1.

0 Fibre-optic communication system

Fibre-optic communication system comprises of the following:

i) A fibre-optic transmission cable to carry the signal in form of modulated light beam.
ii) A source of visible or invisible infrared radiation; usually a light emitting diode
(LED) or a solid state laser.
iii) A photosensitive detector to convert the optical signal back into an electrical signal at
the receiver. The most often used detectors are the PIN or the Avalanche Photodiode
(APD).
iv) Efficient optical connectors at the light source-to-cable interface and at the cable-to-
photo detector interface.
v) Signal processing prior to the light source.

Advantages of Fibre-Optic systems

1) Bandwidth
Fibre systems have a greater capacity due to the inherently larger bandwidths available
with optical frequencies. Copper cables exhibit capacitance between and inductance
along their conductors. These properties cause them to act like a low-pass filters which
limit their bandwidths. Today’s advanced fibre optic systems are capable of transmitting
several Gb/s over hundreds of km.

2) Noise Immunity and Safety

Fibre cables are immune to static interference caused by lightening and other electrical
sources of noise. Fibre cables do not radiate energy and therefore cannot cause
interference like crosstalk in communication systems.

3) Low Losses
Low signal attenuation; typically 0.2dB/km for a 1-GHz bandwidth compared to over
15dB/km for coaxial cable and waveguide. Fewer repeaters are required in long haul
optic fibre transmission.

4) Less Weight and Volume

A fibre strand of 0.05in in diameter (hair strand) has more information-carrying capacity
than a 3-in diameter telephone cable consisting of 900 twisted pair wires.

5) Security
Since light does not radiate from a fibre-optic cable, it is nearly impossible to secretly tap
into it without detection. Communication systems requiring secrecy employ fibr-optic
systems.

6) Lower Cost
Due to the abundance of the principle ingredient in fibre, sand. The number of repeaters
is reduced due to the low resistance of the fibre cable.

7) Corrosion
Glass is inert; the corrosive effects of certain environments is not a problem.

1
 8) High Resistance to Heat
Fibre can be used at high temperatures such as in furnance monitoring.

Disadvantages of Optic Fibre Cables

1) Interfacing costs
Electronics facilities
2) Strength
Fibre has a
3) Bendind Losses
Macro bends are sharp bends that cause some of the light rays to escape from the core to
the cladding, reducing the power of the transmitted light. Micro bends or kinks are
caused by sharp pricks into the cable to deform the smooth shape of the core. Light rays
hitting this point will be reflected away from their intended direction. Both macro and
micro bends result in attenuation of the signal.

1.2 Light Propagation through Optic Fibre

Snell’s law states that if a light ray propagates in one medium at a slower speed than in the
second medium, the ray would be bent towards the interface when it enters the second
medium. As a result, the angle of refraction is greater than the angle of incidence

Θ2 Θ3 n2

Θ1 n1
θin
no n2
incident ray

Fresnel reflection refracted ray

Consider a light ray travelling in a small portion of an optic fibre as shown in the diagram
above.

From Snell’s law:

noSin Θin = n1 SinΘ1 ………………………(1)
n1 Sin Θ2 = n2 SinΘ3 ………………………(2)
Θ1 = 90o – Θ2 ……………………………(3)
Sin Θ1 = Cos Θ2 …………………………….(4)
For total internal reflection to take place :
Θ3 = 90o
𝑛2
From eq (2) Sin Θ2 = ……………………….(5)
𝑛1
eq (1) n0 Sin Θin = n1Sin Θ1
= n1Cos Θ2
= n1√1 − 𝑆𝑖𝑛2 Θ2

2
 𝑛2
= n1√1 − (𝑛1)2
Sin Θin = √ n12 - n22

Numerical Aperture (NA)

NA is a measure of merit used to measure the gathering or light collecting ability of an
optical fibre. The larger the magnitude of NA the greater the amount of light accepted by the
fibre from the external light source. Mathematically, the NA can be expressed as:
NA = Sin Θin = √ n12 - n22

Example Exercise
The refractive index of the core of an optic fibre is 1.535 and that of the cladding is 1.490.
Calculate the NA and the angle θin(max). Ans 21.7o

2.0 Classification of Fibre-Optic Cables

Optical fibres are classified in two ways:
a) Material make-up
b) Refractive index of the core

1. Material Make-up
Three basic types: all glass, all plastic and mixed glass and plastic
(i) Glass core Glass clad (SCS fibre: silica-clad-silica). Glass fibres are the most widely
used. The glass material is ultra pure, ultra-transparent silicon dioxide or fused quartz.
Impurities in it may be purposely added to the pure glass to achieve the desired index of
refraction.
(ii) Plastic clad silica (PCS) have a glass core and plastic cladding.
(iii) Plastic core and Plastic cladding.

Advantages of Plastic Fibres

(i) More flexible
(ii) Easy to install
(iii)Can better stand stress
(iv) Less expensive
(v) Light (60% less than glass)

Disadvantages of Plastic Fibres

(i) High attenuation –their application is limited to short distance runs, within buildings.

2. Refractive Index Profile

There are three refractive index profiles for optic fibre cables as follows:
(i) Single mode step index fibre (refractive index of core is greater than the clad by a step)
(ii) Multi mode graded index fibre (refractive index of core gradually to max at center)
(iii)Multimode step index fibre (refractive index of core is greater than the clad by a step)
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2.0 Construction of Fibre Optic Cable

Main Parts of a Fibre Optic Cable

The main parts of a fibre optic cable depends on the application. An outside plant telephone
cable must endure extreme hardship. It must withstand:
 Extremes of heat and cold
 high winds that buffet it and against rodents chewing it underground.

The core is the portion that carries the transmitted light. It is usually made of glass but may be
plastic. The cladding may also be glass or plastic. The refractive index of the core is greater
than that of the cladding. To provide protection some sort of rubber or plastic jacket may
surround the cladding.

The Core
Is the axial part of the optical fiber made of silica glass. It is the light transmission area of the
fiber. It may sometimes be treated with a "doping" element to change its refractive index and
therefore the velocity of light down the fiber.

