical interpretation--not

just keeping a tempo. He claimed that “The beat, the tempo, must not be a controlling tyrant

nor a mechanical driving hammer; it should be to a piece of music what the pulse beat is to the

living man.”30 In other words, variation in tempo must occur to express the music, and the

music reflects life itself. Weber also asserted that interpretation and tempo-shifts subtle; and

the conductor was not only to keep everyone playing together, but also to make music express

emotion by gently manipulating the tempo.31

Another significant conductor, Felix Mendelssohn (1809-47), established authority on the

podium for choral and orchestral conductors as well as modern rehearsal methods.32 When he

arrived at the Gewandhaus, he increased the size of the orchestra, and hired the best

concertmaster he could find. Furthermore, he increased the number of rehearsals and paid

players well. Finally, the Gewandhaus Orchestra became the best orchestra in Europe.33 In

rehearsals, Mendelssohn instituted an open rehearsal every Saturday before its Monday

evening concerts.34 Wagner observed Mendelssohn’s method of rehearsal:

27
Sketch of the State of Music in London, Quarterly Music Magazine 8:30 (August 1826): 145. Cited in Galkin, 508.
28
Morning Post (London), May 27, 1829. Cited in Bowen, 100.
29
Jackson, 100.
30
Bamberger, Conductor’s Art, p.20. Quoted in Bowen, 103.
31
Bowen, 103.
32
Ibid., 106.
33
Ibid.
34
Ibid.
 10

I noticed that he chose a detail here and there-almost at random- and worked at it with
a certain obstinacy until it stood forth clearly. This was so manifestly to the advantage of
the detail that…. For the rest, this incomparably bright symphony was rendered in a
remarkably smooth and genial manner.35

According to Wagner, Mendelssohn was highly aware of each detail of articulation through

creating a sense of orchestral discipline.

Other conductors were also inventing new rehearsal techniques during the 1830s and

1840s such as Spohr who added rehearsal letters to scores, and Berlioz who wrote of the need

for the sectional rehearsals.36 Indeed, Weber and Mendelssohn were not only highly successful

conductors with musical success but were also known for their ability to reorganize and

technically improve their orchestras.

Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) might be considered one of the forerunners of modern

conducting because he arranged rehearsals by groups of instruments like sectionals and

attempted a systematic analysis of the technique of conducting by subdividing measures such

as 3+2 and 4+3--like modern conductors. Here is Berlioz’s description in his book, ‘Memoirs,’ of

the benefit of sectional rehearsals:

You can pass rapidly over such parts of the program as present no difficulties to that
section of the performers with which you have to do, and on the other hand, can give all
the necessary time and attention to the awkward and difficult passages.37

He also wrote about the importance of the conductor’s artistic interpretation of music in

his first treatise on baton conducting, ‘Le chef d’orchestre: theorie de son art’:

[the conductor] should know the composition he conducts and the nature and extent of
the instruments, he should know how to read a score, and should possess, in addition to

35
Richard Wagner, On Conducting, trans. Edward Dannreuther (New York: Dover Publications, 1989). 22.
36
Bowne, 107.
37
Hector Berlioz, Memoirs, 354. Quoted in Galkin, 557.
 11

the special talent and constituent qualities we are about to explain [technical
conducting skills], others which are almost indefinable, and without which an
impalpable barrier arises between him and those whom he directs, the faculty of
transmitting to them his feelings is denied him, and therefore power and authority, the
directive action, completely escapes him. He is no longer a chief, a director, but a mere
wielder of the baton, a simple beater of time.38

Berlioz stressed conducting skills and practical rehearsal technique perhaps because of his

lack of virtuosity on instruments (he was a composer-conductor). Nevertheless, he

demonstrated himself as a conductor, a teacher, a writer, an organizer and an entrepreneur

whose job it was to engage the orchestra with life.

After Berlioz, Richard Wagner (1813-1883) was one of the most influential conductors for

the reconception of the role of conductor. He demonstrated that music has an emotional or

intellectual content. To Wagner, Interpretation is the art of discovering this “poetic object” and

then transmitting to “the layman an understanding of these same works.”39 The conductor’s

job had to be interpretative from a perception of the inner spirit of the music to a

corresponding, unfolding of narrative and poetic meaning. Furthermore, in his treatise on

conducting, Ü ber das Dirigieren (1869), the tempo is the most important nuance for revealing

musical truth.40 Wagner mentioned earlier composers’ use of tempo indication:

Bach hardly ever gave any tempo indication at all, and in a purely musical sense, this is
the ideal course. It is as though he were asking “how else can one who does not
understand my themes and figures and feel their character and expression be helped by
an Italian tempo indication?”41

38
Hector Berlioz, The Conductor: The Theory of His Art, trans. John Broadhouse (London: William Reeves, 1970), 5-
7.
39
Richard Wagner, Selected Letters of Richard Wagner, tr. and ed. Stewart Spencer and Barry Millington (London:
J. M Dent and Sons Ltd., 1987), 250. Quoted in Bowen, 111.
40
Richard Wagner, Ü ber das Dirigieren, tr. William Ashton Ellis (Leipzig: Breitkopf and Hartel, 1869). Cited in
Bowen, 112.
41
Richard Wagner, “On Conducting”, in Three Wagner Essays, tr. Robert L. Jacobs (London: Ernst Eulenburg Ltd.,
1979), 57. Quoted in Bowen, 112.
 12

For Wagner, all music is dramatic.

Wagner criticized most of his predecessors for preferring a rigid tempo which distracts

from the emotional content of music. The tempo selection and control were the foundations of

the conductor’s art. He asserted:

The whole duty of a conductor is comprised in his ability always to indicate the right
tempo. With good players again, the true tempo induces correct phrasing and
expression, and conversely, with a conductor, the idea of appropriate phrasing and
expression will induce the conception of the true tempo.42

Like Weber, Wagner suggests that the tempo must be flexible, and the conductor should

subtly control the speed of a piece in response to changes in character. Whereas Berlioz

emphasized rehearsals and beating time in his treatise, Wagner was more concerned with the

emotional and aesthetic aspects of interpretation than with technical aspects. For Wagner, the

role of the conductor should be an interpretive artist with a personal approach to tempo and

phrasing.

Between the 19th and the early 20th centuries, conducting technique and training were

closely linked to opera because of its scale and musical demands. Hans von Bülow (1830-1894),

is in regular contact with Wagner, was a famous pianist who had studied with Liszt, and was the

principal conductor during the late of the 19th century, He was considered:

…the undisputed ruler of German orchestral music and his authority in the
interpretation of the classical symphonic literature was firmly established. Hardly had
any other musician enjoyed popularity equal to his.43

42
Wagner, “On Conducting”, 20.
43
Bruno Walter, Theme and Variations (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1947), 49. Quoted in Galkin, 607.
 13

One of his important innovations dealt with the rehearsal process. He began preparing

the singers by an opera coach, then worked individually with them. Following this, the singers

were involved in staging and ensemble rehearsals with a piano accompanist. For the orchestra,

von Bülow insisted each of the sections need to be prepared separately before the full

rehearsals began. When he felt satisfied with the progress of the singers and the orchestra, he

brought both groups together to the first rehearsal, the Sitzprobe, a rehearsal without staging,

followed by the dress rehearsals.44

With his efficient rehearsal process, von Bülow led orchestras to a new level of excellence.

Although some contemporary musicians and the press criticized him because of his vivid

personality, --showing off on the podium--and unpredictable behavior on stage, he prepared

the way for the capable as well as charismatic conductor of the late 19th century. Richard

Strauss (1864-1949) wrote: “to anyone who ever heard Bülow play Beethoven or conduct

Wagner, or who attended his music lessons or listened to him during orchestral rehearsals, he

was bound to be the example of all the shining virtues of the reproductive artist.”45

In the late 19th century and the early 20th century, orchestral direction inclined two types

of baton conductors: the composer-conductor and the instrumental-conductor. The foremost

virtuosic ‘instrumental-conductor’ was Hans von Bülow (as a pianist) mentioned above.

Another one of the foremost ‘composer-conductors’ was Gustav Mahler (1860-1911). Mahler

was directly influenced by Wagner just as was von Bülow. In fact, his international renown was

44
Barry Millington and Stewart Spencer, Wagner in Performance (New Haven and London: Yale University Press,
1992), 4.
45
Richard Strauss, Recollections and Reflections, tr. Marguerite Wolff (London: Hutchinson, 1937), 118. Quoted in
Bowen, 118.
 14

based more on conducting than compositional achievements. Even his friend Richard Strauss

regarded him as “…not a really great composer at all…simply a great conductor.”46 Some critics

also found Mahler’s economical use of gesture as fascinating as his conducting behavior. For

instance, Paul Stefan (1879-1943), editor and one of Mahler’s biographers, described the

effectiveness of his conducting: “Instead of vehement gestures, however significant and

realistic they might be, a glance sufficed, a quiet inflection, a mere suggestion.”47 Additionally,

the critic of The New York Sun commented when Mahler made his first appearance at the

Metropolitan Opera in 1908: “Probably not the least pleasure was derived from the conductor’s

quiet demeanor on the platform. He directed a concert to be heard, not seen.”48 From these

observations, Mahler demonstrated the greater effectiveness of economical gesture in his

conducting. He was not only outstanding in his conducting skill but also instrumentation. Like

Berlioz, Mahler continuously arranged instrumentation of other composers’ works such as

Mozart or Beethoven including his compositional works because of his concern about acoustic

and colorful sound in the concert hall for his performance. According to Klemperer, “after

rehearsals, he impulsively transferred ever-changing details of instrumentation, dynamics, and

phrasing from the score to orchestral parts.”49

In the early 20th century, treatises on conducting deal with an economy of gesture, close

analysis of the score, and control of the baton techniques for orchestra conducting. A

46
Fritz Busch, Pages from a Musician’s Life, trans. Marjorie Strachey (London: Hogarth, 1953), 172. Quoted in
Galkin, 619.
47
Paul Stefan, Gustave Mahler, A Study of His Personality and Work, trans. T.E. Clark (New York: Schirmer, 1913),
47. Quoted in Galkin, 630.
48
[“Review.”] New York Sun (30 November 1908), 7. Quoted in Galkin, 631.
49
Otto Klemperer, Minor Recollections, tr. J. Maxwell Brownjohn (London: Dennis Dobson, 1964), 18. Quoted in
Galkin, 632.
 15

Hungarian conductor, Arthur Nikisch (1855-1922) was one of the founders of modern

conducting. He studied at the Vienna Conservatory, and, as an excellent violinist, he gained

valuable experience through performances under the direction by Wagner, Brahms, Verdi, Liszt,

and Bruckner. Nikisch taught a conducting class in the Leipzig Conservatory, perhaps the first

class of conducting pedagogy.50 His conducting gesture was elegant with intensity and

effectiveness. According to an English conductor and one of his pupils, Adrian Boult, “His

economy of the gesture was extraordinary.”51 Even a Russian conductor Nicolai Malko was

impressed by Nikisch’s calmness on the podium: “He sometimes conducted with only his eyes

and eyebrows.”52 His conducting style was quite remarkable and efficient with gesture,

masterful control, and interpretation of music. Nikisch was also the first conductor whose

conducting style was cited in the Russian and American languages, and the first renown

conductor who frequently toured Europe, Russia, and America.

