2014-01-2487

Published 09/28/2014
Copyright © 2014 SAE International
doi:10.4271/2014-01-2487
saepcmech.saejournals.org

ASURT Formula Student Brake Design

Mohamed Samy Barakat
University of Ain Shams

ABSTRACT
The Braking System is the most crucial part of the racing vehicle. There is no doubt, that if only one minority failure in the
braking system took place, this would be more than enough reason to cause the racing team disqualification from the
competition. Time is the main and the most important criteria for any racing competition; on the other hand the formula
student “FS UK SAE” competition care the most about developing the automotive engineering sense in the students by
putting them under strict rules normally taken from the original version “formula 1” to encourage their creativity to reach the
optimum performance under these strict rules. One of the most important rules is “No Braking by wire”, and the obvious
consequences are more stopping distance and time. Braking distance is a critical facture in achieving racing success in a
competitive domain. This report will cover using the bias bar, dynamic weight distribution “before and after braking” and
carefully choosing the braking and suspension system components dimensions, in order to fulfill the main functions of
“ABS and EBD” which are preventing the wheels from lock-up and preventing side skid of the vehicle during cornering in
the different dynamic tests with full consideration of the maximum approachable deceleration of the vehicle without locking
up without using any kind of electronic “actuators or control”. Mathematical model “Matlab” and Physical model “AME SIM”
will be used to support the report's results.

CITATION: Barakat, M., "ASURT Formula Student Brake Design," SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. 7(4):2014,
doi:10.4271/2014-01-2487.

INTRODUCTION Table 1. Basic Design Assumptions.

ASURT 14 is using 2 tandem master cylinders, 1 for the front

axle and 1 for the rear axle, in order to be able to construct 4
hydraulic brake circuits to increase the safety measurements
on the vehicle. In case of brake circuit failure the driver will be
able to lock the wheels, moreover to avoid a huge problem in
most of the racing vehicles, which is the weight distribution of
the right and left hand side isn't symmetric because of the
sprocket and differential placement, so we will be using
adjustable modulating (bias) valve in the line to each caliper.

BASIC DESIGN
At first, in order to satisfy the basic design of the braking system
components Newton and Pascal laws were used. A simple
linear, lumped parameter model was created for initial system
analysis. In addition some assumptions were taken into count.
Human Force
For brakes without a booster, the brake system should be
designed so that for a maximum pedal force of 445 N, a
theoretical deceleration is of 0.9g is achieved.

These assumptions were only taken into count to be able to

provide the base to stand on, but further detailed calculations (1)
and modeling for the previous stated assumption would take
place in this report. The human force has been magnified through the pedal
leverage ratio, and the pedal force has been applied to the
master cylinder.

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 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014) 1275

Braking System Components
1. Master Cylinder: - Support the brake system with the
hydraulic line pressure based on the piston diameter.
(2)
forces are too high the coefficient of adhesion will change from
static μs to dynamic μd which corresponds to a tire sliding in
the real world. Therefore an iterative process compares the
theoretical braking deceleration to the ‘actual’ deceleration the
tires are capable of to determine at what point tires lockup and
what the ‘actual’ deceleration of the car is.

2. Caliper: - Convert the hydraulic line pressure into

clamping force transformed to the pad based on the
caliper piston diameter.

(3)

3. Pad: - Convert Clamping force into friction force applied to

the rotor, which is the main function of the braking system.

(4)

4. Rotor: - Transform the friction force to braking torque
based on the effective radius of the rotor. This is a point
at which the pad is assumed to be acting and for our
purposes we assume it to be the midpoint of the inner and
outer radii of the rotor.
(5)
Figure 2. Basic Design Response
MAIN BRAKE SYSTEM DESIGN
Real brake system design is more complicated than stated
before, as the stiffness of the brake system components, the
volumetric analysis, compressibility of the brake fluid and pad and
the torsional stiffness of tire have a huge impact on the brake
system performance. Before any optimization steps could be
taken, the stated parameters must be taken into consideration.