The Cladding
Is the layer completely surrounding the core. The difference in refractive index between the
core and cladding is less than 0.5 percent. The refractive index of the core is higher than that
of the cladding, so that light in the core strikes the interface with the cladding at a bouncing
angle, gets trapped in the core by total internal reflection, and keeps traveling in the proper
direction down the length of the fiber to its destination.

Silicone coating

core

cladding
kevlar
(strength member)
outer jacket buffer jacket

Basic view of optic fibre cable

4
Silicone Coating
This is a plastic coating over the cladding to reinforce the fiber core. It also helps to absorb
shocks, and provide extra protection against excessive cable bends. It does not have any effect
on the optical waveguide properties, though.

Buffer
Hard plastic coating to protect the cladding and prevent surface scratches that would cause light
leakage.

Kevlar (Strength member)

Add mechanical strength to the fibre. During and after installation, the strength members handle
the tensile stresses applied to the cable so that the fibre is not damaged. Steel and fiberglass
members are commonly used.

Outer Jacket
This is the outer layer, or sheathing, of the cable. It provides protection to the optic fibre from
crushing impacts, environmental hazards, such as construction work, fishing gear, and even
sharks, which are often attracted to the electrical fields created by signal conductors to repeaters.
Typical jacket materials include polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride and nylon.

Single mode Step Index

Cross-section

n1
Output pulse
Input pulse n2
n1 nnnn

n0 n1 n2 n
A single mode fibre has a very narrow core, which allows light to travel axially along the core
without undergoing reflections from the cladding.

Output Light Signal from Single mode

 Output light does not spread out, it is narrow
 It may, however be attenuated due to the long distance of travel

Multi-mode Step Index

5
 Multi-mode Graded Index

Modes of Propagation in Optic Fibre

By modes of propagation of light in optic fibre we mean the paths light rays take to propagate
down the fibre cable length. There are two modes, namely single mode and multimode.

Single Mode Propagation

In a single mode fibre cable the light follows practically one path due to the very narrow core
diameter.
Single-mode (or monomode) fibers have lower attenuation than multimode fibers and retain
better fidelity of each light pulse, as they exhibit no dispersion caused by multiple modes. Thus,
information can be transmitted over longer distances without inter-symbolic interference of the
pulses.

Input pulse output pulse

core cladding light ray

Early single-mode fibers ware generally characterized as step-index fiber meaning the refractive
index of the fiber core rises a step above that of the cladding. Modern single-mode fibers have
evolved into more complex designs.

Main Parameters of a Single-Mode Fiber Link

6
 1) The typical core size of a single-mode fiber is 2-10um.
2) Since only one mode is allowed to travel down the fiber path, the total internal reflection
phenomenon does not occur. Single mode has very large bandwidth ie typically
15GHz/km
3) The NA for a single-mode fiber is usually smaller than for a multimode fiber.
4) Single-mode fibers carry optical signals in the second (0.4dB/km) and third (0.25dB/km)
telecom windows where attenuation is minimized. The center wavelength of the laser
emitting into the fiber is approximately 1310 nm and 1550 nm, respectively.
5) Common lasers suitable for applications over single-mode fiber are Fabry-Perot and
distributed feedback (DFB) lasers.

Multimode Propagation
Multimode fibres have core diameters between 50um to 100um. The large core diameter
simplifies input coupling and allows the use of relatively inexpensive connectors. Light rays
propagate by multiple total internal reflection. For light rays falling at the interface of the two
media of core and clad at an angle greater than the critical angle then the light ray gets reflected
back to the originating medium with high efficiency (around 99.9%) i.e. total internal reflection
occurs. With the help of innumerable total internal reflections light waves are propagated along
the fiber with low loss.
Since the light rays travel down the fibre through many different paths, they arrive at different
times, resulting in spreading effect of the pulse. This is known as modal dispersion. The
dispersion causes the light pulses received to spread out result in overlapping. This overlapping
can cause inter-symbolic interference. In order to avoid Inter-symbolic Interference pulses at the
input must be wide spread apart. This lowers bit transfer rate (bandwidth).

Multimode Graded Index

Multimode graded index fibre is the third type of fibre. The core diameter of this type of fibre
ranges 50 – 85um. The centre of the core has the highest refractive index which gradually
decreases from the center toward the outer edge until it matches that of the cladding. The speed
of the light rays traveling at the centre of the core is reduced due to the high refractive index,
while those travelling longer distances near the interfaces with the cladding have higher speed.
The light rays travel in a curved path through the fibre. The result is that the rays will arrive at
almost the same time.

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3.0 Attenuation
Attenuation Characteristics of Optic Fibre
Two of the more important fiber parameters are attenuation and dispersion. Attenuation is the
reduction in optical power as it passes from one point to another. In optical fibers, power loss
results from absorption, scattering and bending. The loss is generally expressed in decibels (dB)
for a given length of fiber, or per unit length (dB/km) at a specific transmission wavelength.

Signal attenuation within optical fiber is usually expressed in decibel per unit length (i.e.
dB/km).
Loss in decibel (dB) = 10 log₁₀(Pi/Po)
where: Pi and Po are the transmitted input and output
optical power respectively.

Absorption
Although glass fibres are made from extremely pure glass, molecular impurities such as metal
ions of copper, iron and nickel are often present. These impurity elements in the core will
absorb light energy, transforming the light photons into heat. These molecules are activated at
certain wavelengths and will absorb a small portion of the light. There are specific wavelengths
at which fewer impurities are active and less attenuation occurs.

The OH- ion from water vapor in the glass leads to absorption peaks at 0.72um, 0.88um,
0.95um, 1.13um, 1.24um and 1.38um.

With new manufacturing techniques, OH- ion content can be reduced to give ultra-low-loss
fibers which have a wider low-loss window in silica glass fibers. This improvement enables the
use of WDM technology in fiber optic networks, which dramatically increases the capacity of
fiber optic systems.

