Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989

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Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Characterization and evaluation of morphological features for aggregate

in asphalt mixture: A review
Fangyuan Gong a,b,c,d,⇑, Yu Liu b, Zhanping You c, Xiaodong Zhou c,⇑
a
School of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Hebei University of Technology, 5340 Xiping Road, Beichen District, Tianjin 300401, China
b
School of Highway, Chang’an University, South Erhuan Middle Section, Xi’an City, Shaanxi Province 710064, China
c
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Technological University, 1400 Townsend Drive, Houghton, MI 49931, USA
d
Tianjin Key Laboratory of Prefabricated Building and Intelligent Construction, Hebei University of Technology, 5340 Xiping Road, Beichen District, Tianjin, 300401, China

h i g h l i g h t s

Review the conventional testing and imaging methods of aggregate morphologies.

Collect and discuss the typical methods and evaluation parameters of aggregates.

Evaluate and compare different imaging techniques of aggregate morphologies.

Provide recommendations to improve characterization and evaluation of morphologies.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The objective of this paper is to review the current characterization and evaluation methods and intro-
Received 13 May 2020 duce emerging technologies of aggregate morphologies in asphalt mixture through conventional tests
Received in revised form 7 December 2020 and imaging techniques that would be possibly applied to analyze and evaluate the morphological fea-
Accepted 8 December 2020
tures of particles. The current evaluating-characterizing method is defined as a procedure that has been
Available online 30 December 2020
shown by experience or research to obtain satisfying results, that is established or proposed as a standard
suitable for general application. This review first identified the methods based on laboratory tests to char-
Keywords:
acterize and evaluate the morphologies of the aggregate particle. Then, an attempt was made to study the
Asphalt mixture
Aggregate
existing methodologies from different points of view, accompanied by extensive comparisons on three
Morphological feature categories of imaging techniques-early imaging techniques, dynamic imaging techniques, and static
Testing method imaging techniques to facilitate further research studies. Additionally, the evaluation parameters of
Imaging technique aggregate morphologies based on image technologies were represented. Finally, a comparative evalua-
tion between different conventional testing methods and different imaging techniques through basic
tools, application conditions, advantages, and disadvantages were conducted. This review concluded with
some recommendations and conclusions in terms of morphological characterization and evaluation of
aggregates in the asphalt mixture to materials selection during the mixture design and construction.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

Abbreviations: 3D Scanner, Three-dimensional Scanner; AIMS, Aggregate Image
Measurement System; AASHTO, American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials; ASTM, American Society for Testing Material; CCD camera,
Charge-Coupled Device Camera; CPA, Computer Particle Analyzer; FTI, Fourier
Transform Interferometry System; LASS, Laser-based Aggregate Analysis System;
3D OSAAS, Three-dimensional Optical Scanner-based Aggregate Analysis System;
PIAS, Portable Image Analysis System; PSDA, Micromeritics OptiSizer; PSSDA,
Buffalo Wire Works; UIAIA, University of Illinois Aggregate Image Analyzer; VIS,
Video Image System; X-ray CT, X-ray Computed Tomography.
⇑ Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: fgong1@mtu.edu, fgong1@hebut.edu.cn (F. Gong), yul@chd.
edu.cn (Y. Liu), zyou@mtu.edu (Z. You), xzhou3@mtu.edu (X. Zhou).
As a major component of pavement, the aggregates have an
effect on the performances of asphalt mixture due to the mutual
interactions, especially for the morphological features of aggre-
gates, such as the bond strength between aggregate and binder,
the skeleton structure, and the mechanical performance of asphalt
mixture [1-11]. Morphological characterizations of aggregate could
be identified as three independent components: form (shape),
angularity, and texture [12-17]. These components are related to
the construction and service performances of asphalt mixture:

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.121989
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989

the shape features of aggregate influence the structural perfor-
mance, as well as the friction properties and skid resistance [18];
the morphological characteristics have effect on the compacting
properties of asphalt mixtures [19-22]; the interfacial strength of
asphalt-aggregate is verified to be subject to the angularity and
roundness of coarse aggregate through Marshall test, dynamic sta-
bility, freeze–thaw split strength ratio, and low-temperature flexu-
ral tensile strength [23]. Many testing methods are used to
measure the morphological characterizations of aggregates, and
several image-based techniques have also been developed or under
research in recent years. Some conventional testing methods are
conducted to measure the morphological characterizations of
aggregates by indirect or direct methods in Table 1 [23-46]. In
addition, some non-traditional aggregate particles have also uti-
lized in the road engineering and more descriptors have been gen-
erated to characterize them, such as the coral aggregates, recycled
aggregates, and ceramisite [47-49].
However, due to the irregularities of aggregate surfaces, there
are some limitations existed in these methods: labor-intensive,
time-consuming, subjective, lack direct relation with pavement
performance, and distinguish the angularity and texture limitedly
[13]. In addition, most conventional testing methods obtained
the morphological characterizations through indirect measure-
ments and algorithms. While many attempts have been made to
obtain morphologies features, better techniques of image acquisi-
tion are necessary to characterize and evaluate aggregate particles
[12,50-58].
Generally, the ideal technology platforms can be used as an
alternative of the eyes experimenter, which can provide methods
to qualify aggregate morphological characterization with rapid col-
lection speed, automated, repeatable, consistent, and objective
outcomes [18]. Over the last several decades, academic institutions
and departments of road maintenance, repair and transportations
have become more and more interested in analyzing the character-
ization of the morphologies. With the development of hardware,
software, computation capability, and various computational algo-
rithms, the applying rate of the digital imaging techniques to
directly and objectively measure the aggregate morphologies have
been exponentially increased [12,59], such as the VDG-40 Video-
grader, Computer Particle Analyzer (CPA), Micromeritics OptiSizer
(PSDA), Video Imaging System (VIS), Buffalo Wire Works (PPSSDA),
Camsizer, WipShape, University of Illinois Aggregate Image Ana-
lyzer (UIAIA), Portable image analysis system (PIAS), Aggregate
Imaging Measurement System (AIMS), Fourier transform interfer-
ometry (FTI) system, Laser-based Aggregate Analysis System
(LASS), 3D scanner, and X-ray Computed Tomography (CT)
[10,13,60-83].
Recently, massive research attentions have been given to
develop the evaluation parameters of aggregate morphologies
according to the testing methods and imaging techniques. The
morphological characteristics of coarse aggregates, such as shape,
angularity, and texture are addressed in these technologies. Analy-
sis methods of shape (form) representation of aggregate have been
developed and could be divided into 2D and 3D aspects, such as the
sphericity and Shape Factor (SF), form index (roundness, 2D, and
Fourier series), flat and elongated ratio, aspect ratio, breadth to
width ratio, symmetry, and 3D form factor (FI3DN SHF)
[12,37,39,40,53,60,63,65,66,70,72,74,84-91]. For the typical analy-
sis methods of angularity, the parameters are 2D angularity
through Fourier series analysis, fast Fourier transform, surface
erosion-dilation, fractal behavior, Hough transform, gradient,
radius, direct measurement, outline slope methods, convexity,
minimum average curve radius, and 3D angularity (AI3DN SHF)
[57,60,63,65,66,71,72,74,85,87,88,92-100]. For the typical analysis
method of texture, the parameters are 2D texture through Fourier
series analysis, fast Fourier transform, intensity histogram, wavelet
analysis, direct measurement methods, and 3D texture factor
(MT 3DN SHF) [39,60,63,65,67,70-72,74,88,101,102]. For consistency
and uniformity of data collection and eliminating the effect of
aggregate size, the 3D Form factor (FI3DN ), 3D Angularity (AI3DN ),
and 3D Texture (MT 3DN ) based on SHF are proposed [63,65,74,103].
2. Objectives and scope
Past research work indicated that the lack of accurate character-
ization of aggregates may lead to specifications that either overem-
phasize the need for superior aggregate or, in contrast, allow for

Table 1
Some conventional testing methods for aggregate in specifications [24-42].