Brake System Components Stiffness

A schematic of the system can be seen in figure (3) with
components and degrees of freedom labeled. The masses
include: The master brake cylinder Mmc, the brake fluid Mfl, the
caliper Mcalp, the pistons Mpist, the caliper side brake pad MCpad,
the piston side brake pad MPpad, and the rotor Mrot. The
corresponding degrees of freedom include: The master brake
cylinder xmc, the brake fluid xfl, the caliper xcalp, the pistons xpist,
the caliper side brake pad xCpad, the piston side brake pad
xPpad, the caliper side rotor surface xCrot, and the piston side
rotor surface xProt.
Figure 1. Radii Diagram

The stiffness's include: The master brake cylinder kmc, the

Braking Force and Tire brake fluid kfl, the high pressure seal kseal, the caliper kcalp, the
The braking force Fb is defined as the longitudinal force pistons kpist, and the brake pads kpad.
applied to the vehicle in order to stop the vehicle or slow it
down. The braking force is based on the braking torque Tb and
tire radius rw.

(6)

The main problem of the braking force in the Formula student

that any electronic actuators are prohibited since the braking
force is limited by the normal force on the tire, therefore the
highest achieved deceleration = 1g is only instantaneously. In
figure (2) the deceleration is clearly limited by the weight
distribution resulted during acceleration “before hitting the
brake pedal”, and the one resulted during deceleration. If the
Figure 3. Linearized Disc-Caliper Brake Model
1276 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014)
At this point AMESIM program is going to be used to provide
the physical model needed for the Disc-Caliper Brake Model.
AMESIM Model
Figure 4. AMESIM Model
AMESIM provide the user with multi-level modeling, which is
very useful to our case. The model assumes that the coefficient
of friction between pad and rotor μf and the effective radius
Reff are constant, the two values could vary throughout a given
braking event; Moreover The inertia I is used to calculated the
angular acceleration α(t) of the rotor disc via equation (7),
which is turn used to calculate the angular velocity Ω(t) of the
rotor disc via equation (8)
(7)
(8)
The human force is assumed to be a step input into the model
and the effect of the geometry of pressing the brake pedal was
neglected for simplification of the model.
1. Master Cylinder
Figure 5. Master Cylinder Model
For the master cylinder in figure (5), the main function modeled
is the piston effect within its two chambers. The return parts
(equivalent relief valves) to avoid cavitations in the chambers
are not considered in the master cylinder model. The master
cylinder model only takes into account the restrictions on the
output of the front chamber, the rear chamber has restrictions
but with a big hole diameter. The friction force function of the
pressure is also not taken into account.
2. Hydraulic Fluid and Line Fittings
Figure 6. Brembo LCF 600 PLUS Compressibility
AMESIM allows the user to enter the specifications of the
hydraulic fluid used in the model. ASURT is using “Brembo LCF
600 PLUS” brake fluid, in which its compressibility curve is
shown in figure (6). The volumetric losses and efficiency of the
hydraulic circuit will be discussed later in this report, however the
friction of the hoses and line fittings of (AN-3) are neglected.
3. Caliper/Wheel Cylinder
Figure 7. Caliper/ Wheel Cylinder Model
For the caliper in figure (7), the main function modeled is the
piston stiffness effect and the friction force of the piston on the
hydraulic pressure. Each piston is modeled independently with
representative lumped stiffness and mass elements. The
parameters are the same for both pistons. The viscosity
damping effect of the 2 guide pins attached to the caliper was
neglected due to the difficulty of measuring its value in a lab.
4. Response
In figure (8) the curve declares the difference in the hydraulic
line pressure by value of 0.057 MPa between two wheels on
the front axle. The difference in the hydraulic line pressure is
because of the mechanism principle of the tandem master
cylinder, as when the pushrod piston moved toward the floating
piston, the opening connecting the first chamber with the
reservoir is closed. As the pedal travel continues the resulting
build up pressure is transmitted by the floating piston to the
 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014) 1277

next chamber of the master cylinder. The floating piston move Table 2. Volumetric Analysis data and assumptions.
forward and the opening connecting next chamber with the
reservoir close, and now the whole master cylinder is building
up pressure.