Scattering
Scattering is caused by microscopic impurities and variations in the density and structure of the
fibre that occur during the manufacturing process; ie, a bubble in the cladding of a fibre will
change the angle of reflection of a light ray. If the new angle is greater than the critical angle, the
light ray will refract into the cladding.

Rayleigh scattering

8
Is the main cause of attenuation in optic fibre. It occurs when light collides with imperfections in
the glass, reflecting it away from its original direction. Scattering is much lower at longer
wavelengths.

Attenuation as a Function of Wavelength

Optical fibres can operate from 500 to1600nm wavelength. The overall attenuation in optic fibre
can be viewed as a function of wavelength.

Optic Fibre Characteristic graph of Attenuation against Wavelength.

From the graph there are three windows of low attenuation for optic fibre to operate.

Window 1: At 850nm, is multimode. Modern fibres that operate in this window have low
attenuation of about 2dB/km. Cheap light sources (LED) and detectors are available at this
wavelength though the attenuation is high.

Window 2: At 1300nm, is single mode. Attenuation is very low (0.2dB/km) at this window. It
is used for long distance telecommunication transmission.

Window 3: At 1550nm, is single mode. Attenuation is less than 0.2dB/km. It is used for long
distance telecommunication transmission.

Bending Losses
Two types of losses result from bending fibre cable; they are: microbends and macrobends.
Microbends can be caused by imperfections in the cladding, ripples in the core-to-cladding
interface, microcracks, or external force exerted on the fibre. A microbend has the same effect as
scattering. A light ray stricking the bend can refract into the cladding.

9
Macrobends are bends of the entire fibre. Tight bends can cause attenuation, as some of the light
rays may strike the interface at the bend at such angle that will refract it into the cladding and get
lost. The radius of the macrobend must not exceed bend radius.

Coupling Losses

Connection losses can occur at any of the following three types of optical junctions:

1) Light source-to- fibre connections

2) Fibre-to- fibre connetions
3) Fibre to – photo detector connections

Junction losses are caused by misalignment of fibre connections:

Angular misalignment, gap misalignment, lateral misalignment and imperfect surface finishes.
For perfect alignment the core must be precisely centered to ensure clad/core concentricity.

Types of Connections

There are basically two means of interconnecting fibres; splicing –which results in permanent
connection and the use of connectors, which provides for easy and repeatable cable
disconnections and reconnections. The ideal goal of cable interconnection is to join the fibres so
as not to adversely affect light propagation. However this goal is almost impossible to achieve.
All connections are subject to some degree of attenuation.

Attenuation due to Connectors

Variations in fibres, tolerances of connector components, and the proficiency of the personnel
installing the system, all influence the quality of the interconnection. Some conditions that
increase attenuation include:

1) End separation
2) Angular misalignment
3) Lateral off
4) imperfect surface finishes

End Separation
End separation occurs when there is a gap between the two fibres. Ideally the ends of the fibres
should touch each other. When cables are permanently joined using a proper splicing technique,
the ends of the fibres normally touch. However when the connection is accomplished with some
types of connectors, the fibres are held apart slightly to prevent them from rubbing against each

10
other. Otherwise, the end finish on the fibres can be damaged when the cables are disconnected
and reconnected.

Excessive gaps between fibres cause two types of loss. One type of loss is essentially Fresnel
reflection. As light exits one fiber, the difference between the refractive index of the fibre and
the air or material in the gap causes some of the emitted light to be reflected back into the fibre.
The other type of loss is related to the width of the gap and the numerical apertures of the fibres.
Light exiting the transmitting fibre spreads out in a cone shape. As the light travels across the
gap, the light rays in the outer edge of the cone will not enter the receiving fibre. Also, if the
N.A. of the receiving fibre is smaller than the N.A. of the transmitting fibre, even more light will
be lost.

Angular misalignment
Angular misalignment creates attenuation in a similar manner to end separation. The cone of
light from the transmitting fibre is centered at the axis of the fibre. Since the receiving fibre is at
an angle to the transmitting fibre, it is not properly aligned to receive all the light rays. In
addition some of the light rays received may enter at an angle less than critical angle and be
refracted into the cladding.

Angular misalignment gap misalignment

Lateral misalignment imperfect surface finishes

Lateral Offset
Lateral offset occurs when the central axes of the two fibres are not aligned. In such situations,
some of the light rays from the transmitting fibre miss the receiving fibre completely. Others
may enter the fibre at the wrong angle and be refracted into the cladding of the receiving fibre.
Lateral offset can cause a significant loss.

Imperfect surface finishes

Imperfect surface finishes

11
Example
A 10% offset of fibre with a 50um core is 5um. This displacement creates a loss of about 5dB.

4.0 Dispersion
Dispersion is the spreading of light pulse as it propagates through the core of the optic fibre.
Dispersion limits the bandwidth or information carrying capacity of a fibre. The bitrate must be
low enough to ensure that pulses do not overlap. There are three main types of dispersion:
1) modal dispersion
2) material dispersion
3) waveguide dispersion
4) Polarization Mode dispersion

Bandwidth and Dispersion

Many fiber and cable manufacturers do not specify dispersion for their multimode offerings.
Instead they specify a figure of merit called the Bandwidth–Length Product or simply
bandwidth, in MHz-km. A bandwidth of 400MHz-km means that a 400-MHz signal can be
transmitted for 1km. It also means that the product of the frequency and the length must be 400
or less (BW x L ≤ 400). It implies that you can use a lower frequency for a longer distance or
higher frequency for a shorter distance.

Modal Dispersion
Multimode fibres have a large core diameter and accept light rays through a larger angle. There
basically two paths taken by the light rays as they travel through the core down the fibre;
(i) straight path along the centre of the core.
(ii) multiple reflection paths.

The rays will arrive at the other end of the fibre at different times, causing a spreading of light
(dispersion). Modal dispersion in step index fibres is typically 15-40nsec/km. This limits the
bandwidth of operation to about 25MHz/km.

Chromatic Dispersion
Chromatic, dispersion depends primarily on fiber materials. There are two types:
1) Material dispersion
2) Waveguide dispersion.