No. Test method Specification Measuring method Size

Abroad Home
1 Uncompacted void content of fine aggregate ASTM C1252 T 0344 I FA
AASHTO TP33
2 Uncompacted void content of coarse aggregate AASHTO TP56 T 0309 I CA
3 Index of particle shape and texture ASTM D3398 – I FA
CA
4 Bulk density (‘‘unit weight”) and voids in aggregate ASTM C29 T 0309 I CA
5 Relative density (specific gravity) and absorption of coarse aggregate ASTM C127 T 0304 I CA
6 Compacted aggregate resistance FHWA-Report T 0350 I FA
7 Florida bearing ratio of fine aggregate FHWA-Report T 0134 I FA
8 Rugosity Special Report 98–1 – I FA
9 Time index Quebec DOT T 0345 I FA
AFNOR NF P 18-564/1981
10 Angle of internal friction from direct shear test ASTM D3080 T 0345 I FA
AASHTO T236
11 Resistance to degradation of small-size/ larger-size coarse aggregate ASTM C131/535 T 0317 I CA
by abrasion and impact in the Los Angeles machine AASHTO T96
12 Sand equivalent value of soils and fine aggregate ASTM D2419 T 0334 D FA
13 Percentage of fractured particles observed by eyes ASTM D5821 T 0346 D CA
14 Flat particles, elongated particles, or flat and elongated particles ASTM D4791/2488 T 0312 D CA
15 Description and identification of soils (visual-manual procedure) ASTM D4791/2488 T 0312 D CAFA

Note: D-direct measurement; I-indirect measurement; FD-field; CTL-central laboratory; CA-coarse aggregate; FA-fine aggregate.

2
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al.
the use of mineral aggregates. However, a comprehensive, system-
atic evaluation of these methods related to different aspects are
conducive to the development of characterizing and evaluating
aggregates. The objectives of this paper are the following:
(1) Present the comprehensive review of the conventional test-
ing methods and imaging techniques of morphological char-
acterization for aggregate particles.
(2) Collect and discuss the typical imaging techniques and the
evaluation parameters of different methods.
(3) Compare the basic tools, application condition, advantages.
and disadvantages of different imaging techniques.
(4) Provide recommendations to select and improve the mor-
phological characterization and evaluation parameters of
aggregate particles in asphalt mixtures.
The review will limit its discussion to characterization and eval-
uation of morphological features for aggregate in asphalt mixture.
The aggregate used in other areas will not be reviewed in this
study.
In order to help illuminate the objectives of this study, a brief
introduction of the aggregate classification, conventional testing
methods, and the digital imaging techniques of morphological
characterization was provided; followed by the classification of
morphologies (from (shape), angularity, and texture), the different
kinds of image acquisition and evaluation parameters were dis-
cussed. Then the comprehensive evaluation of different imaging
techniques was discussed. Finally, the summaries and recommen-
dations were drawn. The flowchart is shown in Fig. 1.
3. Classification and conventional testing methods of aggregate
morphologies
3.1. Classification of aggregate morphologies
For the morphologies of aggregate, the most common features
are form (shape), angularity, and texture [104,105]. They are three
significant concepts to morphological characterizations of aggre-
gate in different dimensional scales and defined as follows
[13,71,106-108]. The schematic diagram is shown in the Fig. 2:
(1) Form (shape) of aggregate: it describes the variation in the
proportion of aggregate in large dimension;
(2) Angularity of aggregate: it presents the variation at the cor-
ners of aggregate in medium dimension;
(3) Texture of aggregate: it reflects the variation in surface irreg-
ularity in the small dimension and has no effect on the over-
all shape.
3.2. Conventional testing methods and comparative evaluation for
aggregate morphologies
For the aggregate morphological characterizations, there are
some conventional testing methods in standards or previous stud-
ies. The basic information of some conventional test methods is
shown in Table 2. Such as the evaluated equipment cost, measur-
ing method, application condition, size range, measured morphol-
ogy, advantages, and disadvantages are presented as follows.
According to the information in Table 2, it could be concluded that:
(1) For the evaluated equipment cost, the majority of conventional
testing methods cost less. Especially for percent of fractured parti-
cles, it could be obtained without equipment. (2) For the measur-
ing method, most testing methods measure the morphological
characterizations of aggregate indirectly. (3) For the application
place, except for the angle of internal friction from the direct shear
3
Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989
test, all the other tests could be widely used in both field and cen-
tral laboratory. (4) For the measure size range, some testing meth-
ods could only be used to measure the fine or coarse aggregate.
While the index of particle shape and texture test and angle of
internal friction from the direct shear test could be conducted to
measure and analyze both fine and coarse aggregate. (5) For the
measured morphology, most of the tests obtain the features
through a combination of shape, angularity, and texture, indirectly.
While the percentage of fractured particle test focuses on the angu-
larity of aggregate. The tests of flat particles, elongated particles, or
flat and elongated particles address the shape of aggregates. (6) For
the advantages, the majority of conventional methods are simple
and inexpensive. (7) For the disadvantages, a few conventional
methods are time-consuming, labor-extensive, and inconsistent
(such as the time index, percentage of fractured particles in coarse
aggregate method, and the percentage of flat particles, elongated
particles, or flat and elongated particles) [32,45,109-111].
4. Imaging techniques and comparative evaluation
According to the previous study, the common imaging tech-
niques of aggregate morphological characterizations can be divided
into three main types: the early, dynamic, and static imaging tech-
niques. As shown in Fig. 3, fifteen types of imaging techniques are
introduced in this section [12,112]. Each imaging technique for mor-
phological characterization is introduced as follows:
4.1. Early imaging techniques
For early imaging techniques, the relatively inexpensive micro-
computer and digitizer were used to obtain the morphological fea-
tures (shape, surface area, and roughness) of aggregate particles
(size from No.8 to 1.0 in.) with the help of AutoCAD and a spread-
sheet program [113,114]. With the combination of the 2D image
and thickness of aggregate, the shape factors (flatness ratio or elon-
gation ratio) could be calculated through these techniques.
4.2. Dynamic imaging techniques
(1) VDG-40 Videograder
Basing on the electronics, image analysis, and data processing,
the VDG-40 Videograder was developed by the Laboratoire Central
des Ponts et Chaussées (LCPC) and the Centre d’Etude et de Con-
struction des Prototypes (CECP) in the early 19900 s in France
[115-117]. During the testing procedure, a line-scan CCD camera
was used to capture images and evaluate morphologies when the
aggregates particles fell in front of the backlight. Gradation, flat-
ness, and slenderness ratio of aggregates (size from No.16 to
1.5 in.) could be obtained through VDG-40 Videograder in the lab-
oratory [60,61,118].
(2) Computer Particle Analyzer (CPA)
For the Computer Particle Analyzer (CPA), the components of
CPA was similar to the VDG-40 Videograder, the image and index
of aggregates could be captured and calculated by a line-scan
CCD camera and custom software package. Both fine and coarse
aggregates (size from No.140 to 1.5 in.) could be measured and
analyzed with CPA in the laboratory as well as on-line [60,61,119].
(3) Micromeritics OptiSizer (PSDA)
For the Micromeritics OptiSizer (PSDA), a line-scan CCD was
also employed to image acquisition and morphological evaluation
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989

Fig. 1. Flowchart of this study. Note: CPA- Computer Particle Analyzer; PSDA-Micromeritics OptiSizer; VIS-Video Image System; PSSDA-Buffalo Wire Works; UIAIA-
University of Illinois Aggregate Image Analyzer; PIAS-Portable Image Analysis System; AIMS-Aggregate Imaging System; FTI-Fourier Transform Interferometry System; LASS-
Laser-based Aggregate Analysis System; 3D OSAAS-Three-dimensional Optical Scanner-based Aggregate Analysis System; X-ray CT-X-ray computed tomography.