In the mid of 20th century, Arturo Toscanini (1867-1957) and Wilhelm Furtwängler (1886-

1954) continuously influenced conducting style. Toscanini was regarded as the most

distinguished conductor of all time. American music critic and journalist Harold Schonberg

praised him as “…the pivotal conductor of his period, the strongest influence on twentieth-

century objectivity.”53 He was noted for accuracy, directness, precise time-beating, and the

concept of textual fidelity to actual interpretation of music. Moreover, he conducted all music

by memory no matter how difficult it was due to his poor vision. On the contrary, Furtwängler

50
Galkin, 641.
51
Boult Adrian, Thoughts on Conducting, (London: Littlehampton Book Services Ltd.), 38. Quoted in Galkin, 641.
52
Nicolai Malko, The Conductor and his Baton (Copenhagen: Wilhelm Hansen, 1950), 116. Quoted in Galkin, 641.
53
Harold C. Schonberg, The Great Conductors (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1967), 252. Quoted in Galkin, 647.
 16

continued to follow a Romantic tradition which was subjective, expressive, free and flexible.

His baton technique was not precise like Toscanini, but his outstanding capacity to interpret

music brought a unique element to the performance. Although they have different

characteristics of conducting styles, Indeed, Toscanini and Furtwängler were the outstanding

conductors in the modern age of recording and broadcast.

Notable conductors follow in the late 20th century. Herbert von Karajan (1908-1989) and

Leonard Bernstein (1918-1990) were probably the most celebrated and influenced conductors.

Karajan's conducting was very controlled, and, he often closed his eyes when he conducted, on

the other hand, Bernstein's conducting was emotional, with a highly expressive face, hand

gestures and body movements.

At the end of the 20th century, conducting technique became more standardized.

Because of the high cost of rehearsal time, modern conductors had to achieve results with any

given orchestra in limited rehearsal time. The conducting technique could be a minimum of

verbal explanation and communication by gestures of the right hand (beats and pattern) and

left hand (dynamics and articulation), facial and eye expression, as well as body movement.

Moreover, the rise of formal training at colleges and conservatories generalized the skills and

techniques of modern conducting. Today, historical performance practice is also considered.

 17

II

Choral music has a long tradition. In the 19th century, choral singing became an essential

activity for many middle-class people. Moreover, there was a tremendous growth of choral

societies in Germany, Britain, and America such as the Singakademie in Berlin (1793),

Philharmonic Society in London (1813), Handel and Haydn Society in Boston (1815).54 The

majority of choral singing was categorized by professional opera choruses, church choirs and

amateur groups for performance or entertainment, but choral conducting was not considered

to be a separate aspect until the early 20th century. Choral singing has become increasingly

important since World War I.55

In the 1920s emergence of interest in choral singing was instituted by high schools,

colleges, and universities, providing the basis for significant change in choral music. In America,

there were two early collegiate choirs created by idealistic conductors: the St. Olaf Choir of St.

Olaf College (1912) conducted by F. Melius Christiansen and the Westminster Choir (1921)

conducted by its founder, John Finley Williamson (1887-1964).56 Their choral programs

provided a model for subsequent choral conductors such as Robert Shaw and Roger Wagner.57

A few choral leaders also published treatises about choral conducting technique. Father

William J. Finn (1887-1964) was a leading choral director, who founded the Paulist Chorister of

54
Robert. L. Garretson, Choral Music: History, Style, and Performance Practice (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1993),
114.
55
Robert. L. Garretson, Conducting Choral Music (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998), 1.
56
Smith, James G., Thomas Brawley, and N. Lee Orr. "Choral music." Grove Music Online. 2012-02-06. Oxford
University Press. Date of access 30 Jan. 2018.
57
Daniel Judd Bonner, Non-Verbal Language, Gesture, and the Choral Conductor (D.M.A. diss., Claremont Graduate
University, Claremont, 2009), 13.
 18

Chicago in 1904 and published The Art of the Choral Conductor in 1939 and The Conductor

Raises his Baton in 1944. His treatise, The Art of the Choral Conductor, dealt with the

conductor’s preparation of the principles and practices of choral technique. Finn wrote: “a

choral conductor’s first task is to build his chorus into a singing instrument of musical quality.”58

Moreover, “The primary requisite for choral effectiveness is beauty of tone.”59 His focus was

more on rehearsal technique for developing an excellent quality of sound rather than

conducting. For him, using a baton is not important for the choral conductor; “It seems to be of

little import whether a conductor uses a baton or conducts only with his hands. But it is useful

and expedient for him to divide the directional gestures appropriately between the right and

left hands.”60 Finn specifies that the right hand should be devoted to rhythm and tempo as

with orchestral conducting, but the left hand is more important for choral conducting.

Notable German choral conductor (1904-1973) Kurt Thomas’ The Choral Conductor (1935)

was also one of the most important treatises of the early 20th century. His treatise was the first

complete choral pedagogy that placed responsibility for choral conductors on the

performance.61 Thomas said that “There are no bad choruses but only bad choral

conductors.”62 His focus on treatise was choral conducting for conducting technique, vocal

training, diction, and rehearsal technique. He gives direct solutions for the singers as to

58
William J. Finn, The Art of the Choral Conductor: Volume One, Choral Technique (Boston: C.C. Birchard and
Company, 1939), 3.
59
Ibid.
60
Ibid., 261.
61
Bonner, 14.
62
Kurt Thomas, The Choral Conductor: Technique of Choral Conducting in Theory and Practice, tr. Alfred Mann
(New York: Associated Music Publishes, 1971), 1.
 19

approach a part or what to observe in an effective rehearsal. Thomas’ treatise was not only a

substantial move forward in establishing pedagogy, but also for the choral conductor as well.

Later in the twentieth century, numerous treatises on choral conducting technique

appeared such as Harold Decker’s Choral Conducting Symposium (1988), Don Moses’ The

Complete Conductor (1995), and Robert L. Garretson’s Conducting Choral Music (1998).

These treatises extensively added a baton technique, time-beating patterns, dynamics and

phrasing, relationships of time, speed, and motion, including expressive conducting gesture and

rehearsal technique as a movement language, offering manual-technique photo illustrations

and music examples that display the application of techniques.

Today, there is a growing choral movement in the world and many opportunities for

choral conductors from children’s choirs to professional groups. This diversity of choral

movement arose from 19th-century singing societies such as church tradition, chamber choirs,

and opera choruses, also resulting in an interest in early music. Perhaps, since the 20th century,

the media has played a significant role in spreading a variety of choral performances

throughout the world, such as the BBC Singers, the Swedish Radio Choir and the Danish

National Radio Choir’, and today, a new audience is listening on the Internet. The American

choral conductor, Vance George wrote that “At this time opportunities in the choral field far

exceed those in orchestral work, and the quality of today’s choirs has created new respect for

choral conducting.”63

63
Bowen, 46.
 20

Summary

Earlier conductors were often involved in performing as singers or instrumentalists. In

1490, conducting was first mentioned about ‘the idea of the tactus’ of two beats as down and

up. In the 16th century, the ‘time-beating’ was concerned with conducting technique. The

time-beater held a role of an early conductor, using a staff for performing in correct tempo. In

the 17th century, the basso continuo keyboardist and principal violinist assumed the role of the

conductor, depending upon whether the composition was predominantly instrumental or

included voices. In opera, however, the audible time beater took a role as conductor despite

the complaint of noise.

In the early 19th century, conducting was carried out with a baton or stick, or roll of paper.

During the 19th century, the role of the conductor began to change in that conductor begun to

articulate music not just keeping a tempo together. Moreover, the tempo selection and control

of the music became the foundations of the conductor’s art. Even the rehearsal technique was

also greatly advanced by the institution of sectionals and subdividing measures. In the late 19 th

and the early 20th centuries, orchestral direction was represented by the composer-conductor

and the instrumental- conductor. In the 20th century, treatises on conducting concentrated on

economy of gesture, close analysis of the score, and control of the baton technique for

orchestral conducting. At the end of the 20th century, conducting technique became more

standardized because of the high cost of rehearsal time. Modern conductors had to achieve

goals with any given orchestra in limited rehearsal time. Moreover, advancement of formal

training at colleges and conservatories generalized the skills and techniques of the modern

conducting. Conducting gestures developed more intensity and effectiveness.

 21

For choral music, even though it has a longer history, choral conducting was not shaped

until the 1920s. Since the 19th century, choral singing became an essential activity for many

middle-class people. An emerging interest in choral singing could be observed in high schools,

colleges, and universities in Europe and America. Numerous treatises on choral conducting

were published, extensively adding baton technique, time-beating patterns, dynamics, and

phrasing and giving explanations for the relationships of time, speed, and motion, including

expressive conducting gestures and rehearsal technique. Today, there is a growing choral

movement throughout the world with various opportunities for choral conductors from

children’s choir to professional groups.