Figure 8. Front axle hydraulic line pressures on two wheels

In the upcoming calculations based on the data stated in table

(2), the maximum brake pedal travel required will be calculated
taking into consideration that the braking system should lock at
70% of the maximum brake travel. Second and most important
is the volumetric loss in each braking circuit, in order to be able
to adjust the brake system for the target performance.

Volumetric Analysis Model

Figure 9. Rear axle hydraulic line pressures on two wheels

In figure (9) the curve also declares the hydraulic line pressure
by value of 0.14 MPa between two wheels on the rear axle.
The difference in the hydraulic line pressure is because of the
build up pressure time delay between one hydraulic circuit and
the other as stated before.

Based on the results in figure (8), figure (9) the AMESIM model
could be used to adjust the modulating (bias) valve in the
hydraulic line to each caliper, in order to reach the target
performance, and this would be much clear later in this report.

Brake System Volumetric Analysis

In the brake fluid volume analysis the minimum amount of
brake fluid volume that must be delivered by the master
cylinder is determined, so that all fluid volume absorbing brake
system components can function properly, and the brake pedal
travel doesn't exceed its maximum value.
Figure 10. Volumetric Analysis Model
The volumetric analysis in figure (10) and the upcoming
volumetric analysis for each component are for the ASURT 14
with brake pedal travel 9 cm, in which the most critical point of
interest is at the wheel lock up.
1278 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014)
1. Master Cylinder
Figure 11. Master Cylinder
The master cylinder volumetric losses could vary with its
mechanical condition and size, based on reference (1) the
specific master cylinder volumetric loss Kmc for ASURT 14
master cylinder size front and rear are as stated in table (2).
The master cylinder loss could be calculated as in figure (11).
(9)
Where Vmc is master cylinder volumetric loss, cm3.
2. Brake Lines and Hoses
Figure 12. Brake Line Expansion
Figure 13. Brake Hose Expansion
ASURT 14 is using a 3/16″ steel brake line material with
elasticity E 20.6*10^6, N/cm2 and Stainless Teflon brake hose
with elasticity E 15*10^6, N/cm2. When using the basic
equation for a pressurized cylinder, the volumetric expansion
Vbl could be determined as in figure (12) and figure (13).
(10)
Where D is the outer diameter of pipe, cm. L is the hydraulic
line length, cm. Pl is the hydraulic line pressure N/cm2.
3. Brake Fluid Compression
Figure 14. Brake Fluid Compression
The volumetric losses due to the brake line temperature and
pressure increase could have a significant effect on the brake
pedal travel. Based on ASURT 14 braking fluid characteristics
as it was stated in figure (6) the volumetric losses could be
calculated at various ambient temperatures, first the active
volume Va of the brake system must be calculated.
(11)
Where i is the brake identity. Vo is the brake fluid volume with
new pads, cm3. w is the gap between caliper and rotor, cm.
Acalp is the caliper (wheel cylinder) area, cm2.
The volumetric losses Vfl could be then computed as a
function of the hydraulic line pressure Pl and temperature,
as the compressibility factor Cfl of the brake fluid varies with
the temperature.
(12)
Air bubbles could remain in the brake system fluid and cannot
be flushed away by using vacuum bleeding process, small air
bubbles will always adhere to the metal surface of springs and
could only be removed by ultrasound application. The volume
of the vacuum in the entire active volume of the brake system
could reach 3%. As a result, the effect of the air bubbles must
be taken into count and calculations as in figure (15).
(13)
Where Vgl is the decrease of air volume, cm3. Ta is the
absolute temperature, Kelvin. To is the absolute temperature at
initial conditions, Kelvin. Vg is the enclosed gas volume at
ambient temperature, cm3.
Figure 15. Brake Fluid Vacuum Compression
 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014) 1279

At high hydraulic pressure, the entire closed air volume will be 6. Response
compressed and cause a corresponding drop of the pedal
height toward the floor, so it is important to compute the brake
pedal travel which will be at the end of this section.