Chromatic dispersion occurs because different colors of light travel through different materials
and different waveguide structures at different speeds.
Different wavelengths travel at different speeds in the fiber material. Different wavelengths of a
light pulse that enter a fiber at one time exit the fiber at different times. The result is the
spreading of light pulse.

Material dispersion

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Material dispersion is caused by the effect of the refractive index of the glass that causes
different wavelengths of light to travel down the fiber at different speeds. The amount of
dispersion depends on two factors:
1) Source spectral width: The spectral width specifies the range of wavelengths that can
propagate in the fiber. An LED has a much wider spectral width than a laser (35nm for LED
and 2-3nm for laser).
2) The center operating wavelength of the source. Around 850nm, longer wavelengths,
“reddish” (860nm) travel faster than shorter, “bluish” ones. A 860nm light travels through
glass faster than 850nm light. At 1550nm, however, the situation is reversed; the shorter
wavelengths travel faster than the longer ones, a 1560nm wave travels slower than a 1540nm
wave. At some point, crossever must occur where the bluish and reddish wavelengths travel
at the same speed. This crossover occurs around 1300nm and is known as the zero
dispersion wavelength.
15 Chromatic Dispersion in a Standard Single-Mode Fiber
(ps/nm/km)

10

-5

-10

-15

Material dispersion is of greater concern in singlemode systems. In multimode it becomes a

concern if the data rate is high and distance of transmission is long.

Waveguide dispersion

Waveguide dispersion is a function of the size of the fiber's core relative to the wavelength of
operation. Most significant in a single mode fiber, occurs because optical energy travels in both the
core and the cladding, which have slightly different refractive indices.

Polarization Mode Dispersion

Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is a form of modal dispersion where two different
polarizations of light in a waveguide, which normally travel at the same speed, travel at different
speeds due to random imperfections and asymmetries, causing random spreading of optical pulses

Single Mode Fiber Types

Dispersion is a function of the wavelength.

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 1) Window Two
Standard single-mode fibers have a zero dispersion at 1310 nm. Therefore, 1310-nm transmitters
are not subject to chromatic dispersion.

2) Window Three
At 1550-nm, the light suffer chromatic dispersion making it difficult for CWDM (Coarse Wave
Division Multiplexing), and DWDM (Dense Wave Division Multiplexing) transmissions to be
used.
Advantages of Window Three:
(i) lower fiber loss
(ii) the ability to amplify optical signals with erbium-doped fiber amplifiers (EDFA).

Because of these advantages compensation techniques are used to reduce chromatic

dispersion at this window.

Compensating Chromatic Dispersion

Compensation methods employ fiber with a negative dispersion value to reverse the behavior of
velocities of the wavelengths (long wavelengths to travel slower and vice versa).

ITU G.652 Standard

Defines the common single-mode fiber with zero dispersion at 1310nm. In order to eliminate the
problems encountered by transmissions in the third window, other fiber types were developed.

ITU G.653 Standard

By modifying the refractive index profile of the core Dispersion-Shifted Fibers (DSF) with a
zero dispersion can be obtained at 1550 nm. However, even though this fiber type eliminates the
problem for transmissions of single wavelengths at 1550 nm, it is not suitable for wavelength
multiplexing applications as WDM transmissions can be affected by another non-linear effect
called four-wave mixing.

ITU G.655 standard

This is non-zero dispersion shifted fibers (NZDSF) standard. For this fiber type, the zero
dispersion is shifted just outside the C-Band, usually around 1510 nm. This helps limit the
chromatic dispersion as the zero dispersion remains close enough to the transmission band, and
the other non-linear effects such as four-wave mixing are eliminated.

Compensating Chromatic Dispersion in Fibers

14
Effect of Dispersion

Dispersion causes a pulse to spread out at the fiber output. This spreading is measured in
ps/nm/km. This condition is shown in figure below. This causes errors in decision making of
the electronic detector. The spreading of the optical pulse as it travels along the fiber limits the
information capacity of the fiber; this means that high bit rate of pulses cannot be successfully
communicated without errors.

Optic Fiber Transmission Bands

The ITU has specified six transmission bands for fiber optic transmission.
Band Name Wavelengths Description
O-band 1260 – 1360 nm Original band, PON upstream
E-band 1360 – 1460 nm Water peak band
S-band 1460 – 1530 nm PON downstream
Lowest attenuation, original DWDM band, compatible with
C-band 1530 – 1565 nm
fiber amplifiers, CATV
L-band 1565 – 1625 nm Low attenuation, expanded DWDM band
U-band 1625 – 1675 nm

Fiber Optic cable Connections

15
 The interconnection of optical fibre cables to one another and to other system components is a
critical element in the development of fibre optic systems. The high attenuation of optical cable
connectors and the level of difficulty associated with the installation have received sharp
criticism in the past. However recent improvements in the design of cable connectors have
reduced their attenuation and simplified the procedures for installing them. The quality of cable
connections has a significant impact on light propagation, so care must be taken to minimize the
amount of power loss in the system due to faulty connections.

5.0 Light Sources For Optic Fiber

Visible Light Spectra
1
Sensitivity of
the Eye

0.5

350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 λ (nm)
Violet Indigo Blue Green Yellow Orange Red
Information Signal Used in Optic Fiber
Unlike in wire cables, where the information signal propagates in form of electrical voltage or
current, in optic fiber the information signal is in the form of light.

Light Sources for Optic Fiber

There are two devices commonly used to generate light for optic fiber communication systems.
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) and Injection Laser Diodes (ILDs).