 22

Chapter 2

The conductor was not considered an interpreter of music until the 19th century, when

large orchestral and choral groups and the increasing demands of composers regarding rubato,

phrasing, flexible tempi, and rhythmic complexity made the conductor a significant figure.64

Mendelssohn, Wagner, Berlioz, and von Bülow, with their colleagues and followers, were

responsible for the emergence of the virtuoso conductor. Even though today the conductor is

regarded as an interpreter of music primarily in the orchestral field, so, too, has choral music

relied upon expert conductors to develop sound and guide interpretation.65

By the end of the 20th century, due to the rise of formal training at colleges,

conservatories, and young artist programs, conducting technique and stage manner had

become more standardized. Wilhelm Fürtwangler commented:

There is nowadays a conducting technique which is taught in books and is practiced

everywhere a standardized technique… It is the technique of routine whose aim is
simply precision… Such a technique will never do justice to the true requirements of
music.66

64
Colin Durrant, Choral Conducting: Philosophy and Practice (New York and London: Routledge, 2003), 137.
65
Durrant, 64.
66
Wilhelm Furtwangler, “About the Handicraft of the Conductor”; Quoted in Frank Battisti, On Becoming a
Conductor: Lessons and Meditations on the Art of Conducting (Galesville, MD: Meredith Music Publications, 2007),
75.
 23

The Right Hand

Most conductors use a baton in the right hand. Even Green strictly wrote that “no

exceptions are allowed to use a baton in the left hand.”67 Rudolf also mentioned, “The

technique of conducting involves the use of the right arm in wielding the baton, the left arm in

lending support, and the eyes as a means of communication.”68

In conducting music, the tip of the right hand describes specific patterns that represent

the rhythm. There is a different pattern for each rhythm, and the patterns are modified

according to the musical expression such as the four-beat legato or four-beat staccato. The

movements of the baton are up, down, left, right, and their various combinations and the size

of the field of beating may vary widely from one situation to another.69

According to Iacono, the basic beat patterns must become a reflex action so that

attention can be directed to other techniques such as cueing and dynamic indications.70 This

basic beat patterns are later applied to the score studies of conducting for all the movements of

cueing, dynamics, articulations, and beat character.71 Dynamics are indicated in the size of the

beat, the beat size changing in communication with the dynamic change, for example, a small

beat for piano, and a large beat for forte.72 The beat also needs to reflect the tempo, character,

and dynamics of the music. Music of a high dynamic level generally requires a larger, broader

67
Elizabeth Green, The Modern Conductor, 6th ed. (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1997), 22.
68
Max Rudolf, The Grammar of Conducting, 3rd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1995), Introduction.
69
Rudolf, 3.
70
Thomas Iacono, Choral and Orchestral Conducting Techniques (Senor Scholar Paper, Colby College, 1975), 6.
71
Ibid.
72
Ibid.
 24

beat, whereas music of a low dynamic level needs a relatively smaller movement.73 For the

articulations, Iacono stated that musical styles must be prepared in right hand such as legato

pattern (smooth, intense, flowing, and connected), marcato pattern (separated, accented), and

staccato pattern (short and light).74 It is essential that beat patterns reflect the manner or style

of articulation of the music that is, legato, staccato, or marcato. According to Garretson, in a

legato style, the arm maintains a continuous movement to the beat for when it stops, the

natural tendency is for the ensemble to stop as well, or at least to lessen the flow of the

breath.75 He specifically suggested the legato pattern is like ‘pretending to move your hand

through a pool of water will often produce the desired feeling.’76 Music in a staccato style

needs to be conducted in a hard, detached manner to indicate the desired articulation of the

music. To do so efficiently, Garretson suggested, use a relatively small beat. Music in a

marcato style demands a vigorous movement, with a precise and definite point to each beat.

The beat patterns need to be stressed so that every movement is precise and understood by

the players. 77

The position of the beat pattern needs to be simple and in the center of the body since

this encourages singers or players to focus on the conductor. According to Iacono, “excess

motion is just as bad as not enough direction.” 78 The direction and beat always come from the

center of the body, directing right in front of the body and facing the group being directed at

73
Robert Garretson, Conducting Choral Music (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998), 30.
74
Iacono, 6.
75
Garretson, 43.
76
Ibid., 39.
77
Ibid.
78
Iacono, 6.
 25

that particular time.79 He suggested practicing in private so that, ‘watching oneself in front of a

mirror will help the conductor see how clear the beat is in its movements.’ 80 Iacono also

mentioned ‘freestyle conductors.’ A conductor might develop his own ‘free’ style which is fine

for his own group if players understand him in that way. However, he said, if a conductor leads

any group, he should know these basics beat patterns, so that any group may understand

him.81

The Left Hand

One of the essential functions of the left hand is to cue entrances, and to indicate changes

in volume, style, mood, and tempo during the actual progress of the music.82 Demaree and

Moses said, “the prime function of the left hand is to add emphasis to the directions of the

ensemble.”83 The conductor may more efficiently use the left hand for particular emphases,

such as sudden accents, abrupt changes in tempo, cue entrances of individual sections,

dynamics, and to assist in effecting clear, precise attacks and releases.84

The left hand is to regulate dynamics such as a sudden warning signal, a gradual crescendo,

and diminuendo.85 For the left-hand dynamics, Kahn suggested that a gradual crescendo may

be helped by slowly raising the left hand, palm upward; the climax is reached when the hand is

79
Ibid.
80
Ibid., 7.
81
Ibid.
82
Benjamin Grosbayne, Techniques of modern orchestral conducting (Massachusetts: Harvard University Press,
1973), 78.
83
Robert Demaree and Don Moses, The Complete Conductor (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1995), 83.
84
Garretson, 43.
85
Emil Kahn, Conducting (New York: The Free Press, 1965), 70.
 26

highest, and a gradual diminuendo may be aided by lowering the left hand slowly palm

downward.86 For the left-hand technique, he also claimed that the left hand should remain

motionless until it is ready to give the preparation, then inviting the soloist or section to

enter.87

Conductors sometimes overuse the left hand. It is relatively ineffective in particular

situations. Bowles addressed that the left hand should not be used at all until it is needed for a

specific purpose.88 The left hand needs to be used mainly to indicate a special kind of ‘attack’

or the ‘expression’ with which the particular entry is to be played.89 Generally, in conducting,

the right hand is always ‘active’ because it takes the position of attention, and delivers the

preparation beats, traces the beat patterns, controls alterations of the rhythm, signals

dynamics, cues cutoffs, and manages all the other techniques. 90 However, the left hand is not

needed all the time. There is an explanation about the use of the left hand. According to

Grosbayne:

It is far better to use the left hand to cue in, for example, first to warn, and then to
signal the point of entrance for the important instrumental or vocal solo or section
which the conductor wishes to bring out in the musical texture. Therefore, the left hand
gives it a preparation and a cue just as if the other instruments were not and had not
been playing.91

86
Ibid.
87
Ibid.
88
Michael Bowles, The Conductor: His Artistry and Craftsmanship (London: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd, 1961), 68.
89
Rudolf, 314.
90
Demaree and Moses, 82.
91
Grosbayne. 79.
 27

There is a conducting gesture which involves both hands at once through the beat pattern,

with the left hand moving backward, this gesture is called “mirroring.” Many conductors agree

that mirroring should be avoided because it is a wasteful pattern since it ties the left hand to

the right in a redundant effort.92 For the conducting technique, Demaree and Moses said, “the

autonomy of the left hand is the first requirement in developing essential skills of

conducting.”93

The Baton Technique

Since Mendelssohn first used a baton in Leipzig, the baton has emerged as the most

efficient means of conveying a precise message to the players, especially for instrumental

ensembles. The baton is generally a light stick made of wood, fiberglass, or carbon graphite

held by the conductor in the right hand. Some conductors say, ‘the baton is simply a flexible

extension of the arm.’94

What purpose and function does a baton serve? Kohut and Grant described that:

First of all, the baton serves as an extension of the conductor’s right hand because it
amplifies the size of the beat pattern which makes it easier for the performers to see.
Secondly, it is to make the icti clearer, especially in slower, softer passages.95

92
Demaree and Moses, 85.
93
Ibid.
94
Ibid., 16.
95
Daniel Kohut and Joe Grant, Learning to Conduct and Rehearse (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1990), 34.
 28

Why do conductors use a baton? It is believed by conductors that the use of the baton

provides in the most precise and obvious manner. Max Rudolf explained that there is an

advantage to using a baton:

No one can say that conducting without baton is “right” or “wrong.” This method has
one obvious advantage in that there are two expressive hands instead of one. But even
though the baton takes some of the expressiveness from the right hand, there are
advantages in using it… the player’s attention is always divided between his music stand
and the conductor. It is much easier for the player to follow the baton, especially if the
music is unfamiliar or the part is technically difficult, or in accompaniments. The baton is
even more important when there is a large ensemble, for then many of the players are
quite a distance from the conductor’s stand.96

It seems that the baton serves as an extension of the hand and arm and is helpful in

working with large groups. Whether one uses a baton or not, most instrumental conductors

use a baton and most choral conductors do not. However, Kohut and Grant said, “this does not

mean that use of a baton is not recommended in choral conducting.”97 Preferably, Demaree

and Moses recommended that all conducting students need to employ the baton because:

1. Although some choruses are used to the baton and others are not, most
instrumentalists are accustomed to it and may not respond to you as efficiently if
you work without one.
2. Although many American conductors have not used batons in choral work in the
past, that seems to be changing because of the increase in programming voices and
instruments in schools and colleges.
3. In the opera or musical theater pit, the distances involved make the baton virtually
essential.
4. In any setting, it is realistic to say that beat patterns shown with a baton tip are
clearer and more precise.
5. The beat pattern with the baton is clearer and more visible than without it.
6. The most important point that there many more opportunities to use the baton for
the opera pit or the oratorio stage than only for a choral group.98

96
Max Rudolf, The Grammar of Conducting, 3rd ed. (New York: Schirmer Books, 1995), Introduction.
97
Daniel Kohut and Joe Grant, 34.
98
Demaree and Moses, 17.
 29

On the contrary, there are also some instrumental conductors who do not prefer to use a

baton. According to Sir Adrian Boult:

With small choirs and orchestras, very beautiful results may be obtained in a way that
would not be done if a stick were used, for the human hand is more expressive than a
stick of wood, and this is readily felt by responsive players who are near the
conductor.99

Pierre Boulez (1925-2016) also worked without a baton he said:

I conducted without a baton because I feel more comfortable that way…. So, the baton?
The more one is inclined toward contemporary music, the less one needs this particular
extension. There is a certain technique involved: the accuracy of the gesture resides in a
perfect coincidence between arm, hand, and intention and what one can physically
execute, as well. And so, especially for phrasing, both hands are needed.100

Some conductors feel strongly that using a baton does not affect the ability to conduct

ensembles in a very expressive passage.