4. Caliper/Wheel Cylinder

Figure 16. Caliper/Wheel Cylinder

Caliper/ Wheel Cylinder deformation Kc is difficult to be

measured, because the residual pocket air and brake fluid are
compressed and cause a small fluid loss of their own.
However, experiments was founded based on reference (1) to
find the values of the brake system caliper front and rear Kcf,
Kcr. Kcf and Kcr was found to be 0.0013 and 0.0012 cm3/(N/
cm2) respectively, then the caliper/wheel cylinder volume loss
Vc could be now calculated.
(14)
5. Brake Pad Compression
Figure 18. Brake System Volumetric losses
In figure (18) are the volumetric losses of the brake system,
cm3 at variable hydraulic line pressure in which the peak of the
shown curve is at the wheel lock up hydraulic line pressure
with value of 2.5 MPa, and the volumetric losses had reached
24.72 cm3 and after the wheel had locked up, the entire closed
air volume have been compressed and caused a
corresponding drop of the pedal height toward the floor as a
result the volumetric losses has reached 9.8 cm3. The brake
pedal travel Sp should be designed in which it satisfies that the
brake system should lock at 70% of the maximum brake travel.
At high hydraulic line pressure value and wheel lock up at fixed
time step (2) in figure (18), according to Eqn. (13) the square
bracket will be nearly equal one, indicating the entire
compressed air in the circuit is compressed result a
corresponding drop of the pedal height toward the floor.
Secondly at wheel lock up the wheel cylinders have already
overcome the gap between them and the rotor surface, so the
gap is equal zero which has minimized the volumetric losses
after wheel lock up.

Figure 17. Brake Pad Compression

(16)
Brake pad compressibility Cs is an essential factor must be
Where ΣVi is the sum volume loss of each individual
taken into count especially in race cars because of the
component, cm3. Amc is the area of the master cylinder, cm2.
damping effect within each material. ASURT 14 pad composite
Lo is the pushrod travel to overcome pushrod compensating
material is “toyos20ahh” with Cs = 18.6*10^−6 cm/(N/cm2),
part, cm. Lp is the pedal leverage ratio.
then brake pad compression Vp could be calculated as in
figure (17).
Braking Torque and Tire
Tire traction forces such as braking forces as well as side
(15) forces can only be induced when a variation of speed takes
place between the speed of the tire circumference and the
Where Acalp is the caliper/wheel cylinder surface area, cm2.Pl speed of the vehicle relative to the ground.
is the hydraulic line pressure, N/cm2.
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and Matlab a Simulink model is constructed in figure (20),

which its main target data is the braking slip ratio Sb because it
determines the actual performance of the braking system, as
its performance could be divided into 3 different stages as in
figure (21) from reference (1), the first stage the tire attain the
optimum slip coefficient which is the optimum braking
performance, the second stage the tire approaches wheel lock
up condition and second stage time is only a fraction of time of
the first stage, the third stage is the wheel lock up condition.
The friction process is only stable till it reaches the optimum
point and at 100% slip point which it is stage number three.

Figure 19. Tire under Braking Torque From reference (2)

In figure (19) the effect of the applied braking torque on the

tread material while entering the contact patch is illustrated. As
the angular velocity of the wheel reduces a braking force is
generated that tends to move the contact patch rearwards
relative to the wheel centre. This effect will introduce
circumferential tension and also a rising effect of braking slip
Sb function of time. At this condition the braking slip is the ratio Figure 21. Friction Slip Curve
of the difference of tire circumferential speed Vc and wheel
speed Vw. 1. Tire Torsional Stiffness

(17)