(4) Video Image System (VIS)

In the Video Image System (VIS), a line-scan CCD camera was

also used to obtain the image and evaluate aggregates (size from
No.16 to 1.5 in.) when the particles fell in front of the backlight.
Then 2D images of aggregates could be inputted into the software
package to calculate the gradation and shape of particle [12,120].

(5) Buffalo Wire Works (PSSDA)

For the Buffalo Wire Works (PSSDA), 1.0 kg coarse aggregates

Fig. 2. Morphological characterizations of an aggregate: form (shape), angularity,
and texture.
and 0.5 kg fine aggregates (size from No.200 to 1.5 in.) could be
measured. Similarly, a line-scan CCD camera was applied to collect
the images of aggregates when the particles fell in front of a back-
light. The 2D images of aggregates could be performed and ana-
lyzed by software package in the system developed by Dr.
Penumadu from the Unversity of Tennessee [12,120].

(6) Camsizer

of aggregate (size from No.200 to 1.5 in.). Similarly, like the VDG- In the Camsizer system, aggregate particles (size from No.50 to
40 Videograder and the CPA, the data and analysis of aggregate 0.5 in.) could be measured and analyzed. Different from the
were performed in a custom software package [12,61,120]. imaging techniques mentioned above, two optically matched

4
 F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al.
Table 2
Comparing on different conventional test methods for aggregate morphology [24-42]

No. Test method Evaluated Specification Measuring Place Size Morphology Advantage Disadvantage
equipment method
Abroad Home F A T
cost ($)
p p p
1 Uncompacted 250 ASTM C1252 T 0344 I FD FA Simple Less accuracy Results are
void content of CTL inexpensive susceptible to
fine aggregate morphological
p p p
2 Uncompacted 500 AASHTO TP56 T 0309 I FD CTL CA characteristic,
void content of and bulk
coarse specific gravity
aggregate
p p p
3 Index of 400 ASTM D3398 – I FD CTL FA Less correlation
particle shape CA to performances
and texture
p p p
4 Compacted 500 FHWA-Report T 0350 I FD CTL FA –
aggregate
resistance
p p p
5 Florida bearing 1,000 FHWA-Report T 0134 I FD CTL FA Simple Less practicality
ratio of fine
aggregate
p p p
6 Rugosity 500 Special Report 98-1 – I FD CTL FA Simple Time-consuming
inexpensive and less
p p p
5

7 Time index 500 Quebec DOT T 0345 I FD CTL FA Simple practicality

inexpensive
p p p
8 Angle of 10,000 ASTM D3080 T 0345 I CTL FA Simple Result may be Results are
internal friction susceptible to susceptible to
from direct non-uniform morphological
shear test stress characteristic,
distribution mineralogy,
and size range
p
9 Percentage of 0 ASTM D5821 T 0346 D FD CTL CA   Simple Low prediction Labor-
fractured inexpensive and precision; extensive,
particles medium time-

Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989

observed by practicality consuming,
eyes subjective
p
10 Flat particles, 250 ASTMD4791 T 0312 D FD CTL CA   Measure Unable to
elongated dimension measure
particles, or flat ratios spherical,
and elongated accurately, rounded and
particles Better smooth particles
correlation
with
performances

Note: D-direct measurement; I-indirect measurement; FD-field; CTL-central laboratory; CA-coarse aggregate; FA-fine aggregate; F-form; A-angularity; T-texture.
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al.
Fig. 3. Three types of image technologies.
CCD cameras were set up to automatically capture aggregate image
at different resolutions when the particle fell in front of the back-
light. Similarly, like the PSSDA, 1.0 kg coarse aggregates, and 0.5 kg
fine aggregates could be measured and analyzed through the soft-
ware package in this system [61,85,92].
(7) WipShape
For WipShape system, it was usually used to measure and ana-
lyze the morphological characterizations of coarse aggregate (size
from No.4 to 1.0 in.). In this system, two orthogonal oriented syn-
chronized cameras were installed to capture two orthogonal views
of each aggregate. The images of the particle could be used to eval-
uate the three dimensions of aggregates. Gradation, shape, and
angularity of aggregates could be rapidly performed by the soft-
ware package in WipShape system developed by Dr. Maerz from
the University of Missouri [121-123].
(8) University of Illinois Aggregate Image Analyzer (UIAIA)
For the University of Illinois Aggregate Image Analyzer (UIAIA),
like WipShape, it was generally applied to measure and analyze the
morphological characterization of coarse aggregate (size from No.4
to 1.5 in.). In this system, three orthogonal oriented synchronized
cameras were set up to capture projections of each aggregate.
According to the projections, the 3D characterization could be
rebuilt. The gradation, shape, angularity, and texture of aggregates
were analyzed and calculated through software packages in the
system developed by Dr. Tutumluer from the University of Illinois
[65,72,93,124-127].
4.3. Static imaging techniques
(1) Portable Image Analysis System (PIAS)
In Portable Image Analysis System (PIAS), both coarse and fine
aggregate (size from No.200 to 1.0 in.) could be measured and ana-
lyzed. In this system, according to the particle size, an integral
pocket computer with a high-resolution camera was applied to
capture 2D images with different resolutions. Shape, angularity,
and the texture of aggregate could be determined through the fast
Fourier transform method in MATLAB developed by Dr. Wang from
the University of Virginia Tech [70,71].
(2) Aggregate Imaging Measurement System (AIMS)
In Aggregate Imaging Measurement System (AIMS), both coarse
and fine aggregate (size from No.200 to 1.0 in.) could be depicted
and analyzed. In this system, a digital camera with an autofocus
microscope that automatically detects which image resolutions
to use according to the particle size [12,36,37,65]. Form and angu-
6
Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989
larity of fine and coarse aggregate could be analyzed, and the tex-
ture of coarse aggregate could also be extracted and analyzed. The
sphericity, aspect ratios, flatness ratio, elongation ratio, angularity,
and texture of aggregate could be calculated and output as statis-
tical and graphical information through software in AIMS
[8,18,37-40,85,92,128-134].
(3) Fourier Transform Interferometry System (FTI)
In Fourier Transform Interferometry System (FTI), a CCD camera
was used to analyze both coarse and fine aggregate (size from
No.50 to 0.75 in.). Three-dimensional coordinates of the top surface
of aggregate could be built with the image information. In this sys-
tem, sphericity, flatness ratio, elongation ratio, angularity, and tex-
ture could be calculated through 3D coordinates and 2D Fourier
transform methods [12,41,86].
(4) Laser-based Aggregate Analysis System (LASS)
In the Laser-based Aggregate Analysis System (LASS), a laser
line scanner was used to capture images of both coarse and fine
aggregate (size from No.10 to 4.0 in.). During the scan, the 3D sur-
face of particle was obtained and built. According to the 3D surface
of aggregate, the size, shape, angularity, and texture of particle
could be calculated through the software package in LASS
[60,135-137].
(5) 3D OSAAS-Three-dimensional Optical Scanner-based Aggre-
gate Analysis System
In three-dimensional Optical Scanner-based Aggregate Analysis
System (3D OSAAS), two camera lenses and one projection lens
were applied to obtain the three-dimensional surface information
of aggregate (size from No.16 to 5.0 in.). In this system, the lens
could automatically scan particle and stitch images without a ref-
erence point. Form, angularity, and texture could be explored and
calculated through the software package [73,138].
(6) X-ray Computed Tomography (CT)
For X-ray Computed Tomography (CT), a non-destructive tech-
nique was used to measure and analyze both coarse and fine
aggregate (No.200 to 5.0 in.). 3D aggregate was reconstructed
with combination of the three view images and spherical har-
monic function (SHF). According to the parameters of SHF, the
3D morphological characterizations of aggregate (form, angular-
ity, and texture) could be expressed and analyzed through the
X-ray CT developed by Dr. Garboczi [74]. The reconstruction of
aggregate particles could also be separated and represented
through the X-ray CT images of asphalt mixtures or concrete
[13,63,73,74].
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989