Even though there are different opinions about using a baton or not, the baton technique

is very important for conductors. A Russian conductor, Nicolai Malko (1883-1961), commented

that “the baton is useful only when manipulated well.”101 There are two basic requirements for

the baton technique. First, a strong feeling for the rhythm of each part and the whole is

needed to direct the players with authority. Second, if all the dynamic graduations are firmly

fixed in conductor’s mind, the baton technique can be combined simply and naturally.102 As the

baton moves, Rudolf said, “the conductor’s mind is focused on a line that contains all the

99
Sir Adrian Boult, A Handbook on the Technique of Conducting (London, Oxford: Hall, R. Reeves, 1949), 9.
100
Pierre Boulez and Jean Vermeil, Conversations with Boulez: Thoughts on Conducting, tr. Camille Naish (Portland:
Amadeus Press, 1996), 65.
101
Nicolai Malko, The Conductor and His Baton (Copenhagen: Wilhelm Hansen, 1950), 111. Cited in Galkin, 521.
102
Rudolf, 295.
 30

important musical elements and interpretation marks in terms of the instruments.”103 At the

same time, he also asserted, the conductor must never lose contact with reality and must adapt

conducting technique to the responses and needs of the players because the orchestral

conductor’s baton technique is the essential skill to give a clear concept of how to bring the

score to life.104 He believed that conductors do not need to play music because the musicians

will play, the conductor's job is simply to give directions.105 Additionally, Green said, “a skilled

baton technique is a great time-saver in rehearsals.”106

Cueing

Cueing is one of the fundamental techniques of conducting. Cueing is a vital part of the

whole dialogue between the conductor and the ensemble because cues can clarify rhythmic

features like syncopation and hemiolas and can define phrase shape. 107 Cueing refers to the

numerous times a conductor needs to indicate important entrances or important parts that

need to be emphasized. According to Rudolf, there are ‘three purposes’ for cues. First, it

reminds the players to enter after long rests. Second, a cue may be given to ensure precision of

attack. Third, the conductor often wants to lead entry in a particular way such as loud or soft,

expressive or dramatic.108

103
Ibid.
104
Rudolf, 297.
105
Ibid.
106
Green, 21.
107
Demaree and Moses, 87.
108
Rudolf, 315-316.
 31

In cueing players or singers, the conductor always needs to be ahead at least one beat of

the entrance. Otherwise, the players’ entrance will be too late. Iacono stated that a clear

‘upbeat’ must be given to begin in order to be sure about an entire group is ready and

attentive.109 In performing off the beat, a clear upbeat allows the players to prepare attacks

and cut-offs. Cues always need to be clear and precise from the beginning of the composition.

There are several methods that conductors can use to give cues: with the left hand, with

the baton, and with the head.110 The left hand is often used for cueing performers on the

conductor’s left side while the right hand is used for cueing performers on the conductor’s right

side. The baton extends the arm forward and higher on the preparation and the cue beat as if

inviting players to enter. Head-cueing is often used in softer passages when both hands would

interrupt the character of the music. Furthermore, there is the most important factor of cueing

through “the eyes.” Kohut and Grant wrote that “cues given without good eye contact are

essentially worthless.”111 Rudolf also mentioned that:

do not give all cues by pointing because cueing is only helpful done a little in advance of
the entry. And while a spectacular gesture may impress the public, it is apt to make the
players nervous. The best way of cueing is to look at players.112

Cueing by eyes is significant for conductors because the expression of eyes and general

facial expression can tell the players more about conductor’s intentions than extravagant hand

waving.113 The eyes can maintain personal contact between the conductor and the players.

109
Iacono, 7.
110
Kohut and Grant, 44.
111
Ibid.
112
Rudolf, 314.
113
Ibid.
 32

Demaree and Don Moses also agreed that “the eyes and face cues can be marvelously

expressive.”114 The best cue occurs when the conductor can make the cue with the hand and

support it with eye contact as well.

Effective cues can provide a sense of security to the singers or players and aid the

accuracy of attacks this improving musical interpretation.115 They allow singers or players to

become more aware of important entrance and serve an aid to the audience. A missed

entrance by an entire section could cause more damage to the around performance than

almost any other kind of mistake. Garretson has written that cueing is ‘effective phrasing with

a timely look in the proper direction.’116 Some subtle cues can be indicated by a very slight hand

movement combined with appropriate facial expressions, such as a nod of the head, or by

mouthing the vowels in the first word. For choral conducting, the conductor sometimes

breathes with an open mouth during the cue preparation. Gothold said that “breath is perhaps

the most useful tool in ensuring good entrances.”117 Demaree and Moses also recommended

that cueing with the palm up looks more refined.118 This cueing gesture looks more gentle. The

appropriate cueing gesture depends on the dynamic level of the music, the tempo, and the

number of entrances required. Most conductors establish the effectiveness of their cueing

gestures during the rehearsal.

114
Demaree and Don Moses, 87.
115
Garretson, Conducting Choral Music (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998), 43.
116
Ibid.
117
Stephen Gothold, Interview by the author, on March 26th, 2018.
118
Demaree and Moses, 87.
 33

Preparation

Score analysis is required to prepare the music. The first thing that the conductor needs to

consider is the instrumentation.119 The conductor needs to be familiar with the different clefs

used in the orchestra score, for example, reading the alto clef and tenor clef for the viola part

and the bass clef for cello, bassoon and trombone. Consequently, conductors need to know

about transposing instruments. The transposing instruments are identified by titles such as

clarinet in B-flat, clarinet in A, and French horn in F. If clarinets in B-flat play C, it will sound the

B-flat. The C instruments, sounding as notated, are flute, oboe, bassoon, trumpet in C,

trombone, and tuba.120 However, composers today prefer to use the treble clef only to avoid

confusion. Green asserted that there are two directions by which to read a score, that is,

‘horizontally,’ part by part in order to understand the performer’s problems; and ‘vertically’ for

interrelationships of rhythms, dynamics, cues, and harmonic analysis.121 She suggested that one

take into consideration the bass line as the foundation of the harmony, and then read upward

through the parts, applying correct transpositions.122 There are also various methods of score

analysis. Grosbayne recommended the procedure for studying an orchestral score:

1) Inspect the list of instruments, the clefs, the transpositions, and the foreign and
technical terms.
2) Sing through every part in succession horizontally, as it sounds.
3) Sing through the parts up and down, first starting on the lowest staff in each section
(woodwind, brass, string), and then starting at the bottom of the staff on each page,
until you can sing, hum, or solfege any chord or line across or up or down the page.
4) Analyze the music architecturally. Pay attention to transitions and development
sections.

119
Kahn, 87.
120
Green, 174.
121
Ibid., 170.
122
Ibid.
 34

5) Analyze the rhythmic figures, periods, and phrases of the work.

6) Analyze the harmony, the modulations, the counterpoint, and the thematic interplay.
7) Analyze the changes in instrumental coloring and note places which you think might
prove troublesome for the instrumentalists to play.
8) Analyze the changes in volume horizontally to determine where the climaxes are,
then, vertically to determine problems of tone balance.
9) Combine the previous categories in your mind and note how phrasing, dynamics,
volume, and instrumental coloring are often inextricably intertwined.
10) Consider the tempo and mood of each section and movement individually and
within the other parts of the work.123

Score marking is also part of the preparation. Most conductors have personal methods of

preparing scores. Grosbayne said, “marking on a score may be likened to fingerings for

instrumentalists.”124 Some conductors prefer to use one color while others prefer to use

different colors for the different sections of the orchestra. Some conductors also have

ideographs for instrumental cues such as “O” to suggest the bell of the horn, “H” for the harp,

and abbreviations such as vla (viola), trb (trombone), cl (clarinet), flt (flute), ob (oboe), bsn

(bassoon), vlc (cello).125 Showing sudden changes in dynamics and time-signature in different

colors is also helpful; for example, forte in red, and piano in blue. Circling an accent or

important note or text is also a common practice.

The purpose of score study is to learn the notation and to establish a conception of the

composition in the broadest sense.126 In fact, reading an orchestral score is more demanding

than the study of the choral score because there are many parts and instruments in the

123
Grosbayne, 193-194.
124
Ibid., 201.
125
Ibid., 202.
126
Rudolf, 321.
 35

orchestral score. The conductor’s job is that his interpretive ideas need to be prepared before

they can be applied to actual music.