Braking Torque and Tire Model

Figure 22. Tire Torsional Stiffness

Tire side walls torsional stiffness In figure (22) can be treated

as a stiffness effect Kt and damping effect Ct in opposite
directions, in order to be able to construct Newton equations as
Figure 20. Brake System Matlab Model a function of the angular displacement θr and θw of the ring
and wheel respectively and the angular speed Wr and Ww of
As a result of the above illustrated points, Tire characteristics the ring and wheel respectively.
during braking could be considered most at the torsional
stiffness of the side walls of the tire which takes over most of
the dynamic effect of the braking condition and the tread
friction at the contact patch which produce the braking friction
force at low levels of tire slip. The braking torque and tire (18)
m-script model and by using the interface between AMESIM
 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014)
(19)
Where Iw is the mass moment of inertia of wheel, Ir is the
mass moment of inertia of ring, rw is the wheel radius, Tb is
applied braking torque on one wheel and Ft is the tread friction
force, which will be illustrated in details in the upcoming
section. The data used to produce a model, which satisfies this
equations of motion could be found in table (3). The tire treads
stiffness and damping effect was assumed to be constant
value because of the difficult of measuring them.
(20)
Table 3. Braking Torque and Tire data.
2. Tread
Figure 23. LuGar friction model.
1281
Friction between any two surfaces is proven to be in opposite
direction of the motion, but independent on the magnitude of
velocity of the body, therefore the best way of determining the
friction and sticking effect of the tread material and road is
using LuGar friction model as in figure (23).
(21)
Where Ft is the tread friction force, Ktread is the tread stiffness
effect, Ctread is the tread damping effect, z is the internal friction
state and can be interpreted as the average deflection and f(v) is
the general form of the memoryless velocity dependent term
“viscous friction” and could be neglected in this case.
(22)
Where Vr is the velocity between 2 surfaces in contact and
g(Vr) is the velocity dependent function.
(23)
Where V is the velocity of the vehicle, Rr radius of the ring and
Wr is the angular velocity of the ring.
(24)
Where Fc is the coulomb friction force, Fs is the stiction force,
α is a coefficient = 1 based on reference (4) and Vs determines
how quickly g(Vr) approaches Fc. The friction forces
determined by the non-linear LuGar cover the elasto-plastic
domain and stick slip motion.
3. Results
Figure 24. Braking Slip Ratio Curve
1282 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014)

In figure (24) is the brake slip coefficient (Sb) curve till ASURT
14 arrived into complete stop, which has been found by trial and
error by adjusting the parameters affecting the brake
performance found in table (4) and the human force was set as
in figure (25), the curve illustrates the performance of the
longitudinal slip of the tire. According to the graph the stiction
forces tends at certain time step to overcome the friction force,
which is the main reason of the longitudinal slip of the tire, but
the effect of the tire torsional stiffness, which is a function of the
weight distribution of the vehicle tends to prevent a complete slip
of the tire only at these certain conditions of parameters at the
previously illustrated material during this report.

In table (4) the line bias valve ratio was adjusted as stated
assuming that the sprocket placement will not make a lateral
static weight difference, in case of the real case this ratio will
be adjusted according to the brake slip coefficient response as
in figure (24).
Figure 25. Human Force.
Figure 26. Skid Pad Test ADAMS MSC.
The Suspension roll rate front/rear is shown in figure (27), in
which it has a huge impact on the lateral load transfer during
cornering and this would result into extensive analysis of the
braking efficiency during cornering.
In order to fully understand the brake system efficiency during
a Skid Pad event the following data must be obtained.
1. Lateral Acceleration at each time step to compute normal
force on each tire.
2. Normalized suspensions roll stiffness during the Skid Pad
event.
3. Computing Normal Forces on the tire.
4. Side Forces on each Tire due to tire slip angles during
cornering.
5. Compute tire road friction coefficient to prevent wheel
lockup on the inner wheels.

Table 4. Brake Test Parameters.