Requirements of Light Source for Optic Fibre Transmission

Light source for optic fiber transmission must overcome attenuation and have very narrow
spectral width to minimize chromatic dispersion. The light source for optic fiber must meet the
following requirements:
1) Monochromatic light source
2) Directional and coherent for ease of launching into fiber
3) Narrow spectral width
4) High intensity light output to be able to propagate far distances
5) Should emit light at wavelengths where fiber has low losses and low dispersion and where
the detectors are efficient.
6) Easy to modulate – the ability for the light to come and come “on” and “off’ in rhythm
with modulating signals.
7) Small and compact and cheap

Light Emission Spectra for typical Light Transmission

16
 Spectral Profile

1300nm spectra

800-900nm spectra

-80 -65 65 nm 80 nm

1. LEDs
An LED is a p-n junction diode, usually made from a semiconductor material. LEDs emit light
spontaneous emission – light emitted as result of recombination of electrons and holes. When
forward biased, minority carriers are injected across the p-n junction. Once across the junction,
these minority carriers recombine with majority carriers and give up energy in form of light. In
LEDs dopant materials are so chosen such that the process is radiative, that is a photon is
produced. A photon is a quantum of electromagnetic wave energy. They are particles that travel
at the speed of light. The energy gap of the material used to construct an LED determines the
colour or the wavelength of light emitted.

A photon of light is emitted as a result of an electron recombining with a hole. The energy
released is a photon, in form of light. Each photon contains an amount of energy which is
related to the corresponding electromagnetic frequency/wavelength by the equation:

E = hf …………………………………………………(i)
where:
E: - is energy in joules
h: - is Plank’s constant (6.625x10-34 Joule-sec)
f: is frequency ( Hz)
f = c
λ …………………………………………………...(ii)
E = qeV ……………………………………………………..(iii)
where: q is electron charge (1.602 x 10-19 C/electron)
eV - is electron volt, the energy level
equating (i) and (iii)
eV = hc 1 = 1.24 (μm)
q λ λ
Example
Semi conductor diodes are made using materials which produce energy band gaps of 1.9eV,
1.46eV and 0.954 eV respectively. Determine the corresponding wavelengths of light emitted.
Soln:
(a) 0.653μm (b) 0.849μm (c) 1.3μm
Homojunction LEDs
The p-n junction of homojunction LEDs are formed from single semiconductor material.
Typical output power of light obtained from them is approximately 2mW (3dBm) at 100mA.
The light is low in power and emitted in all directions.

17
Heterojunction LEDs
The p-n junction of heterojunction LEDs are formed from materials of similar crystalline
structure but different energy levels and refractive indices (eg GaAs, AlGaAs). These
differences confine the carriers and the light to a much smaller area, and provide a more
directional output of light. The layered structure of p-n junctions enhance the effect of light
concentration.

n type GaAs
n type AlGaAs
p type AlGaAs
p type AlGaAs
n type GaAs
p type GaAs

LED s are used as light source for fiber optic are made from gallium arsenide (GaAs) as the
semiconductor base with doping elements such as aluminium, gallium-arsenide-phosphide
(GaAsP). Diodes can be made with a band gap in the range 1.5 – 2.0eV (0.62μm to 0.83μm),
or Aluminium-indium-arsenide(Al InAs) with broad gaps from 0.5 to 1.5ev (0.83μm to 2.5
μm).

Emitting Surfaces

1) Surface Emitting LEDs

light rays Light is radiated from the surface of the LED

The light is:
 Not directional
 Coupling losses are high
 Low power output

2) Edge Emitting LEDs

The edge emitting LED uses an active area
light rays having a stripe geometry. The layers above and
below the stripe have different refractive
indices, hence, confine the carriers , producing
waveguide effect(guiding like in the core of
optic fibers)

18
Advantages of LED's

1) High reliability
2) Better linearity
3) Lower cost

Disadvantages of LEDs
1) Incoherent light
2) Relatively wide spectral width of 30-60 nm
3) Poor light coupling into fibre of only about 1 % of input power (about 100 μW),
eventually launched into the optical fiber.

2. LASER DIODES
Spectral Profile
Intensity

-5 5 nm
Characteristics of Laser Diodes
1) Coherent and directional light, allowing high coupling efficiency (~50 %) into single-
mode fiber.
2) Narrow spectral width
3) A semiconductor laser emits light through stimulated emission rather than spontaneous
emission, which results in high output power (~100 mW) as well as other benefits related
to the nature of coherent light.
4) Easy to modulate

19
Injection Laser Diodes (ILD)

ILDs have a more direct radiation pattern, whose light is easier to couple into an optical fiber.
This reduces coupling losses and allows smaller fibers to be used. ILDs have:

1) Greater output power in the order of 5mW

2) Can be used at higher transmission bit rates than LEDs
3) Generate monochromatic light which reduces chromatic dispersion
4) Narrow spectral width
5) They are expensive
6) Have shorter life span
7) They are more temperature dependant than LEDs

Semiconductor LASER Diodes

Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. Stimulated
emission of the laser is achieved by placing a reflecting surface at each end of the junction zone
of the pn semiconductor.

Construction of a Laser Diode

Before a photon leaves the pn material it will bounce back and forth between the two

Parallel emitted beam

N N

P+ N- Junction zone
Reflecting end surface
reflecting surfaces several times, stimulating more photons which will result in a strong flat
parallel emission of light, easy to couple into fibre.
The construction of an ILD is similar to that of an LED except that the ends are highly polished.
The mirror like ends trap the photons in the active region and as they reflect back and forth,
stimulate free electrons to recombine with holes at a higher than normal energy level. This
process is called lasing.
Light Output Power
The radiant output light of a typical ILD is shown in the figure below. The lasing effect occurs
when the threshold current is reached. At this point the optical power increases rapidly. The
optical output power depends also on temperature.
25oC
Output 8
power
30oC
(mW) 35oC
6

2 threshold current increases with

temperature

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 Drive current (mA)

20
6.0 Light D Etectors
The two most commonly used devices to detect light energy in optic fiber communications
receivers are: the PIN diode and APDs.

PIN Diodes
A PIN diode is a depletion layer photodiode. PIN is an acronym for P-type, I – intrinsic, N –type
semiconductor materials.
Absorption zone

- P I N +

-
+
The intrinsic or very lightly doped semiconductor material is sandwiched between the junction
of the two heavily doped n and p type contact areas. Light enters the device through a very small
window and falls on the intrinsic material which is thick enough to absorb most of the photons
in its valence band. When the photons are absorbed by the electrons in the valence band of the
intrinsic layer, energy is added to generate carriers in the depletion region and allow current to
flow through the device.