In the dynamic imaging techniques, during the testing proce- three-dimensional (3D) aspects. There are nine typical methods
dure, the camera was used to capture images and evaluate mor- of shape analysis based on the image illustrated in this section.
phologies when the aggregate particles fell in front of the
backlight. While, in the static image technique, the aggregate par- (1) Sphericity and Shape Factor
ticle should remain in its state of rest during the image acquisition
process. In Table 3, the basic information of imaging techniques for The sphericity and Shape Factor (SF) were typical indexes in
different image technologies is shown, including the image types, some systems (Camsizer, AIMS, FTI, LASS, and 3D OSAAS) that rep-
full name, abbreviation, authors/organization, and time. resented in terms of three dimensions (longest, intermediate, and
shortest dimensions) [8,49,65,66,72,86]. The equations of spheric-
ity and SF were expressed in Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2). Where: dl -length,
5. Evaluation parameters of coarse aggregate morphologies
longest dimension; dm -width, intermediate dimension, the maxi-
based on image technologies
mum dimension in the plane perpendicular to the length; ds -
thickness, shortest dimension, the maximum dimension perpen-
Several image-based technology methods of morphological
dicular to the length and width.
characterization have been introduced in the previous section.
The morphological characteristics of coarse aggregate, such as sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
3 ds dm
shape, angularity, and texture were addressed in these technolo- Sphericity ¼ ð5:1Þ
2
gies. Some popular evaluation parameters based on image tech- dl
nologies were illustrated as follows from different aspects (shape
(form), angularity, and texture) [15,38,52,94-96,103,113,121,140, ds
SF ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi ð5:2Þ
145-150,152-164]. dl dm

5.1. Evaluation parameters of shape based on image technology

(2) 2D Form factor (roundness)
Analysis methods to represent the form of aggregate had been
developed and could be divided into two-dimensional (2D) and For the form factor, it was widely used to calculate the 2D char-
acterization of particle shape in the early imaging techniques. The
Table 3 equation of form factor was related to the area and perimeter of
Basic information of imaging techniques for aggregate morphology aggregate, while, roundness was the inverse of the form factor
[12,13,19,20,26,27,36,37,40,53,60,63,65,70,71,73,74,84-86,113-116,121-123,135- (shown in Eq. (5.3)). The value of the circular object was equal to
151]. 1.0, while the values of other shapes were larger than 1.0
No. Technologies Authors/ [63,66,87]. Where: p-perimeter of the particle; A-area of the
organization & particle.
time
1 Early image Barksdale, 4pA
methods et al., 1991
Form factorðroundnessÞ ¼ ð5:3Þ
P2
Prowell, et al.,
2005
2 Dynamic VDG-40 Videograder (VDG-40) Weingart,
image et al., 1999
(3) Form index (2D)
methods Tutumluer,
et al., 2000
3 Computer Particle Analyzer (CPA) Tyler, 2001 As a 2D index, form index was developed by Dr. Masad and uti-
4 Micromeritics OptiSizer (PSDA) Micromeritics, lized incremental changes in the aggregate radius in AIMS. In this
1998 method, the radius was defined as the length between the centroid
Raunch, et al.,
2002
point and the boundary [63,67,165,166] (shown in Equation (5.4)).
5 Video Image System (VIS) Alba, Where:h-directional angle; Dh-incremental difference in the
etal.,1995 angles; Rh -radius of the particle at angle h; RhþDh -radius of the par-
6 Buffalo Wire Works (PSSDA) Maerz and ticle at angle h þ Dh.
Zhou. 1999
7 Camsizer Retsch
Technology,
X Dh
h¼360
jRhþDh  Rh j
2011
Form Indexð2DÞ ¼ ð5:4Þ
h¼0
Rh
8 WipShape Maerz, 1998
9 University of Illinois Aggregate Image Tutumluer
Analyzer (UIAIA) et al., 2000
10 Static image Portable Image Analysis System (PIAS) Wang, et al.,
methods 2008 (4) Form index (Fourier series)
11 Aggregate Imaging Measurement Masad, et al.,
System (AIMS) 2001 Using the Fourier series, the shape, angularity, and texture of
12 Laser-based Aggregate Analysis Haas, et al.,
aggregate could be calculated and analyzed in PIAS. The outline
System (LASS) 2002
Kim, et al., of the particle could be represented as the periodic function RðhÞ
2003 [105]. The coefficients and the index were calculated in Equation
13 Fourier Transform Interferometry Kuo et al., 5.5–5.9. Where: m-frequency; a0 -average radius; am ,bm -Fourier
System (FTI system) 1996 coefficients; n1 -threshold frequencies separating shape and
14 Three-dimensional Optical Scanner- Liu, et al., 2017
based Aggregate Analysis System
angularity.
(OSAAS) X
1
15 X-ray Computed Tomography (X-ray Garboczi, E.J, RðhÞ ¼ a0 þ ðam cos ðmhÞ þ bm sin ðmhÞÞ ð5:5Þ
CT) et al., 2001 m¼1

7
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989

Z 2p
1 (8) Symmetry
a0 ¼ RðhÞdh ð5:6Þ
2p 0
Symmetry was also used to represent the form of aggregate [60]
Z 2p and the equation was shown in Eq. (5.15). Where: r1 and r2 - distances
1
am ¼ RðhÞcosðmhÞdh m ¼ 1; 2; 3; ð5:7Þ
p 0
between the center of gravity and the edge in a given direction.
  