Brake Performance During Skid Pad

In figure (26) is the Skid Pad event simulation of ASURT 14
constructed on ADAMS MSC with a certain initial conditions 15
m turning radius, constant velocity 60 Km/hr and emergency
braking conditions after 10 seconds.
Figure 27. Front/Rear Suspension Roll Rate.
1. Lateral Acceleration
In figure (28) the lateral acceleration variation during skid pad
test at different camber angles of −1 degree and −1.5 degree is
shown. The curve based on the analysis on ADAMS MSC
indicates that the tire camber angles have no such effect on
the lateral acceleration.
 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014)
Figure 28. lateral acceleration variations during Skid Pad Test
2. Normalized Suspension Roll Stiffness
Figure 29. ASURT 14 Front Suspension.
Figure 30. ASURT 14 Rear Suspension.
1283
(25)
(26)
Sf and Sr are the normalized roll stiffness of the suspension
mechanism front and rear respectively, hf is the center of
gravity height of front unsprung mass “m”, hR is the distance
between the c.g. and the roll center axis “m”, pf is the distance
between the front roll center and the ground “m”, Kf is the front
roll stiffness “N.m/rad”, Kr is the rear roll stiffness “N.m/rad”,
Ws is the sprung weight of the vehicle “N”, Lr is the distance
between the c.g. and the rear axle “m” and tf is the front track
length “m”. The normalized roll stiffness of the vehicle front and
rear represents the effect of roll stiffness of the vehicle during
turning which affects the lateral load transfer of the vehicle and
by consequence the roll angle of the vehicle. The normal force
on each tire can be the computed.
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
In which ψ is the ratio between static rear axle load and the
weight of the vehicle, ax is the longitudinal acceleration “m/
sec2”, X is the ratio between the height of the c.g. of the vehicle
and the wheel base length “m”, ay is the lateral acceleration
“m/ sec2”, L is the wheel base of the vehicle “m”, W is the
weight of the vehicle “N”, pc is the turning radius of the vehicle
“m”, Sf is the normalized roll stiffness front and Sf is the
normalized roll stiffness rear. Computing from the above model
in figure (20) the braking force on the tire and then computing
the deceleration of the vehicle at this condition. The normal
forces on the tire would be for a great extent the limitation line
1284 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014)

for the deceleration of the vehicle, but during turning or
maneuvering lateral/side forces on the tire affects this limitation
due to the slip angles of the tire during turning because of the
projection of the pneumatic trail of the tire on the contact patch
of the tire.
4. Tire Side Forces
In which Fy, fi/Fy, fo/Fy, ri/Fy, ro are the lateral forces N on the
front inside tire, front outside tire, rear inside tire and rear outside
tire respectively, Fz, fi/Fz, fo/Fz, ri/Fz, ro are the normal forces N
on the front inside tire, front outside tire, rear inside tire and rear
outside tire respectively W is the vehicle weight N, ay is the
lateral acceleration of the vehicle m/sec2, pc is the turning radius
of the vehicle m, L is the wheel base of the vehicle m, Ψ is the
ratio between static rear axle load to the weight of the vehicle, X
is the ratio between height of central of gravity of the vehicle to
the wheel base, Fz,f is the normal force on the front axle N and
Fz,r is the normal force on the rear axle.

5. Braking Efficiency During Turning

Table 5. Braking Efficiency During Turning data.

Figure 31. Free body diagram of a vehicle braking and turning.

In figure (29) is the free body diagram of a vehicle braking and

turning from reference (1) is shown. The tire side forces could
be then computed mathematically.

(31)
By substituting the values in table (5) the coefficient of
adhesion needed to prevent the wheel lock up on the inner
wheel front and rear can be then computed.

(32)
(31)

In which m represent the coefficient of adhesion of the road

during turning, by comparing the values of the coefficient of
adhesion needed for the inner wheel front and rear, in order to
prevent the wheel from lock up and the actual coefficient of
adhesion of the road, the analysis should lead to that the inner
(33)
front wheel will lock up before the inner rear wheel, to prevent
any yaw moment of inertia around the vehicle, that may cause
a roll over.