Instrumentation

The conductor needs to know the characteristic of the instruments. Kahn said, “(Ideally) a

conductor should have a knowledge of all the orchestral instruments but, in reality, only a few

conductors can master a number of instruments.”127

String bowings is a technique that is applied to the violins, violas, violoncellos, and

contrabass. The term arco indicates that the bow is to be used. There are two motions used to

bow string instruments that a down-bow (П) and up-bow (V). The bowing techniques are:

Legato: some notes are played on one bow. Changing of bows should be done with a
minimum of unmusical noises. When the change of bow occurs within a legato phrase,
it should be smooth.
Portato: a “borderline” legato bowing. It is used when a series of repeated notes is to be
very smoothly linked .
Detached: passages are often not sustained but should have clearly-marked notes and
be played with the same bowings by all instrumentalists as for hymns and anthems.
Spiccato (“bouncing”): is generally executed in the middle of the bow, which is held so
that it jumps slightly off the string after each tone.
Saltando (saltato, “jumping”): the bow is lightly thrown onto the strings so that it
bounces, thus producing two eighths or a triplet at speed.
Pizzicato: a method of playing by plucking the strings with the fingers, rather than using
the bow.
Sautillé: very fast spiccato, usually done with the hand, like a finger detache, with the
hair hardly leaving the string while the wood bounces. It is a relatively light and
sensitive, slightly bouncing stroke.
Col legno: played by hitting the strings with the back of the bow.128

127
Kahn, 93.
128
Ibid., 94-103.
 36

Woodwind instruments have three methods of sound production:

1. Flutes: a stream of air is directed over the edge of an embouchure hole, splitting the
stream into two parts. One of these parts continues past the edge. The other,
smaller part is directed into the hole, where it sets up a vibration.
2. Oboes and bassoons: a pair of curved reeds, made from cane and separated slightly,
are set into vibration against one another producing a somewhat nasal buzz.
3. Clarinets and saxophones: a single flat reed made of cane is attached to a
mouthpiece by means of a ligature which vibrates against the mouthpiece with a
“squawky” or “honky” quality.129

Flutes are blown through an embouchure or blowhole located in the head joint. The

double reeds, oboes, and bassoons are conical bored and have an octave key operated by the

performer’s thumb. The clarinets and saxophones are single-reed instruments which have a

mouthpiece to the reed that is attached by means of a ligature.130 The major wind articulations

are the breath and the tongue. The interaction of these two elements provides all of the

various types of articulations available to wind players. The working of the system is in three

phases:

1. Attack: The tone begins when the tongue of the performer moves away from the
back of the teeth, opening a passageway for the air through pursed lips. It is
somewhat like saying “ta.”
2. Steady-state (breath): The air from the player’s lungs rushes into the instrument
setting the reed and air column into vibration. The tone will continue as long as the
flow of air continues.
3. Release: The flow of air ceases, and the tone stops.131

All brass instruments produce sound by the performer’s lips vibrating together, producing

a “buzz” somewhat like a double reed. The mouthpiece is placed against the performer’s lips

129
Alfred Blatter, Instrumentation and Orchestration (Boston: Schirmer, 1997), 74.
130
Ibid.
131
Ibid., 76.
 37

and collects the buzz and the air, which are directed into the instrument via the lead pipe. The

brass articulations are applied the same as woodwinds. The brasses will not be able to play a

sustained passage without a well-founded breathing technique. Therefore, a conductor has to

be able to help the brass players by adjusting his beat to their breathing.132

Percussion instruments are defined as that producing a sound when struck or shaken.

The single stroke is the basic sound-producing gesture.133 There are two kinds of percussion:

pitched percussion instruments, which produce sounds with an identifiable pitch, and

unpitched percussion instruments, which produce sounds without an identifiable pitch. The

percussion section contains instruments such as timpani, snare drum, bass drum, cymbals,

triangle, and tambourine.

Although Berlioz and Wagner were among the greatest orchestral conductors and

orchestrators, they could not play any of the standard orchestral instruments well.134 Good

conductors nonetheless have always keenly studied the scores of the masters; and they have

learned the characteristics of each instrument from listening to, or watching, energized

performance of difficult passages.

Instrumental Seating

It has always been a matter of controversy as to what is the best way to seat an orchestra.

However, some arrangements have become standard in today. It is customary to seat the

132
Kahn, 111.
133
Blatter, 191.
134
Kahn, 93.
 38

strings closest to the conductor, with the first violins at his left. The second violins are at his

right, but during the 20th century, the violas were also placed there because viola parts have

become more independent and important since the late 19th century.135 Many conductors place

the cellos at their right. This seating has another advantage that the strings are arranged from

top to bottom around the conductor.136 Woodwinds are located in the center, behind the

strings; flutes, and oboes in front, clarinets, and bassoons behind or exchanging with the oboes

and clarinets. First chairs should be seated in the center. Bassoons and cellos should be close to

one another. Brass and percussion will be placed on both sides of the woodwinds; there is

some flexibility depending on acoustics.137

Figure 1. Orchestra seating chart

135
Ibid., 168.
136
Ibid.
137
Ibid., 169.
 39

Chapter 3

Choral conductors, In the 20th century, have more opportunities not only regarding

schools which offer related programs in choral conducting but also in the quality of published

resources on professional technique. Virtuosity in choral conducting has not been received as

much attraction as for orchestral conductors. However, artistic heights of excellence have been

achieved by such choral conductors as Robert Shaw, Kurt Thomas, Christiansen- father and two

sons, Daniel Moe, Harold Decker, Howard Swan, Julius Herford and many others.138 As stated

above, there was a renewed interest in choral music in the early 20th century especially in

America. There followed a growth, especially of unaccompanied choral music is the most

important musical phenomenon of the age.139

Conducting Gestures

For conductors, conducting gestures are a sign language that conveys to the group what

the conductor expects from them.140 Expressing music through gesture can determine the

success of a conductor. Lisk described that “it is like a ‘mine’ which is a wonderful means to

address the beauty and flow of artistic expression through body language.”141 There are two

essential ingredients to a conductor’s gestures. The first is “literal” gesture that gives a signal

138
Antonio Molina, Choral and Orchestral Conducting: similarities, differences and interactions (Thesis, University
of Kansas, 1978), 4-5.
139
William J. Finn, The Art of the Choral Conductor (Boston: Birchard, 1939), preface.
140
Decker and Herford, 105.
141
Edward S. Lisk, Lyrical Conducting (Florida: Meredith Music Publication, 2013), 42.
 40

type of gesture such as beating time, keeping a pulse, and, perhaps to a lesser extent,

indication of entries. The second one is the “connotative” gesture that helps to create the

expressive character of the music, by following the musical phrase and providing the musical

meaning.142

The primary purpose of conducting patterns is to enable all members of an ensemble to

perform together.143 The patterns are particularly important for instrumental players because

they need to count bars of rests. Players need to know when the first beat of each bar occurs in

music that contains changing meter or rhythmic complexity. However, beat patterns are not

always as important for choral conducting as they are for instrumental conducting. Roe wrote

that ‘most of the time following the pattern is necessary for clarity, but the conductor’s

attitude, body, and face are always more important than the beat pattern.’144 Ehmann also

argued that approaching choral conducting is different from instrumental conducting. The

modification of conducting gesture is required for singing in general. He criticized that “angular

and jerky” gestures of the instrumental conducting result in “tight and throaty voice

production.”145 Subsequently, he insisted that the beat patterns should be ‘rounded,’ and the

focus on the vertical motion should be diminished while a horizontal emphasis is augmented,

and the conductor should keep the singers aware of the support of this horizontal line through

gestures.146 Consideration needs to be given to more horizontal flow with conducting gestures

142
Durrant, 138.
143
Liz Garnett, Choral Conducting and the Construction of Meaning: Gesture, Voice, Identity (Burlington: Ashgate
Publishing, Ltd., 2009), 124.
144
Paul F. Roe, Choral Music Education (Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, 1983), 220.
145
Wilhelm Ehmann, Choral Conducting, tr. George Wiebe (Minneapolis: Augsburg Publishing House, 1968), 115.
146
Ibid., 115.
 41

because the horizontal movement is connected to the forward flow and direction of a phrase.

Lisk suggested that gestures needed to be moving from the rigidity of patterns to a more lyrical

flowing pattern.147

There is another avenue of conducting gesture named ‘free-form’ conducting. Lisk

asserted that ‘free-form’ conducting helps the conductor’s communication of meaning and

goes beyond the musical distractions of conducting patterns.148 Moreover, he explained that

this improvised style releases the constraints that inhibit the more expressive and natural

movement of the arms, wrists, palms, and fingers.149 This ‘free-form conducting’ may include

long flowing circles and lines shaped with arms, wrists, and hands in musically inspired motion,

feeling, and expression.150

Conducting without a baton is also a different approach for choral conductors especially in

a cappella singing because the rigidity of the baton can decrease the conductor’s ability to

create highly refined musical expression. Ehmann asserted:

To properly guide and modulate the tonal stress and vocal processes, every finger and
finger joint must be free at his disposal… The choir director must feel somewhat like an
extremely skilled glassblower, who with his highly trained hands and fingers forms with
the greatest dexterity…The director who has mastered the primary forms in all its
variations and possibilities in relation to choral singing will not want to lessen or hinder
his creative work by resorting to the baton and so turn his sensitive, creative fingers into
a fist.151

147
Lisk, 46.
148
Ibid., 42.
149
Ibid., 43.
150
Ibid.
151
Ehmann, 116.
 42

Ehmann also emphasized that eye contact is perhaps more essential to choral conducting

than instrumental conducting because singers, unlike an orchestra are all standing and using

the same instrument. Thus, he asserted that eye contact should never be lost and that more

connectedness can occur between the singer and conductor with non-verbal communication

such as facial expression, physical posture, and gesture. 152

For choral conducting, the minimum gesture is recommended because it encourages

musical phrases and support tone more than verbal instruction alone. According to Durrant:

Trusting singers is part of a key strategy for promoting effective learning and singing and
giving them ownership of the musical experience. If conductors trust their singers, then
they do not need to control them by gesture, rather they remind them. Less is more.153

He suggested that the supporting gesture normally involving the palm facing upward and

kept low in line with the conductor’s stomach area reflects the support needed in singers’

breathing from their stomach areas. Durrant also discussed another useful conducting gesture

to help intonation using the ‘lifting of the palm’ as if gently pulling a puppet string.154 The hand

is turned palm side down and gradually lifts up, like a cat arches its back. This gesture, he

explained could help the singers to lift their soft palate to improve pitch, color, and vocal tone

and intonation as well.155 These few gestures are unique for choral conducting because they all

specifically designed to enhance choral performance. Therefore, it seems like the particular

152
Ibid., 115.
153
Durrant, 147.
154
Ibid.
155
Ibid.
 43

connotation of non-verbal signals is a top priority for choral conductors who desire to

communicate with their choir rather than simply beating the pattern.