Z 2p 1 r1
1 Symmetry ¼ 1 þ min ð5:15Þ
bm ¼ RðhÞsinðmhÞdhm ¼ 1; 2; 3; ð5:8Þ 2 r2
p 0

"   2 #
1 X1
m¼n 2
am bm
FormðshapeÞ Index ¼ þ ð5:9Þ (9) 3D Form factor (Spherical harmonic function)
2 m¼1 a0 a0
As a mathematical characterization method, Spherical har-
monic function (SHF) was also introduced and applied to charac-
(5) Flat and elongated ratio (FER) terize the aggregate 3D morphology with the X-ray CT images
[63,67,74,87]. The 3D form factor (FI3D ) was calculated according
Flat and elongated ratio (FER) was used to express the ratio to the Eqs. 5.16–5.19. In order to eliminate the effect of aggregate
size, the 3D parameter was divided by the first harmonic coeffi-
related to the longest dimension (dl ), intermediate (dm ), and the
cient a00 shown as following Eq. (5.20) [63]. Where:1-normally
shortest (ds ) dimension of aggregate and shown as follows
values as nmax in the calculating process; h-angle from the positive
[15,72,88,167-169] shown in Equations 5.10–5.12.
z-axis (latitude),0  h  p; U-angle from the positive x-axis (longi-
ds tude); 0  U  2p; Ym n -a spherical harmonic function; a00 -first har-
Flatness ratio ¼ ð5:10Þ monic coefficient.
dm
X
1 X
n
dl rðh; UÞ ¼
Elongation ratio ¼ ð5:11Þ n ðh; UÞ
anm Ym ð5:16Þ
dm n¼0 m¼n

dm Z 2p Z p
F&E ratio ¼ ð5:12Þ 1
ds V¼ r3 ðh; UÞsinðhÞdhdU ð5:17Þ
3 0 0

Z 2p Z p h i1=2
2 2
SA ¼ r r2U þ r2h sin ðhÞ þ r2 sin ðhÞ dhdU ð5:18Þ
(6) Aspect ratio (AR) 0 0

Aspect ratio (AR) was similar to the FER and proposed by Kuo X
5 X
n
FI3D ¼ janm j ð5:19Þ
and Freeman [35,60,170]. AR was usually applied to describe the
n¼0 m¼1
form of aggregate particles in two-dimensions in some imaging
techniques (Camsizer, WipShape, CPA, UIAIA, AIMS, FTI, LASS, FI3D
and 3D OSAAS). As shown in Eq. (5.13), aspect ratio was defined FI3DN ¼ ð5:20Þ
a00
as the comparison of the maximum particle dimension (length)
to the minimum particle dimension (width) according to Dr Kuo
[35,90]. For the circle and equilateral polygon images of aggre- 5.2. Evaluation parameters of angularity based on image technology
gates, the values of AR were equal to 1.0. While for the other
shapes, the value of AR was always greater than 1:1, such as 5:1, For the typical analysis methods of angularity, the black and
4:1, 3:1, or 2:1 [12,18,37,39,40,85,171]. Where: L-represented the white images of aggregate projections were widely utilized. The
length of the aggregate particle; W-represented the width of the image should meet the requirement of angularity analysis (image
aggregate particle. resolution with pixel size should be equal to or less than a certain
percent of particle diameter). There were twelve typical charac-
L terized methods of aggregate angularity illustrated in this
AR ¼ ð5:13Þ
W section.

(1) Fourier series analysis method

(7) Breadth to width ratio
According to the previous research, the Fourier series analysis
was applied to measure the angularity of aggregate in PIAS and
Breadth to width ratio was utilized to characterize the form of
the equation was shown as follows [71] (shown in Equation
aggregate. Eq. (5.14) was used to calculate the breadth to width
(5.21)). Where: n1 and n2 -threshold frequencies separating shape,
ratio in Camziser system [60,61]. Where: xc -maximum chord,
angularity, and texture.
determined from up to 32 directions for each particle; xFe -feret
dimeter, determined from up to 32 directions for each particle "   2 #
1 X2
m¼n 2
and it was the distance between two tangents placed 90° to the am bm
Angularity ¼ þ ð5:21Þ
measuring direction and touching the particle. 2 m¼n þ1 a0 a0
1

minðxc Þ
Ratio of breadth to width ¼ b=l ¼ ð5:14Þ
maxðxFe Þ
(2) Fast Fourier transform method (FFT)

8
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989

Fast Fourier transform method could be applied to calculate and (6) Angularity index (AI) (gradient method)
analyze the angularity factor (AF) of aggregate in FTI [72,88] accord-
ing to the Eqs. 5.22–5.24. Where: j-imaginary root; a0 -the average Angularity index (AI) based on the gradient method was used in
value of zðx; yÞ; zðx; yÞ-3D coordinate on the aggregate surface (in AIMS [8,65,85,87,172] (shown in Equation (5.28)). Where: AI-
th
xth row and yth column); Zðp; qÞ-discrete Fourier transform coeffi- angularity index; h-directional angle; i-the i point on the boundary of
cient in the pth row and qth column with the matrix of zðx; yÞ in aggregate; N-total number of the points on the boundary of aggregate.
the frequency domain; NA -threshold value; N-size of zðx; yÞ matrix. X
N¼3
1
AIðgradient methodÞ ¼ jhi  hiþ3 j ð5:28Þ
X
N1 X
N1 ðN=3Þ  1 i¼1
jð2Npxpþ2NpyqÞ
Zðp; qÞ ¼ zðx; yÞe ð5:22Þ
x¼0 y¼0

N1 X
X N1 (7) Angularity index (AI) (radius)
2p 2p
zðx; yÞ ¼ Zðp; qÞejð N xpþ N yqÞ ð5:23Þ
p¼0 q¼0 Angularity index (radius) was proposed by Dr. Masad for the
" application of AIMS [66,87] (shown in Equation (5.29)) Where:
XNA X 2  2 #
NA
aðp; qÞ bðp; qÞ RPh -radius of the particle at a directional angle h; REEh -radius of
AF ¼ þ ð5:24Þ an equivalent ellipse at the same h.
p¼1 q¼1
a0 a0
 
X Dh
h¼360 Rph  REEh 
AIðradiusÞ ¼ h ð5:29Þ
h¼0
REEh
(3) Surface erosion-dilation method

As a popular image processing technique, erosion-dilation was

utilized to analyze the angularity of aggregate particles in the UIAIA.
In this method, the smoothing technique and shape classifier were
used. During the processing, erosion removed pixels on object
boundaries of the image, while dilation added pixels to the bound-
aries. Aggregate angularity was calculated by the percentage of the
area lost during the erosion-dilation process [65,95,97] according
to Equation5.25. Where: A1 -initial area (in pixel) of 2D projection
of particle in the image; A2 -area (in pixel) of the particle after per-
forming a sequence of ‘n’ cycles of erosion-dilation.
A1 A2
Surface Parameter ¼  100%
A1
(4) Fractal behavior method
Fractal behavior was defined as the self-similarity exhibited by
an irregular boundary when captured at different magnification.
For the smooth boundaries, erosion was at a constant rate. While
for the irregular or fractal boundaries, erosion was not uniform
due to more pixels surrounding it with different color. Minkowski
definition of fractal boundary dimension was recognized as the
basic idea to measure fractal dimension in image analysis [60].
(8) Direct measurement of aggregate dimensions
The angularity parameter was developed by Dr. Kuo and
defined in Eq. (5.30) [96]. Where: Pconvex - perimeter of an equiva-
lent ellipse; Pellipse - perimeter of the bounding polygon.
 2
Pconvex
Angularity parameter ¼ ð5:30Þ
Pellipse
(9) Outline slope method
A quantitative angularity index (AIUI) was proposed by Dr. Rao
according to the image information captured through UIAIA. The AI
of each view was calculated firstly, then the overall AI was
expressed under the consideration of each view’s weight
[57,93,173-175]. The AI and overall AI could be calculated accord-
ing to Eqs. 5.31–5.32. Where: e-starting angle value for each 10°
class interval; PðeÞ-probability that change in angle a ranges from
e to (e þ 10); AI-angularity of coarse aggregate; AIðtÞ, AIðfÞ, and
AIðsÞ-represent the angularity of top, front, and side image, respec-
tively; AðtÞ, AðfÞ, and AðsÞ-represent the area of the top, front, and
side image, respectively.