SUMMARY/CONCLUSIONS
(34) In this paper the stiffness of the brake system components,
volumetric analysis of the brake fluid and the stick slip motion
of the tire during braking. The result reached at the end of this
paper which is maintaining the brake slip friction parameter
 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014) 1285

before attaining the wheel to lock up similar to ABS CONTACT INFORMATION

performance curve; to minimize the stopping distance by
adjusting the whole vehicle parameters, needs to be calibrated
on a real time event during the brake test during the formula
student UK by using Matlab image recognition, in order to
measure the change of the wheel angular velocity during
braking. The LuGar friction model has many assumptions, and
needs further development and analysis, but it has interesting
theoretical properties, the state is bounded, it has passivity
properties, and is rate dependent. In the paper also it is also
shown that the stiffness of the brake system components have
a huge impact on the hydraulic pressure and the volumetric
losses of the system.
barakat93@aucegypt.edu
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I have been working with my advisor Dr. Ahmed Abd El Aziz for
more than 6 months, I have learned from him many design
engineering aspects and methodology, but most important I
have learned from him how an engineer should behave, think
and live. I don't know whether I would fail or succeed in my
career, but I will always carry respect in my mind and heart to
the engineering character of Dr. Ahmed Abd El Aziz.

In Conclusion:- DEFINITIONS/ABBREVIATIONS
Lp - leverage ratio
a. The probability of failure in 4 hydraulic circuits is ¼, and
Pl - hydraulic Line pressure
also the hydraulic circuits is equipped with pressure
transducers at each hydraulic circuit in which in case of µf - coefficient of friction between Pad and Rotor
any kind of leakage or failure, the brake leakage indicator µd - dynamic adhesion limit
in the dashboard will start to blink, and the ASURT formula Amc - Piston area of Master cylinder
student driver is well trained to press the brake pedal and
Acalp - Piston area of Caliper
the kill switch of the vehicle at this situation. “on the matlab
simulation program the slip angle of the vehicle have Ff - friction force
reached 11 degrees at 0.63g with a previously defined Tb - braking torque
human force on the pedal and a failure on a rear wheel” Reff - effective radius of Rotor
b. For the Dual-Split circuit front and rear due to the lack Router - outer radius of Rotor
of space on a formula student vehicle; in case of the
Rinner - inner radius of Rotor
front circuit failure the ratio between the brake pedal
travel to apply the rear brake and the maximum pedal rw - radius of Tire
travel available is 2.83 the normal case. Taking into Fb - braking force
consideration this is a balance bar proportioning brake Mmc - mass of Master cylinder
system in which the applied human force is divided
Mfl - mass of brake fluid
according to the balance bar ratio between front and rear,
which will require more human effort in case of a front Mcalp - mass of Caliper
circuit failure to apply the rear brakes and overcome at the Mpist - mass of Piston
same time the effect of the proportioning ratio. MCpad - mass of Caliper side brake Pad
c. The diagonal split circuit was the second option after the
MPpad - mass of Piston side brake Pad
4-hydraulic circuits, but further responses and decision
matrices based on the probability of failure, the deceleration xmc - displacement of Master cylinder
at the failure condition during the brake event at the FSUK xfl - displacement of brake fluid
and the connections of each circuit “in a formula student xcalp - displacement of Caliper
vehicle there is an sprocket on the rear axle and a designed
xpist - displacement of Piston
frame, which actually make it a lot harder for passing the
brake lines for the diagonal split circuit” have revealed the xCpad - displacement of Caliper side brake Pad
suitable usage is the 4 hydraulic circuit. xPpad - displacement of Piston side brake Pad
xCrot - displacement of Caliper side Rotor surface