Some choral conductors, however, have recognized that choral singing requires more

than just subtle manipulation of patterns to enhance performance. According to Ehmann, “it is

almost impossible to do artistic work of high caliber if the director has not thoroughly mastered

a sound time-beating technique.”156 He acknowledged that formal training in traditional

conducting is necessary. Moreover, he strongly claimed that “an essential property of

orchestral directing is time beating, and its craft is conducting technique.” 157 The skillful

instrumentalist has spent many years attempting to master an instrument and learning to sight-

read. Because of this discipline, an instrumentalist tends to approach performance as a craft.

Singers also try to find technical skill, but they tend to be more dependent on group motivation

and extra-musical factors than instrumental groups. Gordon said, “always maintain a clear

downbeat for every measure!” 158 because the orchestral musician usually expects clear,

concise instructions and accurate accounting for measures by the conductor. Therefore, for all

conductors, mastering traditional conducting techniques is fundamental to maintain authority,

but, at the same time, to be able to adapt these techniques, altering them when necessary or

expedient.

Furthermore, body movement and motion are quite naturally necessary for the choral

ensemble. Ehmann wrote, “the choir director should imagine himself as a leader of the

156
Ehmann, 115.
157
Ibid., 110.
158
Lewis Gordon, Choral Director’s Rehearsal and Performance Guide (New York: Parker Publishing Company,
1989), 97.
 44

dance.”159 He explained that physical movements, such as walking to different rhythmic

patterns, clapping to a word or rhythmic patterns, or making upper body motions could relate

to the music for creating a deeper appreciation of the connection between music and

motion.160 However, he suggested that these motions are almost entirely limited to rehearsal

and forbidden in performance. According to Jordan:

any conducting pattern is as subtle but specifically choreographed dance between

accelerated and decelerated elements. Acceleration affects tempo and the overall vocal
health the singers, and too much deceleration affects tempo, as well as pitch and vowel
color. The speed of the conducting gesture directly affects the use of the air by both
singers and instrumentalists.161

Decker and Herford stated that “non-verbal communication involves body language, facial

expressions, and conducting gestures, each of which must be purposeful, related to the music,

restrained, and never expansive to the point of calling attention to itself instead of to the

music.”162 Of course, verbal explanations are important, but, they must be kept to a minimum

during rehearsals. According to Garretson, “the experienced conductor can more quickly help

the group achieve the desired interpretation through his conducting technique.”163

To summarize, when conducting a choir, the choral conductor needs not only to energize

the ensembles, but also to evoke proper interpretation of the music from the choir by using

poise, gestures, facial expression, and eye contact. The conductor needs to be more than just a

time beater. The conductor’s musical knowledge and interpretative intentions must be carried

159
Ehmann, 78.
160
Ibid.
161
James Jordan, The Musician’s Breath (Chicago: GIA Publications, Inc., 2011), 101-102.
162
Decker and Herford, 94.
163
Garretson, 5.
 45

by conducting gestures. Successful conductors are usually sophisticated body-language

communicators. They can establish contrasting musical moods and evoke more effort from

singers and players through gesture. Dalcroze stated, “gesture must define musical emotion

and call up its image. The gesture itself is nothing; its whole value depends on the emotion that

inspires it.”164

Text & Diction

The text is the most distinguishing feature of choral music because language is the only

difference between choral and orchestral conducting. George said, “conducting is conducting,

but in choral music, the text is the catalyst for a composer’s creative impulse and your access to

his or her inspiration.” 165 A choir must understand what they are singing.

The illusion of text is created by musical and verbal emphases and exists only in the minds

of the singer and the listener. Sutton, a prominent choral conductor and professor of the

conducting department at Azusa Pacific University, said that “choral ensembles require much

more imagery and engagement of the imagination than instrumental ensembles because the

aspect of ‘text’ for the chorus brings us into the realm of ‘story’ and becoming actors and

actresses as we engage with the text.”166 Green also mentioned that “emotions become

tangible in choral music because the words demand it. However, the instrumental music is less

tangible.”167 In choral music, the tangible emotion set by the text is described by the music;

164
Lisk, 43.
165
Bowen, 50.
166
John Sutton, Conducting Survey by the author, on Feb 8th, 2018.
167
Green, 220.
 46

however, in instrumental music, the emotional appeal depends on the intangibility of the music

itself. Dynamics in choral music also has an emotional foundation, but the process is often

reversed in instrumental music.

Diction is also another distinctive feature of choral music. Diction problems are often the

result of poorly, or incorrectly, produced vowel sounds. For example, a language such as

Italian, which as many words ending in vowels (a, e, i, o, u), relates naturally to a pure open

sound. However, a language with many consonants such as German or Russian produces a

somewhat harsher type of sound, resulting in different articulation. Decker and Herford

mentioned the importance of the role of diction. According to them, “choral conductors must

require collective unification of vowels, which leads to a blend of the vocal sounds, better tone

production and quality, more beautiful tone color, and more accurate intonation.”168 Demaree

and Moses also addressed that “good vocal production is not a matter of thinking and singing

individual words but, rather, of thinking and singing continuities of individual and separate

phonemes.”169

It is necessary. Therefore, choral conductors stress correct vowel formations, not only for

clarity, but also to aim intonation, text, and tone.

168
Decker and Herford, 93.
169
Demaree and Moses, 119.
 47

Vocal Tone

Tone quality is the very substance of choral singing. It is impossible to have correct diction

and effective choral singing without properly produced tones. Garretson mentioned, “good

tone quality and correct diction are fundamental considerations in the training of choral

group.”170 It is necessary for the choral conductor to develop a well-defined concept of tone

and diction.

The human voice is an instrument. Choral conductors need to be aware of the function of

the vocal mechanism. Garretson explained that there are three components of an essential

function for the human vocal instrument: an actuator, a vibrator, and a resonator.171 He

identified the components of the vocal instrument as 1) The respiratory, or breathing, muscles

serve as the actuator. 2) The vocal cords or folds serve as the vibrator and are the source of the

sound. 3) The pharynx, mouth, and nasal cavity serve as the resonator, which amplifies the

sound. 4) The tongue, lips, teeth, palate, and lower jaw serve as the articulator.172 For choral

singing, he stated that “a conductor must consider factors of the human vocal mechanism

including correct singing posture, proper breath control, and vocal warm-ups in order to

develop the tonal quality of a choral group.”173

The establishment of correct breathing is also key to developing good choral tone. The

development of sound breathing technique is fundamental to both tone quality and tone

control. In singing, Garretson suggested that ‘not only use the diaphragm but it necessary to

170
Garretson, 67.
171
Ibid.
172
Ibid., 68.
173
Ibid., 70.
 48

use the muscles around the entire midsection of the body.’174 To do so, he insisted that ‘the

muscles of the upper chest and shoulders should be relaxed, with the greater amount of work

being done by the intercostal muscles, the diaphragm, and the abdominal muscles.’175

Therefore, the choral conductor needs to continually emphasize and educate breath technique,

expanding around the entire midsection in the back and around the sides, as well as in front to

support a good tone quality of sound for choirs. Finally, choral conductors need to teach

singers to understand that tone production will vary depending on the repertoire. For instance,

the tone production used for a Renaissance or a Baroque choral work should be different from

that used for a choral work from the Romantic period. The sound ideal of the Renaissance or

Baroque period is a thin, clear, and somewhat piercing tone.176 On the other hand, the

Romantic period is lyrical and expressive. Decker and Herford addressed that “all the work on

vocal technique in rehearsal should present the human voice to an audience in a way that

displays its beauty, its variety of tone color, and its expressiveness.”177

Vocal Registration

Choral conductors need to know and recognize the various vocal classifications. The basic

types of vocal parts are a soprano, mezzo-soprano, contralto, tenor, baritone, and bass. The

female voices are divided by coloratura soprano (highest), lyric soprano, dramatic soprano,

mezzo-soprano, contralto (lowest). The male voices are divided by a countertenor (highest),

174
Ibid., 72.
175
Ibid.
176
Robert Garretson, Choral Music: History, Style, and Performance Practice (New Jersey: Prentice Hall 1993), 66.
177
Decker and Herford, 95.
 49

lyric tenor, dramatic tenor, baritone, bass (lowest).178 Knowing the vocal mechanisms is also

one of the priorities of a choral conductor such as head voice which is above chest voice, chest

voice which is the lower register and falsetto which is the higher register for the male voice.179

Sopranos sing pitches in a high register; it is important that tone needs to be done with

appropriate tonal quality. The soprano voice generally has a light, flutelike, lyrical quality, thus

the tone color should be light in the upper range. The alto voice has a heavier, deeper quality,

particularly in the middle and lower range than soprano voice. Altos need to avoid carrying the

quality of their lower voices into too high a range, otherwise, the sound can be too loud. Tenor

voices need to have a light, lyrical quality, particularly in the upper register. When too heavy a

quality is used, there can be a tendency toward flatting. Tenors need to be encouraged to use

their falsetto or light head voice for singing in the high range. Baritones and basses have a

heavier, darker quality than tenors and have more resonance in middle and lower range.180

Preparation

Score analysis is as fundamental to the musicianship of choral music as to orchestral

performance. Analysis enables conductors to stretch the sound tone of text, harmony, melody,

and rhythm, over structure. George stated that a conductor’s preparation is to create a graph

of score analysis by noticing major sections, tonal areas, cadences and phrase groups, tempo

changes, and compositional procedures.181 For the orchestral score, he suggested that the

178
Demaree and Moses, 109.
179
Ibid.
180
Garretson, Conducting Choral Music (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998), 89-90.
181
Bowen, 46.
 50

conductor need not play every orchestral instrument, but must know the score thoroughly

section by section, and part by part because it will help internalize the music’s structure and

proportion--even if this is a slow process.182

Vocal warm-ups are also significant in order to build choral sound. Compared to speaking,

singing is more demanding on the human’s breath and vocal mechanism. Thus, warm-ups are

necessary to prepare the body for singing. The choral conductor’s job is to work with the body,

breath, and voice exercise in each rehearsal.