(5) Hough transform method X

170
AI ¼ e  PðeÞ ð5:31Þ
e
In the Hough Transform, the co-linearity in pixels of the aggre-
gate outline was recognized [94,98]. Then the outlet of a particle AIðtÞ  AðtÞ þ AIðf Þ  Aðf Þ þ AIðsÞ  AðsÞ
was characterized by the distance (r) between the centroid and Overall AI ¼ ð5:32Þ
AðtÞ þ Aðf Þ þ AðsÞ
every point in perimeter [63]. The angularity index (AI) was
defined as Eqs. 5.26–5.27. Where: i-number of points in perimeter;
xi -horizontal distances between the centroid and the perimeter
point; yi -vertical distances between the centroid and the perimeter (10) Convexity
point; h-angle between the centroid and perimeter point,
0  h  360 ; Amax -length of the longest line for xi , yi , and h combi- Convexity was also used to represent and analyze the angularity
nations; A-average of all calculated lengths. of aggregate in Camsizer [60,85,92]. It could be calculated using
Equation (5.33). Where: AParticle -area of the real projection of aggre-
r ¼ ðxi coshÞ þ ðyi sinhÞ ð5:26Þ gate; AConvex -area of convex aggregate’s projection.
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
AParticle
A Convexity ¼ ð5:33Þ
AI ¼ 1  ð5:27Þ AConvex
Amax

9
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989

(4) Wavelet analysis method

(11) Minimum average curve radius
The minimum average curve radius was developed by Dr. Maerz
and used to measure the angularity of aggregate in WipShape. The
minimum average curve radius of the individual piece was defined
as the averages of the four smallest curve radii [99].
(12) Three-dimensional Angularity (AI3D SHF)
Three-dimensional Angularity (AI3D Þ was calculated according
to spherical harmonic function (SHF) and X-ray CT image [63,74].
The 3D angularity (AI3D ) of aggregate was applied to characterize
the feature of angularity (shown in Equation (5.34)). In order to
eliminate the effect of aggregate size, the 3D parameter was
divided by the first harmonic coefficient a00 (shown in Equation
2.35) [63].
X
25 X
n
AI3D ¼ janm j ð5:34Þ
n¼6 m¼1
AI3D
AI3DN ¼ ð5:35Þ
a00
5.3. Evaluation parameters of texture based on image technology
In the typical analysis methods of texture, both gray images and
the black and white images of aggregate were used. For the gray
images, more texture data could be obtained. However, some tex-
ture details of aggregate were lost during the conversion process of
gray images to black and white images. There were six typical
characterized methods of aggregate texture illustrated in this
section.
(1) Fourier series analysis method
Fourier series analysis was proposed by Dr. Wang and used to
For the wavelet analysis method, the mathematical framework
of a multi-scale image was used and analyzed the texture of the
aggregate. Such as in the AIMS and LASS, according to the greyscale
image captured, the texture value of coarse aggregate was mea-
sured and calculated by the wavelet analysis method directly
[39,65,67,101] (shown in Equation (5.38)). Where: N-total number
of the points on the boundary of aggregate; Di;j -decomposition
function; i-level of decomposition, and the 1, 2, 3 represent the
directions of textures; j-wavelet coefficient index; x, y-location of
coefficients in the transformed domain.
1 X3 X N
 2
Texture index ¼ Di;j ðx; yÞ ð5:38Þ
3N i¼1 j¼1
(5) Direct measurement of aggregate dimensions
Direct measurement of aggregate dimensions was proposed by
Dr. Kuo to evaluate the texture. The texture parameter was related
to the perimeters [60] (shown in Equation (5.39)). Where:
P-perimeter of aggregate from black and white image; P conv ex -
perimeter of a bounding polygon.
 2
P
Texture Parameter ¼ ð5:39Þ
Pconvex
(6) Three-dimensional Texture (MT 3D SHF)
With the combination of X-ray CT images and spherical har-
monic function (SHF), three-dimensional texture (MT3D ) could be
calculated [63,74]. In order to eliminate the effect of aggregate size,
the 3D parameter was divided by the first harmonic coefficient a00
[63,103] (shown as following Equations 5.40–5.41).
X
nmax X
n

calculate the surface texture of aggregate in PIAS [70,71] (shown MT3D ¼ janm j
n¼26 m¼1
in Equations (5.36)). Where: n2 -threshold frequencies separate
angularity and texture.
" # MT3D
X am 2 bm 2
1 m¼1
MT3DN ¼
a00
Surface texture ¼ þ ð5:36Þ
2 m¼n þ1 a0 a0 Based on the literature review reported above, for the evaluation
2

parameters, the existing parameters are sufficient to investigate the

characteristics of coarse aggregates. However, in the previous,
majority of them are two-dimensional evaluation parameters and
(2) Fast Fourier transform method (FFT)
are usually to be used independently without forming a unitary sys-
tem. In this study, some evaluation parameters are recommended to
According to the previous research, the Fast Fourier transform
be selected and unified together to classify the coarse aggregates.
method could be used to calculate and analyze the texture factor
Compared with existing evaluation parameters, the flat and elon-
(TF) of aggregate in FTI [72,88] according to Equation (5.37).
gated ratio (FER) or aspect ratio is recommended to distinguish
" 2  2 #
XN X N
aðp; qÞ bðp; qÞ the flat and elongated particles. The parameter such as the AI3DN ,
TF ¼ þ  AF ð5:37Þ FI3DN , and MT3DN based on spherical harmonic function are recom-
p¼1 q¼1
a0 a0
mended to evaluate the morphological features of coarse aggregates
through three-dimension with eliminating the effect of particle size.

(3) Intensity histogram method 6. Comparative evaluation of different techniques

In the intensity histogram method, the variation in the grays-
cale of the aggregate was obtained and analyzed. The analysis
was according to the correlation between surface texture and the
standard deviation of grayscale. For the smooth aggregate, the
value of the standard deviation was smaller than that of the rough
aggregate [60].
10
For the different imaging techniques, some features are very
important tasks in kind of techniques such as equipment cost, imple-
mentation cost, accuracy, repeatability, processing speed, etc.
[54,176]. According to the previous studies, the imaging techniques
for morphological characterization of aggregate could be divided into
three types: the early, dynamic, and static image-based methods
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989

Table 4
Application condition of image-based techniques [12,19,20,53,60-67,70,71,73,74,84,135-141,177].

No. Test type Technique Application Camera setup Size range (inch/mm)
1 Early image-based method CTL Digitizer with microcomputer No.8–1.0
2.36–25.0
2 Dynamic digital image methods VDG-40 FD, CTL One line-scan CCD camera No.16–1.5
1.18–37.5
3 CPA CTL No.140–1.5
0.106–37.5
4 PSDA CTL No.200–1.5
0.075–37.5
5 VIS CTL No.16–1.5
1.18–37.5
6 PSSDA CTL No.200–1.5
0.075–37.5
7 Camsizer CTL Two digital cameras No.50–0.5
0.3–12.5
8 WipShape CTL Two orthogonal cameras No.4–1.0
4.75–25.0
9 UIAIA CTL Three orthogonal positioned cameras No.4–1.5
4.75–37.5
10 Static digital image methods PIAS FD, CTL One digital camera No.200–1.0
0.075–25.0
11 AIMS CTL One camera with microscope No.200–1.0
0.075–25.0
12 LASS FD One CCD camera No.50–0.75
0.3–19.0
13 FTI system CTL One CCD camera No.16–5.0
1.18–125
14 OSAAS CTL Two digital cameras No.16–5.0
1.18–125
15 X-ray CT FD, CTL X-ray No.200–5.0
0.075–125

Note: CPA-Computer particle analyzer; PSDA-Micromeritics OptiSizer; VIS-Video image system; PSSDA-buffalo wire works; UIAIA-University of Illinois aggregate image
analyzer; PIAS-Portable image analysis system; AIMS-Aggregate imaging measurement system; FTI-Fourier transform interferometry system; LASS-Laser-based aggregate
analysis system; 3D OSAAS- Three-dimensional optical scanner-based aggregate analysis system; X-ray CT-X-ray computed tomography; FD-field; CTL-central laboratory; S-
shape; A-angularity; T-Texture.