REFERENCES xProt - displacement of Piston side Rotor surface

1. Limpert, R., “Brake Design and Safety, Second Edition,” Society kmc - stiffness of Master cylinder
of Automotive Engineers, Inc., Warrendale, PA, ISBN 978-
1560919155, 1999. kfl - stiffness of brake fluid
2. Jazar Reza N. “Vehicle Dynamics: Theory and Applications,” kseal - stiffness of high pressure Seal
Springer US, Inc. 2008, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-74244-1.
3. Wong J. Y., “Theory of Ground Vehicles,” John Wley & Sons, New kcalp - stiffness of Caliper
York, 1993.
kpist - stiffness of Piston
4. Åström Karl Johan, and Canudas-de-Wit Carlos, “Revisiting
the LuGre Model Stick-slip motion and rate dependence,” IEEE kpad - brake Pad stiffness
Control Systems Magazine 28, 6 (2008) 101-114, doi:10.1109/
MCS.2008.929425. α(t) - angular acc of Rotor
1286 Barakat / SAE Int. J. Passeng. Cars - Mech. Syst. / Volume 7, Issue 4 (November 2014)

I - moment of inertia of Rotor Lf - horizontal distance between c.g. and front axle
Ω(t) - angular velocity of Rotor Pf - distance between the front roll center and the ground
wf - gap between Pad and Rotor front Pr - distance between the rear roll center and the ground
wr - gap between Pad and Rotor front tf - front track length
Cs - brake Pad compressibility tr - rear track length
Kmcf - specific Master cylinder volumetric loss front ax - longitudinal acceleration/deceleration of the vehicle
Kmcr - specific Master cylinder volumetric loss rear ay - lateral acceleration of the vehicle
Vmc - Master cylinder volumetric losses Fz,fi - normal force on the front axle inner wheel
D - outer diameter of Pipe Fz,fo - normal force on the front axle outer wheel
L - hydraulic Line length Fz,ri - normal force on the rear axle inner wheel
t - thickness of line Fz,ro - normal force on the rear axle outer wheel
E - material elasticity Fy,fi - side force on the front axle inner wheel
Vbl - volumetric line expansion Fy,fo - side force on the front axle outer wheel
Va - active volume Fy,ri - side force on the rear axle inner wheel
Vo - brake fluid volume with new Pads Fy,ro - side force on the rear axle outer wheel
Mrot - mass of Rotor Fx,fi - longitudinal force on the front axle inner wheel
μs - static adhesion limit Fx,fo - longitudinal force on the front axle outer wheel
Vfl - volume loss due to fluid compression Fx,ri - longitudinal force on the rear axle inner wheel
Vgl - decrease of Air volume Fx,ro - longitudinal force on the rear axle outer wheel
Po - atmospheric pressure ψ - the ratio between static rear axle load to the weight of the
Ta - absolute temperature vehicle
To - absolute temperature at initial conditions X - the ratio between height of central of gravity of the vehicle
to the wheel base
Vg - enclosed gas volume at ambient pressure
m - the coefficient of adhesion of the road during turning
Kcf - Caliper deformation front
Iw - mass moment of inertia of Wheel
Kcr - Caliper deformation rear
Ir - mass moment of inertia of Tire Ring
Vc - Caliper volume loss
Kt - torsional stiffness of Tire
Sp - brake Pedal travel
Ct - torsional damping of Tire
Lo - Pushrod travel to overcome Pushrod play and
compensating part Wr - angular velocity of Ring

Sf - normalized roll stiffness front Ww - angular velocity of Wheel

Sr - normalized roll stiffness rear Ft - tread friction force

Ws - sprung weight of the vehicle g(Vr) - sliding friction

Pc - turning radius f(v) - general form of the memoryless velocity dependent term

hf - center of gravity height of front suspension Ktread - stiffness effect of Tread material

hr - center of gravity height of front suspension Ctread - damping effect of Tread material

hR - distance between the c.g. of the vehicle and the roll center - deformational speed of Tread
axis z - deformational displacement of Tread
Kf - roll stiffness of front suspension Fc - coulomb friction force
Kr - roll stiffness of rear suspension Fs - stiction force
wf - front unsprung weight vs - velocity of approaching the sliding friction to the coulomb
wr - rear unsprung weight friction force

Lr - horizontal distance between c.g. and rear axle v - velocity between 2 surfaces in contact
Sb - tire braking slip

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