To cause current to flow in a photodiode, light of sufficient energy must be absorbed to give
valence electrons enough energy to jump the energy gap. For Si it is 1.12eV.

APDs
An APD is a PIPN structure. The PIPN diode is reverse biased by external power supply. Light
enters the diode and is absorbed by the thin, heavily doped n-layer. A high electric field
intensity developed across the i-p-n junction by reverse bias causes impact ionization to occur.
During impact ionization, a carrier can gain sufficient energy to ionize other bound electrons.

Absorption zone

- P+ I P N- +

These ionized carriers, in turn, cause more ionization to occur. The process continues as in an
avalanche and is, effectively, equivalent to an internal gain or carrier multiplication.
Consequently APDs are more sensitive than PIN diodes.

Disadvantages of APDs
1) Long transit times
2) Noise due to avalanche effect

Characteristics of Light Detectors

21
 1) Responsitivity –is the ratio of the output current of a photodiode to the input optical
power (Amps/Watt)
2) Dark Current – the leakage current that flows through a photodiode when no light input
is applied. Thermally generated carriers in the diode cause dark current
3) Transit Time –is the time it takes a light induced carrier to travel across the depletion
region of a semiconductor. This parameter determines the maximum bit rate to which the
photodiode can respond.
4) Spectral response –is the range of wavelength values that a given photodiode will
respond to.
5) Light sensitivity –is the minimum optical power a light detector can receive and still
produce a usable electrical output signal. Light sensitivity is generally given for a
particular wavelength in either dBm or dBμ.

6.1 Optical Transmitters And Receivers

Optical Transmitters
The main functions of the transmitter are to convert the electrical signal into light and couple it
into the fiber. These functions are accomplished by the lasers and the modulators.

Lasers Types
In telecommunication systems, the Distributed Feedback (DFB) laser and the Fabry-Perot (FP)
laser are the most commonly used lasers.

1. Fabry-Perot Laser (FP)

FP lasers belong to the class of Multiple-Longitudinal Mode (MLM) lasers. As a result, the
spectrum of the emitted laser light has multiple peaks, as shown below.

Multiple-Longitudinal Mode Single-Longitudinal Mode

λ
λ

22
The corresponding spectral line width is quite large, typically around λs = 3 nm. FP lasers
therefore are used primarily at the 1.3-μm wavelength where dispersion in an SMF is low.
Most FP lasers are operated as uncooled lasers, which means that their temperature
is not controlled and can go up to around 85°C. This mode of operation simplifies
the transmitter design and keeps its cost low, but has the drawbacks of varying laser
characteristics and reduced laser reliability.

In data communication systems, such as Gigabit Ethernet, the FP laser and the vertical-cavity
surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) are preferred because of their lower cost.

2. Distributed-Feedback Laser (DFB)

The DFB laser consists of a gain medium, similar to that in the FP laser, with a built-in grating,
which acts as a reflector. The grating can, for example, be implemented by etching a corrugation
near the active layer. In contrast to the facets of the FP laser, the grating provides distributed
feedback and selects only one wavelength for amplification.
DFB lasers belong to the class of Single-Longitudinal Mode (SLM) lasers. The emitted spectrum
of an unmodulated DFB laser has a very narrow line width, typically
λ < 0.001nm (<100MHz).
When the laser is directly modulated, the linewidth broadens because of the AM
sidebands and chirp(shift).

The Distributed Bragg Reflector (DBR) laser is similar to the DFB laser in the sense
that it also operates in a single longitudinal mode, producing a narrow linewidth. In
terms of structure, it looks more like an FP laser, however, with the facets replaced
by wavelength-selective Bragg mirrors (gratings).

DFBDBR lasers are suitable for direct modulation as well as for CW sources followed
by an external modulator. Because of their narrow linewidth, they are ideal for
WDM and DWDM systems.
Unfortunately, the wavelength emitted by a semiconductor laser is slightly temperature
dependent, for example, a variation of 0.1 nm/oC is typical for a DFB laser. Given a DWDM
system with a 0.8-nm wavelength spacing (1 00-GHz grid), the laser temperature must be
controlled precisely. Therefore, many DFBDBR lasers are operated as cooled lasers.
Cooled 2.5-Gb/s DFB laser in a 14-pin
Uncooled 2.5-Gb/s DFB laser in an 8-pin package
butterfly package with single-mode fiber
with single-mode fiber pigtail

23
3. Vertical-Cavity Surface-Emitting Laser.
The VCSEL emits the light perpendicular to the wafer (thin slices) surface rather than at the
edges of the chip (parallel to the wafer surface), as the FP or DFBDBR lasers do. The VCSEL
consists of a gain medium located in a very short vertical cavity (about 1μm) with Bragg mirrors
at the bottom and top. The Bragg mirrors are formed by many layers of alternating high and low
refractive-index material. Because of the short cavity length, the longitudinal modes are spaced
far apart and just one of them has a net optical gain larger than one, thus the VCSEL also
belongs to the class of SLM laser.

VCSELs typically are less powerful than DFBDBR lasers.

The advantage of VCSELs over edge-emitting lasers is that they can be fabricated,
tested, and packaged more easily and at a lower cost.

VCSELs are commercially available at short wavelengths (0.85- μm band) where fiber loss is
appreciably high. Long-wavelength VCSELs are under development. The application of short-
wavelength VCSELs mostly is in data communication systems using multimode fiber (MMF).

MODULATION

The process of superimposing information signal or data onto the laser or LED light is known as
modulation. The modulated ray of light can then be transmitted to the desired destination.

Types of Modulation

24
There are basically two methods used to achieve this. They are direct modulation and external
modulation.
The figure below illustrates two alternative ways to generate a modulated optical signal.
In (a), the laser is turned on and off by the modulating current; this method is known as direct
modulation.
In (b), the laser is “on” at all times, a so-called continuous wave (CW) laser, and the light beam
is modulated with a kind of optoelectronic shutter, or modulator; this method is known as
external modulation.