Table 5
Cost and operational characteristics of image-based techniques [13,41,60,64,70,105]

No. Test method Image technique Estimated equipment cost ($) Operational characteristic
Speed Accuracy Ease of use Repeatability
1 Early imaging method 2,000 L M H M
2 Dynamic digital imaging methods VDG-40 45,000 H M M L
3 CPA 25,000 H L M M
4 PSDA 50,000 L M H L
5 VIS 60,000 H M L L
6 PSSDA 35,000 H M M L
7 Camsizer 45,000 M M M L
8 WipShape 35,000 H M M M
9 UIAIA 35,000 H H M M
10 Static digital imaging methods PIAS 25,000 H H H H
11 AIMS 35,000 M H M H
12 LASS 35,000 H H H H
13 FTI system 25,000 H H H H
14 OSAAS 45,000 H H H H
15 X-ray CT 150,000 H H H H

Note: Price listed are estimated and may not reflect detailed models and inflation, H = high, M = medium, L = Low. (1) Speed: Low (L) slow; Medium (M): intermediate; High
(H): very fast. (2) Accuracy: it is according to the coefficient of multiple determinations (R2), Low: (L) R2  0.6; Medium (M): 0.6＜R2  0.95; High (H): R2＞0.95. (3) Ease of
use: Low (L): easy; Medium (M): intermediate; High (H): difficult. (4) Repeatability: it is according to the coefficient of variation (CV); Low (L) CV＞20%; Medium (M)
10%＜CV  20%; High (H) CV  10%.

[12,41,60,139]. In this section, the comparisons of some parameters
between different image technologies are shown in Table 4 to 7
including the application condition, cost, operational characteristic,
camera setup, size range, image type, advantage, and disadvantage.
6.1. Application condition, camera setup, and size range of imaging
techniques
For the different image-based techniques, the application con-
ditions, camera setup, and size range were different and shown
11
in Table 4. It shown that only VDG-40 Videograder, PIAS, LASS,
and 3D OSAAS could be used in both field and central laboratory.
However, other imaging techniques could only be applied in the
laboratory due to some limitations. Except for early imaging meth-
ods and X-ray CT, the number of cameras installed in the other
imaging techniques was from one to three. In the techniques of
VDG-40 Videograder, CPA, PSDA, VIS, and PPSSDA, a line-scan
CCD camera could be used to capture and measure image when
aggregates fell in front of backlighting. The physical configuration
and software packages were different in these five imaging tech-
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al. Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989

Table 6
Image types and morphological analysis methods of different techniques [12,39,53,64,69,103,178,179].

No. Test method Image Image Morphological analysis method (measured characteristics and evaluated parameters)
technique type
S A T
1 Early imaging methods 2D Shape – –
2 Dynamic digital imaging VDG-40 2D Length and width – –
3 methods CPA 2D Gradation and aspect ratio – –
4 PSDA 2D Shape and gradation – –
5 VIS 2D Shape – –
6 PSSDA 2D Gradation and average Average roundness –
roundness
7 Camsizer 2D Sphericity and aspect ratio Convexity method –
8 WipShape 3D Gradation and aspect ratio Minimum average curve radius –
method
9 UIAIA 3D Gradation and aspect ratio Change of outline slope Erosion and dilation
technique
10 Static digital imaging PIAS 2D Fourier transform method
11 methods AIMS 3D Sphericity and aspect ratio Gradient/radius method Wavelet method
12 LASS 3D Sphericity and aspect ratio 2D Fourier transform method
13 FTI system 3D Aspect ratio Wavelet method
14 OSAAS 3D Sphericity and aspect ratio, and Wavelet method and SHS
SHS
15 X-ray CT 3D Spherical Harmonic Series (SHS)

Note: CCD camera-charge-coupled device camera; 2D-Two-dimensional; 3D-Three dimensional.

Table 7
Advantages and disadvantages of imaging techniques [37,41,53,73,77,116,148].

No. Test method Image Advantage Disadvantage

technique
1 Early image-based Measure shape No angularity or texture information
method
2 Dynamic digital VDG-40 Measure the shape of large aggregate Expensive (VDG-40); Assume idealized ellipsoid as particle shape; No
3 imaging methods CPA quantity angularity or texture information; Use one camera magnification to obtain
images of all aggregate sizes
4 PSDA Expensive; No angularity or texture information; Use one camera
5 VIS magnification to obtain images of all aggregate sizes
6 PSSDA Expensive; 2D shape information; No angularity or texture information;
Use one camera magnification to obtain images of all aggregate sizes
7 Camsizer Measure the shape of large aggregate Expensive; Assume idealized ellipsoid as particle shape; No texture
quantity; information
Capture images at different magnifications
based on aggregate size
8 WipShape Measure the shape of coarse aggregate Expensive; No texture addressed; Separate vibratory feed systems and
quantity with three dimensions backlights required to scan samples
9 UIAIA Measure the shape of large aggregate Expensive; Use three cameras to obtain the image of all sizes
quantity with three dimensions
10 Static digital imaging PIAS Measure shape, angularity, and texture; use The calculation is based on the 2D outline of aggregates
method different scans to obtain images based on
aggregate sizes
11 AIMS Capture images at different resolution using Expensive; Measure the shape of a relatively small amount of aggregates
microscope based on aggregate sizes
12 LASS Measure three dimensions of aggregates Use the same scan to analyze all sizes
with 3D image data
13 FTI Measure three dimensions of aggregates Use the same camera to analyze all sizes; Measure the shape of a relatively
system small amount of aggregates
14 OSAAS Measure 3D points on aggregate’s surface Expensive; Use the same camera to analyze all sizes; Measure the shape of
a relatively small amount of aggregates
15 X-ray CT Obtain the voxels of aggregate Expensive; Complicated operation

niques. For Camsizer and WipShape, there were two cameras in
each system, but the instrumental setups were different in these
two techniques. In Table 4, all static digital image methods could
be widely used to capture the image and analyze both fine and
coarse aggregates. While, early imaging methods could only be
used to obtain the morphological characterization of coarse aggre-
gate. In the dynamic digital imaging methods, the VDG-40 Video-
grader, PSDA, PSSDA, and Camsizer could be applied to obtain
the morphological information of both coarse and fine aggregates.
However, using CPA, VIS, WipShape, UIAIA, and PIAS could only
obtain the morphological characterization of coarse aggregate.
Almost all the static digital image methods could capture both
coarse and fine aggregate images.
6.2. Cost and operational characteristics of imaging techniques
According to the information from the vendors, operators, and
researchers, the cost and operational characteristics (including
speed, accuracy, ease of use, and repeatability) of different imaging
techniques were collected and shown in Table 5. The estimated
equipment cost of each imaging technique was equal to or more
than $2,000. Although the early imaging methods had the lowest
estimated equipment cost, the performances of speed, accuracy,
and repeatability were relatively worse. In Table 5, the X-ray CT
was the most expensive imaging technique with the highest speed,
accuracy, and repeatability, but the instrument was too complex to
use, and the professional technician was needed to conduct the