Choral Pedagogy

Vocal pedagogy is one of the prior responsibilities for choral conductors. Choral

conductors are required to be specialized technicians, combining knowledge of gesture,

literature, and ensemble mechanics with the health and capacities of the human voice.183

Decker and Herford insisted that “all choral conductors should be augmenting and refining their

pedagogical skills constantly.”184 Choral conductors need to be able to analyze and explain the

vocal technique for helping singers to apply and expand the breath capacity of their bodies.

Moreover, choral conductors need to teach singers how to work together. As educators and

pedagogues, choral conductors also need to assist and teach correct consonant articulation so

that there will be clarity in singing a text, the tone will have better support and energy, rhythms

will be more accurate and precise, and intonation will be more secure. The conductor also

182
Ibid.
183
Jennifer Rodgers, “A Language That Resonates: building a pedagogy of resonance for adult avocational singers
in a choral setting” (Choral Journal, April 2018), 63.
184
Decker and Herford, 92.
 51

needs to be developed an active imagination for communication with the choir in different

ways--to master a diversity of actions that will be inspiring, engaging, and exciting to the

singers. Vocal warm-ups are also important because of their pedagogical potential. The choral

conductor needs to be able to use vocal warm-ups for sharing vocal techniques and disciplines

with the singers, consistent with tone, diction, and breath techniques. According to Woo, a

faculty member of the Music Department at Fullerton College:

Professional orchestra players, in general, are problem solvers. They respect a

conductor who can identify the problem and make it sound better in the most efficient
use of time. However, choirs, in general, are a social gathering, and amateur(?) singers,
so the personality of the conductor is important as it directly affects the overall sound
quality and progress of the ensemble.185

185
Jun-hin Woo, Conducting Survey by the author, on Feb 12th, 2018.
 52

Conclusions

Through studying the evolution of conducting, it becomes apparent that several

significant changes have occurred since the 19th century that affected both orchestral and

choral conducting. The orchestral conductor was not considered an interpreter of music until

the 19th century when the increasing demands of composers regarding rubato, phrasing,

flexible tempi, and rhythmic complexity upon large instrumental ensembles made the

conductor a significant figure. Choral music performance has begun to revive since the early

20th century, especially in America, and conducting technique for chorus has also developed.

Since then, choral conductors have had more opportunities in schools and universities which

offer related programs in conducting, and in the quality of its profession. At the end of the 20th

century, conducting techniques for both chorus and orchestra have become standardized due

to more formal training at colleges, conservatories, and within young artist programs.

However, even though both choral and orchestral organizations were developing, some

similarities and differences remained between choral and orchestral conducting.

Choral and orchestral conducting share many similar elements such as basic patterns,

score studies, and musical leadership. The right hand is used for indication of beats, tempo,

and type of articulation. The left hand is used in a supporting manner to indicate dynamics,

entrance cues of instruments or sections, and to help in musical phrasing. Many conductors

agree that ‘mirroring pattern’ should be avoided because it is in a redundant effort.

 53

Score study is the most important work of both choral and orchestral conductors. The

conductor needs to be familiar with the music. Beyond this, the conductor also needs to be

free from the score and able to observe the melodic lines, harmonic progressions, and rhythms

within an overall musical structure. A solid foundation in music theory, harmony function,

formal analysis, ear-training, and instrumentation are requirements for learning a score. As a

leader and educator, the conductor also needs to have an ability to communicate his/her ideas

orally and with authority. Methodically, the orchestral conductor can help players with

suggestions concerning alternative fingerings and bowing, different tone qualities, and correct

ways of performing ornamentation. The choral conductor can be a vocal coach, teaching the

proper way to breathe, how to produce vocal tone and how to pronounce and articulate text.

Most important of all, the conductor needs to have musical leadership that can motivate and

challenge any ensemble to the best level of performance.

There are also differences that exist between choral and orchestral conducting. Choral

conducting has developed more recently than orchestral conducting; but, choral music has a

longer history than orchestral music. Choral music ranges from plainchant to homophony and

polyphonic music. However, orchestral music has developed only from the Baroque period,

and was not yet organized into the full orchestra until the 19th century. Therefore, the music of

Palestrina and the music of Brahms should perhaps be conducted with different conducting

gestures. For choral conducting, it seems that the expressiveness of hand gesture is primary.

On the other hand, clarity and precision on the beat is the crucial point for orchestral

conducting.
 54

Orchestral conducting techniques are based on the principle of the downbeat because

Instrumental music often has many parts, therefore, instrumentalists require precise and

accurate cues. Choral music, on the other hand, generally has four parts, sing together,

requiring a modification of conducting gesture. As Ehmann mentioned (quoted above), beat

patterns need to be rounded, and the vertical motion should be weakened while a horizontal

emphasis is increased. For choral conducting, the gesture of horizontal line is important in

order to keep and support the singers’ awareness of breaths and articulations. Working

without a baton is the usual approach for choral conducting, especially in a cappella singing,

because the rigidity of the baton may impede musical expression and control.

The presence of text is the biggest difference between choral and orchestral music. The

text alone can suggest to the singers a specific expression, meaning, and feeling, which is less

obvious for instrumental music. Without the text, the instrumental players rely on symbols,

dynamic markings, and the overall character of the piece. Thus, the orchestral conductor

intends to suggest the mood or feeling in each phrase to the instrumentalists. The choral

conductor must be concerned with correct diction, vowels, consonants, and different

languages. Vowels and consonants can affect tone much more dramatically than instruments

in the orchestral music. To present improved choral tone and enhance diction, the choral

conductor must motivate and encourage singers to express and evoke the meaning of text

above and beyond producing tones and syllables. The nature of the music and the presence of

text is more different requirement for choral conductors. Whereas the choral conductor deals

with the human voice, the orchestral conductor deals with instrumental construction. The

most important qualities for the choral conductor are a sound and vocal mechanism, therefore,
 55

the eyes, the gestures of the body, diction, and the manner of the breath support are critical for

choral conducting. For the orchestral conductor, he/she needs to be a technician of

instruments. The orchestral conductor needs to know the ranges, timbres and the problems of

each instrument. He/she does not need to be able to play all the instruments, but needs to

know the character of each instrument because such knowledge of each instrument is essential

to the conductor’s musical approach.

In both fields, conducting should be recognized and accepted as genuine art. The

technique of conducting concerns non-verbal communication combined with maximum

efficiency. The conductor’s task is not only to judge the balance or imbalance of each sound,

but also to provide choir or orchestra with training in musicianship which includes the discipline

of listening to one another. Therefore, conductors need to know both choral and orchestral

techniques in order to provide the ensemble effective musical leadership. Both are needed for

young conductors. Kahn wrote:

There is a mistaken notion that different kinds of beats are used for conducting an
orchestra and a chorus. Actually, the difference is not in baton technique but areas of
knowledge. For orchestra conducting one has to understand the function of the
instruments, whereas for leading a chorus one has to know the technical problems of
the human voice, diction. There should be no difference in the beat.186

186
Kahn, 183.
 56

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Books

Bach, Carl Philipp Emanuel, and William J. Mitchell. Essay on The True Art of Playing Keyboard
Instruments. New York: W.W Norton, 1949.

Battisti, Frank L. On Becoming A Conductor: Lessons and Meditations on The Art of Conducting.
Galesville: Meredith Music, 2007.

Berlioz, Hector, and John Broadhouse. The Conductor: The Theory of His Art. London: William
Reeves, 1970.

Blatter, Alfred. Instrumentation and Orchestration. Boston: Schirmer, 1997.

Boulez, Pierre and Vermeil Jean. Conversations with Boulez: Thoughts on Conducting
Translated by Camille Naish. Portland: Amadeus Press, 1996.

Boult, Adrian Cedric. A Handbook on The Technique of Conducting. London: Hall, 1949.

Bowen, Antonio. The Cambridge Companion to Conducting. Cambridge: Cambridge University

Press, 2003.

Bowles, Michael, and W. Greenhouse Allt. The Conductor: His Artistry and Craftsmanship.
London: G. Bell, 1961.

Cook, Mac Clintock Carol. Readings in the History of Music in Performance. Bloomington &
Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1982.

Decker, Harold A., and Julius Herford. Choral Conducting Symposium, Second edition.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988.

Demaree, Robert W., and Don V. Moses. The Complete Conductor: A Comprehensive Resource
for the Professional Conductor of the Twenty-First Century. New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall, 1995.

Durrant, Colin. Choral Conducting: Philosophy and Practice. New York: Routledge, 2003.
 57

Ehmann, Wilhelm. Choral Directing. Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub. House, 1968.

Finn, William J. The Art of the Choral Conductor. Boston: C.C. Birchard & Company, 1939.

__________. The Conductor Raises His Baton. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1944.

Galkin, Elliott W. A History of Orchestral Conducting: In Theory and Practice.

New York: Pendragon, 1988.

Garnett, Liz. Choral Conducting and the Construction of Meaning: "Gesture, Voice, Identity.”
Burlington: Ashgate Publishing, 2009.

Garretson, Robert L. Conducting Choral Music. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1998.

__________. Choral Music History, Style, and Performance Practice. New Jersey: Prentice
Hall, 1993.

Gordon, Lewis. Choral Director’s Rehearsal and Performance Guide. New York: Parker Pub. Co.,
1989.

Green, Elizabeth A. H. The Modern Conductor, Sixth edition. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1997.

Grosbayne, Benjamin. Techniques of Modern Orchestral Conducting, Second edition.

Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1973.

Jackson, Roland John. Performance Practice: A Dictionary-Guide for Musicians. New York:
Routledge, 2014.

Jordan, James. The Musician’s Breath: The Role of Breathing in Human Expression.
Chicago: GIA Publications, 2011.

Kahn, Emil. Conducting. New York: Free Press, 1965.