(a) Direct Modulation

Chirped spectrum
LSM laser
Mod o/p

λ
>B

(b) External Modulation

Mod
CW λ
B

Advantages of Direct Modulation

 simplicity
 compactness,
 cheap

Disadvantages
 Chirped spectrum (shifted up to 1nm)
 Lower bit rate

Advantages of External Modulation

 produces higher-quality optical pulses
 used for long distances (long haul)
 higher bit rates.

Both direct and external modulation can be used to produce NRZ or RZ modulated optical
signals.

25
 7.0 Multiplexing Wavelength
Multiplexing is the method by which multiple analogue information signals or digital data
streams from different sources are combined into one signal and transmitted over a shared
medium.
A device that performs the multiplexing is called a multiplexer (MUX), and a device that
performs the reverse process is called a demultiplexer (DEMUX).

Info1 info 1
Info2 DEMUX info 2
Info3 MUX info 3
Info4 info 4
Info5 single cable info 5

Common Types of Multiplexers

The information signals are combined together in frequency, time or space domains namely:
1) FDM
2) TDM
3) SDM
4) WDM

WDM
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) is the transmission of two or more light wavelengths
through an optic fiber. The optic light of the different wavelengths do not interfere with each
other.
The wavelengths are spaced 1.6nm (200GHz) in optic fibre.

DWDM
Where the wavelengths are spaced closely it is known as Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing (DWDM). The ITU standards recommend a minimum spacing of 0.8nm
(100GHz)wavelength at 1550nm.

1) 1st Generation DWDM systems typically employed up to 8 full duplex channels

multiplexed into a single duplex channel.
2) 2nd Generation DWDM systems employ up to 16 channels
3) 3rd Generation DWDM systems employ up to 32 channels; this is the largest system
currently in commercial production for data communication applications.
4) 4th Generation or Ultra-dense WDM are expected to employ 40 channels or more and
may deviate from the current ITU grid wavelengths, channel spacing as small as 0.4nm.

Fiber Optic Transmission bands

Band Name Wavelengths Description

26
O-band 1260 – 1360 nm Original band, PON upstream
E-band 1360 – 1460 nm Water peak band
S-band 1460 – 1530 nm PON downstream
Lowest attenuation, original DWDM band, compatible with
C-band 1530 – 1565 nm
fiber amplifiers, CATV
L-band 1565 – 1625 nm Low attenuation, expanded DWDM band
U-band 1625 – 1675 nm

IMDD

In optical communications, intensity modulation (IM) is a form of modulation in which the

optical power output of a source is varied in accordance with some characteristic of the
modulating signal. The envelope of the modulated optical signal is an analog of the modulating
signal in the sense that the instantaneous power of the envelope is an analog of the characteristic
of interest in the modulating signal.

Recovery of the modulating signal is usually by direct detection, not heterodyning. However,
optical heterodyne detection is possible.

There are several different schemes for carrying out the modulation function. These are
respectively: Intensity Modulation, Frequency Shift Keying, Phase Shift Keying and
Polarization Modulation. Within the context of a premise fiber optic data link the only one really
employed is Intensity Modulation. This is the only one that will be described.

Intensity Modulation also is referred to as Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) and On-Off Keying
(OOK). This is the simplest method for modulating the carrier generated by the optical source.
The resulting modulated optical carrier is given by:

Es(t) = Eo st )

Within the context of a premises fiber optic data link the modulating signal m (t), the
Information, assumes only the values of '0' and '1.' The parameter 'fs' is the optical carrier
frequency. This is an incoherent modulation scheme. This means that the carrier does not have
to exhibit stability. The demodulation function in the Receiver will just be looking for the
presence or absence of energy during a bit time interval.

Intensity Modulation is employed universally for premises fiber optic data links because it is
well matched to the operation of both LED's and LD's. The carrier that each of these sources
produces is easy to modulate with this technique. Passing current through them operates both of
these devices. The amount of power that they radiate (sometimes referred to as the radiance) is
proportional to this current. In this way the optical power takes the shape of the input current. If
the input current is the waveform m (t) representing the binary information stream then the
resulting optical signal will look like bursts of optical signal when m (t) represents a '1' and the
absence of optical signal when m(t) represents a '0.' The situation is illustrated in Figure 2-11
and Figure 2-12. The first of these figures shows the essential Transmitter circuitry for
modulating either an LED or LD with Intensity Modulation. The second of these figures
illustrates the input current representing the Information and the resulting optical signal
generated and provided to the fiber optic cable.

27
Figure 2-11: Two methods for modulating LEDs or LDs

Figure 2-12: a. Input current representing modulation waveform, m(t); b. Output optical signal
representing m(t). Vertical cross hatches indicate optical carrier

It must be noted that one reason for the popularity of Intensity Modulation is its suitability for
operation with LED's. An LED can only produce incoherent optical power. Since Intensity
Modulation does not require coherence it can be used with an LED.

2.4 Receiver

The Receiver functions are:

sense or detect the light coupled out of the fiber optic cable

convert the light into an electrical signal.

demodulate the signal to determine the data that was transmitted. The light detection is carried
out by a photodiode. This senses light and converts it into an electrical current. However, the
optical signal from the fiber optic cable and the resulting electrical current will have small
amplitudes. Consequently, the photodiode circuitry must be followed by one or more
amplification stages. There may even be filters and equalizers to shape and improve the
Information bearing electrical signal.

28
Example of Receiver block diagram - first stage

Receiver Requirements

High detectability: to detect low level optical signals coming out of the fiber optic cable

High bandwidth: It must have high bandwidth or fast rise time so that it can respond fast
enough and demodulate, high speed, digital data

 Low noise: It must have low noise so that it does not significantly impact the BER of the
link and counter the interference resistance of the fiber optic cable Transmission
Medium.