12
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al.
test. All the static digital imaging methods had relatively high
repeatability while the early and dynamic imaging methods only
had medium or low repeatability. It was found that the AIMS, LASS,
and 3D OSAAS had high operational characteristics with relatively
reasonable estimated equipment costs. Most of the static digital
imaging methods had higher comprehensive performances over
the early and dynamic imaging methods.
6.3. Image types and morphological analysis methods of imaging
techniques
In this section, image types and morphological analysis meth-
ods were compared between the following fifteen imaging meth-
ods and shown in Table 7. Early imaging methods, as well as the
majority of dynamic imaging methods (VDG-40 Videograder,
CPA, PSDA, VIS, and PPSSDA), and static imaging methods (PIAS)
could only capture and analyze 2D images of aggregates. However,
WipShape, UIAIA and the majority of static digital imaging meth-
ods could obtain 3D images of aggregates. For the morphological
analysis methods, there were two aspects included: measured
characteristics and evaluated parameters. In Table 6, it was found
that the shape could be obtained through all imaging techniques.
All the methods belonging to the static digital imaging methods,
the shape, angularity, and texture of aggregate could be detected
and analyzed. However, in the dynamic digital imaging methods,
only UIAIA could capture and analyze all morphological character-
istics (shape, angularity, and texture) of aggregate.
6.4. Advantage and disadvantages of imaging techniques
Based on the previous work of literatures and documents, the
advantages and disadvantages of imaging techniques were col-
lected and shown in Table 7. For the early imaging methods and
some dynamic digital imaging methods, there were some limita-
tions to capture the morphological characterizations of aggregates.
The same deficiency also existed in some of the static digital imag-
ing methods, such as the VDG-40, CPA, PSDA, VIS, and PPSSDA.
Only one camera magnification was used to capture images of all
aggregate sizes. For the VDG-40, CPA, PSDA, VIS, and PPSSDA, the
evaluated cost was relatively lower than others, while the angular-
ity and texture information of aggregate could not be obtained.
Although Camsizer, AIMS, LASS, 3D OSAAS, and X-ray CT have
the capacity to capture more information. However, the purchase
costs were much higher than the other methods. For the AIMS,
LASS, and 3D OSAAS, the measurement amount in each time was
relatively smaller than the other techniques.
7. Conclusions
For the aggregates used in asphalt mixture, the morphological
features such as form (shape), angularity, and texture have a vital
influence on the performances. Accurately characterization and
evaluation are necessary to build the relationship between the
morphological features and asphalt mixture and they could also
improve the quality of material selection to resist the various dis-
tresses of asphalt mixtures. This paper introduces and provides
comprehensive review of the work done by a number of research-
ers on representation to the morphological features of aggregate
particles in asphalt mixtures. The strategies include the classifica-
tion, conventional testing methods, imaging techniques, and eval-
uation parameters of aggregate in asphalt mixture. Ten types of
conventional testing methods, fifteen types of imaging techniques,
and twenty-seven typical evaluation parameters are considered to
characterize the aggregate morphologies for asphalt mixture in
13
Construction and Building Materials 273 (2021) 121989
this review, based on previous and current research. Some conclu-
sions are shown as following:
(1) In terms of conventional testing methods, they are easier to use
and the costs of equipment are relatively lower than that of
imaging techniques. However, shape (form), angularity, and
texture of aggregates could not be measured directly and com-
pletely by the majority of them. In addition, some of the con-
ventional testing methods are subjective, labor-intensive,
time-consuming, and the results are inconsistent with the
mechanical properties of the asphalt mixture. The challenge lies
in how to enhance the efficiency, accuracy, and consistency of
conventional testing methods; how to measure the morpholog-
ical features of aggregates through direct methods; and how to
build the relationship between the aggregates’ morphologies
and the performance of asphalt mixtures.
(2) In terms of evaluation parameters, no single quantitative
measure (2D or 3D parameter) could provide a comprehen-
sive description of the aggregate’s morphologies (shape,
angularity, and texture), so the application of several evalu-
ation parameters in combination could provide the most
optimal method of classifying and characterizing between
aggregate particles. The evaluation parameters such as the
FI3D , AI3D , and MT3D calculated from Spherical harmonic
function (SHF) in imaging techniques could represent the
3D morphological characteristics of aggregates. They even
could eliminate the effect of aggregate size after being
divided by the first harmonic coefficient. However, in order
to increase computational efficiency, some morphological
features are ignored or lost during imaging processing. The
challenge lies in how to collect and represent more global
and local features of aggregate morphologies under higher
efficiency. Therefore, future work will include imaging opti-
mization, parameter selection, and efficiency improvement.
(3) In terms of imaging techniques, they provide relatively accu-
rate and objective results of aggregate morphological fea-
tures. These methods could not only make the quality
control and material selection of aggregate become easier,
more accurate, and more reliable, but also would make a
contribution to the improvement of material specifications.
With the comprehensive analysis of performances, AIMS is
recommended to characterize the 2D and some kind of 3D
morphological features of aggregate in the central labora-
tory. Except for some features such as the highest equipment
cost, most difficult application, and only used in the central
laboratory, the X-ray CT is highly recommended to be used
under the high and special requirements of evaluation preci-
sion. At the same time, the LASS and 3D OSAAS will be highly
recommended to apply both in the central laboratory and
the field with the further development of evaluation
indexes. For purposes of speed, and especially for field use,
image techniques provide practical methods of particle
description and comparison. However, the relatively higher
cost and more complex operation provide the challenges
for a widespread application. Therefore, it is suggested to
develop the imaging techniques with lower cost and easily
use based on interdisciplinary research.
(4) In terms of the characterization of aggregates, good geomet-
ric morphologies are a vital requirement for asphalt mixture
performance in the design, construction, service, and main-
tenance process. The current AIMS, LASS, 3D OSAAS, and
X-ray CT have improvements in morphological characteriza-
tion, imaging techniques, and evaluation parameters. How-
ever, these analysis systems are limited to represent and
evaluate the morphological features of aggregate particles.
They cannot classify the morphological types of aggregates
F. Gong, Y. Liu, Z. You et al.
accurately and build the accurate relationship between the
morphological characteristics and the mixtures’ performances,
such as the rutting resistance, anti-stripping resistance, low
temperature cracking resistance, fatigue resistance, and mois-
ture damage resistance. In the future, it is highly suggested to
classify the types of aggregate morphologies firstly; and then
build the accurate relationship between the morphological
types of aggregate particles and the asphalt mixture perfor-
mances through more experiments and field trials with the
help of conventional tests or imaging techniques.
(5) In recent years, with the development of intelligent com-
paction in asphalt mixture, the SmartRock has been invented
and how to obtain the realistic particle shell and input the
accurate models into 3D printer are the key points in this
research. For the advantages of accurate, comprehensive,
and especially for both laboratory and field use, the LASS,
3D OSAAS could provide practical methods of model build-
ing and outputting to 3D printer.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
This material is based in part upon work supported by the
National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No.
52008154 and 51978074), Special Funds for Jointly Building Col-
leges and Universities in Tianjin (280000-299) and Science and
Technology Program of Tianjin (20JCQNJC00930). This material is
also supported by the Hebei University of Technology, Chang’an
University, and Michigan Technological University. Any opinions,
findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this
paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent
the view of any organization.
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