Kohut, Daniel L., and Joe W. Grant. Learning to Conduct and Rehearse. New Jersey: Prentice-
Hall, 1990.
 58

Koury, Daniel J. The Orchestra in the Nineteenth Century: Physical Aspects of Its Performance
Practice. Michigan: UMI Dissertation Services, 1981.

Lisk, Edward S. Lyrical Conducting: A New Dimension in Expressive Musicianship.

Florida: Meredith Music Publications, 2013.

McElheran, Brock. Conducting Technique: For Beginners and Professionals. New York & Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1989.

Millington, Barry, and Stewart Spencer. Wagner in Performance. New Haven: Yale University
Press, 1992.

Mozart, Leopold. A Treatise on the Fundamental Principles of Violin Playing ... Translated
by Editha Knocker. London: Oxford University Press, 1948.

Quantz, Johann Joachim. On Playing the Flute. Translated by Edward R. Reilly. London: Faber &
Faber, 1966.

Roe, Paul F. Choral Music Education. Prospect Heights: Waveland Press, 1994.

Rudolf, Max, and Michael Stern. The Grammar of Conducting: A Comprehensive Guide to Baton
Technique and Interpretation, Third edition. New York: Schirmer, 1995.

Schonberg, Harold C. The Great Conductors. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1968.

Thomas, Kurt. The Choral Conductor: The Technique of Choral Conducting in Theory and
Practice. New York: Associated Music Publishers, 1971.

Van Deusen, Nancy. The Cultural Context of Medieval Music. Santa Barbara, Calif: Praeger,
2011.

Wagner, Richard. On Conducting ... Translated by Edward

Dannreuther. Fourth edition. New York: Dover Publications, 1989.

__________. Selected Letters of Richard Wagner. New York: W.W. Norton, 1988
 59

Dissertations and Theses

Iacono, Thomas. “Choral and Orchestral Conducting Techniques.” Senior Scholar Paper,
Colby College, Waterville, ME, 1975.

Judd Bonner, Daniel. “Non-Verbal Language, Gesture, and the Choral Conductor.” D.M.A. diss.,
Claremont Graduate University, Claremont, CA, 2009.

Molina, Antonio. “Choral and Orchestral Conducting: Similarities, Differences and Interactions.”
D.M.A. thesis, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS, 1978.

Turner, Kelly, J., “Balancing Chorus and Orchestra in Performance: Problems and Solutions for
Conductors of the Nineteenth Century and Today.” D.M.A diss.,
University of North Carolina, Greensboro, NC, 2009.

Online Source

Smith, James G., Thomas Brawley, and N. Lee Orr. "Choral music." Grove Music Online.
Oxford University Press.

Spitzer, John, Neal Zaslaw, Leon Botstein, Charles Barber, José A. Bowen, and Jack Westrup.
"Conducting." Oxford Music Online. 2001. Oxford University Press.

Periodicals

Rodgers, Jennifer. “A Language That Resonates: Building a Pedagogy of Resonance for Adult
Avocational Singers in a Choral Setting.” Choral Journal (April 2018): 63.

Surveys & Interviews

Gothold, Stephen. Interview by Hyunchul Hwang, on March 26th, 2018.

Sutton, John. Conducting Survey by Hyunchul Hwang, on Feb 8th, 2018.

Woo, Jun-hin. Conducting Survey by Hyunchul Hwang, on Feb 12th, 2018.

 60

APPENDIX A
SURVEY INVITATIONS

Subject: Conducting Survey for Hyunchul (Nicholas) Hwang’s project paper.

Dear Whom

Greetings. My name is Hyunchul (Nicholas) Hwang, and I am a doctoral student studying

conducting (DMA) at Claremont Graduate University under Dr. Stephen Gothold and have now
begun work on a final paper to complete the degree. The title of my study is "Choral and
Orchestral Conducting: History, Priorities, and Strategies".

I would like to survey opinions from professional conductors who conduct both choral and
orchestral ensembles and explore the differences and similarities between choral and
orchestral conducting, based upon the participants own training, experience and expertise.

Would you be so kind in participating in this study by answering a few questions? I will be
happy to conduct this survey by email to minimize the inconvenience to you.

The same questions will be asked of all participants, whether their personal emphasis is choral
or instrumental. I will be most indebted to you if you consent to do this and will be most happy
to share the final study with you, if you wish.

Sincerely,

Hyunchul (Nicholas) Hwang

DMA Candidate
Claremont Graduate University
aftersurvis@gmail.com
732 Baylor Ave, Claremont CA 91711.
609) 402-5579
 61

APPENDIX B
SURVEY QUESTIONS

1. What is your primary responsibility as a conductor?

o Instrumental
o Choral
o Both

2. What was your primary training?

o Instrumental
o Choral
o Both

3. What degrees do you hold and what were your emphases? (e.g. piano, voice, violin,
composition and conducting etc.)

Keyboard Voice Strings Brass Woodwinds Percussion Conducting Composition Others

Bachelor [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] []
Master [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] []
Doctorate [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] []
Others [] [] [] [] [] [] [] [] []

4. Do you currently conduct vocal or instrumental ensembles?

o Choral
o Instrumental
o Both

5. At what level do you conduct? Check all that apply.

o School
o College
o Church
o Community
o Professional
o Others

6. Do you use a baton for

 62

o Instrumental Only
o Choral Only
o Both
o Not at all

7. Do you hold the baton in your

o Right hand
o Left hand
o Both
o Not at all

8. In your opinion, how do conducting gestures vary between instrumental and choral
conducting?
o Same
o Similar
o Different
o Very Different

9. What are the similarities between conducting choral and instrumental?

o Beat pattern
o Phrasing
o Cueing
o Rehearsal technique
o Musicianship development
o Other

10. What are the prominent differences between conducting choral and instrumental? (be
as specific as possible)

11. In your experience, what areas should be emphasized in the training of young
conductors? Check all which apply

o Musicianship
o Score reading
o Score analysis
o Conducting technique
o Rehearsal technique
 63

o Understanding of vocal technique

o Understanding of bowing technique
o Understanding of woodwinds and brass technique
o Understanding of percussions and resources
o Lab experience of conducting chorus
o Lab experience of conducting instruments
o Others

12. Do you wish to provide any further comments?

 64

APPENDIX C
SURVEY DATA

Several questions in this survey offered respondents the opportunity to explain their

multiple-choice answers in online format. Of the 20 participants, approximately 52 percent

responded to the invitation: a total of 12 respondents. The following data is a collecting of all

those questions and the respective answers given by respondents. For each question, a graph is

provided depicting the percentage of responses for each answer choice.

65
66
 67

10. What are the prominent differences between conducting choral and instrumental?
(be as specific as possible)
Respondent 1: For me the main difference is in the rehearsal process and the immense psychological
differences between a choral ensemble and an instrumental ensemble. This is huge. Choral ensembles
require much more imagery and engagement of the imagination than instrumental ensembles. The
aspect of "text" for the chorus brings us into the realm of "story" and becoming actors and actresses as
we engage with the text. The orchestral process is far more concentrated on the notes, rhythms, and
the vast array of dynamics, articulations, phrasing, etc., but they are never worried about making a text
be understood or articulated. Two very different experiences, and psychological perspectives.

Respondent 2: Instruments are different, but similar in music. All differences make based on musical
interpretation either choral or instrumental. Music is music.

Respondent 3: In my situation, I typically work with a student choir for several weeks on a set of pieces
or a major work, and then we have 1-2 rehearsals with the instrumentalists, who are professionals. In
terms of the actual conducting, there aren't many differences for me. I ask the orchestra to play on the
beat, rather than behind, same as the choir. In rehearsal, choirs tend to be more visceral and outwardly
emotional, orchestras tend to expect efficiency, and not a lot of analogies and imagery.

Respondent 4: In my experience, I think there is no fundamental difference between conducting choral

and conducting orchestra. However, it is very important to study and know the difference between the
vocal technique in which a person directly sounds and the technique in which a person plays the
instrument.

Respondent 5: Rehearsal technique and relationship to musicians

Respondent 6: Professional orchestra players in general are problem solvers. They respect a conductor
who can identify the problem and make it sound better in the most efficient use of time. A charming
personality is usually considered a secondary bonus. Choirs in general are a social gathering, and so the
 68

personality of the conductor is important as it directly affects the overall sound quality and progress of
the ensemble.

Respondent 7: Choral conductor must be understanding vocal techniques and diction and breath.
Orchestra conductor must be understanding each instrumental character, Instrument conductor must
understand each instrumental character as well as own breathing difficulties, instruments conductor
provide to prepare for cue for some of instruments.

12. Do you wish to provide any further comments?

Respondent 1: Good luck with this!

Respondent 2: Good luck with your research and produce a practical resource for conductors. My
research is very academic, but yours looks practical. Go for it!

Respondent 3: I would like to suggest that students consider the differences between good conductors
and outstanding conductors when dealing with music.

Respondent 4: All of conductors must prepare score analysis, and each period music must perform in
the period style of music. For example, baroque music must to perform as baroque style, not romantic
style. 'There are no bad choir or orchestra, but many bad conductors'-Dr. Henry J. Paik
 69

APPENDIX D
LIST OF RESPONDENTS

Amanda Quist (Associate Professor, conducting; Chair at Westminster Choir College)

Brian Stone (Interim Professor of Music at Scripps College)

Charles Kamm W. (Associate Professor of Music at Scripps College)

David Rentz (Associate Professor of Music at Chaffey College)

Henry-Hyo Jook Paik (Professor of Music at Korean National University of Art)

Hyung Jik Kim (Music Director of Shalom Church of Torrance)

Irene Messoloras (Director of Choral Activities and Vocal Studies at University of La Vern)

John Sutton (Director of Choral Activities at University of Azusa Pacific)

Jung Sik Yang (Associate Professor of Church Music at Seoul Theological University)

Myung Hwan Lee (Music Director at the First United Methodist Church of Urbana)

Stephen Gothold (Director of Chorale Bel Canto and Professor of Music at Claremont Graduate

University)

Woo Jun-Hin (Professor of Music at Fullerton College and Associate Conductor of Symphony

Irvine)