8.0 Connectors

The Connector is a mechanical device mounted on the end of a fiber optic cable, light
source, Receiver or housing. It allows it to be mated to a similar device. The Transmitter
provides the Information bearing light to the fiber optic cable through a connector. The
Receiver gets the Information bearing light from the fiber optic cable through a connector.
The connector must direct light and collect light. It must also be easily attached and
detached from equipment. This is a key point. The connector is disconnectable. With this
feature it is different than a splice which will be discussed in the next sub-chapter.

Terminating fiber-optic cable is not as easy as in Cu wire

 Fiber-optic terminations require expensive eqpt with specialized training

 Care must be taken for ends to be cleanly cut and scratch-free

 This is not an easy task, especially for new technicians

29
Color code for fiber-optic

• Fiber color-coding is specified in TIA/EIA 598-A

• Each individual fiber is given its own color

• The color sequence is same as the Ring followed by Tip sequence, then two more, rose
for 11 and aqua for 12 are added

• If the cable has more than 12 fibers, a black tracer is added; thus fiber 13 is blue/black,
fiber 14 is orange/black

• For fiber 20 the main color is black, and so is the tracer.

• Jacket colors identify the type of fiber cable

• single-mode: yellow

• multimode: orange

Jumpers and patch cables

• Jumpers interconnect electronic equipment to the fiber-optic cable

• Patch cables interconnect one cable to another

• Jumpers may be duplex

30
 • Duplex: 2 fibers are used in the fiber-optic jumper (TX &RX)

• Simplex patch cables interconnect fibers from different cables to one another.

Connector Types

Connectors come in single-mode and multimode varieties

Basic types of fiber-optic connectors:

Subscriber Channel (SC), Straight Tip (ST), Fiber Channel (FC), and small form
factor connectors

• Care should be taken when handling fiber-optic connectors (dirt & scratch)

• When not in use, the ends should be covered

SC connectors ST connectors

• Uses push-pull connect and disconnect

method
• Is fully inserted into the
• The body of the connector is square, with receptacle, then twisted in a
guides so that the connector can be inserted clockwise direction to lock in
in one way only place

• Ceramic ferrule (shaft) protects against wear • A spring within the connector
and tear keeps constant and uniform
pressure on the connector
• The SC connector is the preferred connector
to use according to the standards • Use a ceramic ferrule for
durability and precision
alignment

• Standards allow the use of ST

connectors when the existing
infrastructure incorporates ST
connectors

FC connectors MT-RJ Connector

31
  FC fiber-optic connectors are similar in MT-RJ - The MT-RJ is a small form
design to the SC and the ST factor, duplex fiber-optic connector
 The receptacle and connector are keyed to • The general application of the
ensure that it is inserted in only one way MT-RJ is a wall outlet in a
workstation area
 The connector is inserted into the receptacle
and a threaded collar is tightened to complete
and secure the connections

MTP - MTP connectors, provide

reliable high performance interconnects
of up to 12 fibers.

• SC connectors

Common connectors for glass fiber optic cable (Courtesy of AMP Incorporated)

32
Plastic Fiber Optic Cable Connectors - Connectors that are exclusively used for plastic fiber
optic cable stress very low cost and easy application. Often used in applications with no
polishing or epoxy. Figure 2-16 illustrates such a connector. Connectors for plastic fiber optic
cable include both proprietary designs and standard designs. Connectors used for glass fiber
optic cable, such as ST or SMA are also available for use with plastic fiber optic cable. As
plastic fiber optic cable gains in popularity in the data communications world there will be
undoubtedly greater standardization.

Plastic fiber optic cable connector (Illustration courtesy of AMP Incorporated)

Splicing

A splice is a device to connect one fiber optic cable to another permanently. It is the attribute of
permanence that distinguishes a splice from connectors. Nonetheless, some vendors offer splices
that can be disconnected that are not permanent so that they can be disconnected for repairs or
rearrangements. The terminology can get confusing.

Fiber optic cables may have to be spliced together for any of a number of reasons.

One reason is to realize a link of a particular length. The network installer may have in his

33
inventory several fiber optic cables but, none long enough to satisfy the required link length.
This may easily arise since cable manufacturers offer cables in limited lengths - usually 1 to 6
km. If a link of 10 km has to be installed this can be done by splicing several together. The
installer may then satisfy the distance requirement and not have to buy a new fiber optic cable.

Splices may be required at building entrances, wiring closets, couplers and literally any
intermediary point between Transmitter and Receiver.

At first glance you may think that splicing two fiber optic cables together is like connecting two
wires. To the contrary, the requirements for a fiber-optic connection and a wire connection are
very different.

connecting two fiber optic cables requires precise alignment of the mated fiber cores or spots in
a single-mode fiber optic cable. This is demanded so that nearly all of the light is coupled from
one fiber optic cable across a junction to the other fiber optic cable. Actual contact between the
fiber optic cables is not even mandatory. The need for precise alignment creates a challenge to a
designer of a splice.

There are two principal types of splices:

fusion and mechanical.

Fusion splices - uses an electric arc to weld two fiber optic cables together. The splices offer
sophisticated, computer controlled alignment of fiber optic cables to achieve losses as low as
0.05 dB. This comes at a high cost.

Mechanical-splices all share common elements. They are easily applied in the field, require little
or no tooling and offer losses of about 0.2 dB.

Analyzing Performance of a Link

You have a tentative design for a fiber optic data link of the type that is being dealt with in this
chapter, the type illustrated in Figure 2-1. You want to know whether this tentative design will
satisfy your performance requirements.

You characterize your performance requirements by BER. This generally depends upon the
specific Source-User application. This could be as high as 10-3 for applications like digitized
voice or as low as 10-10 for scientific data. The tendency though has been to require lower and
lower BERs.

The question then is will the tentative fiber optic link design provide the required BER? The
answer to this question hinges on the sensitivity of the Receiver that you have chosen for your
fiber optic data link design. This indicates how much received optical power must appear at the
Receiver in order to deliver the required BER.

To determine whether your tentative fiber optic link design can meet the sensitivity you must
analyze it. You must determine how much power does reach the Receiver. This is done with a
fiber optic data link power budget.

A power budget for a particular example is presented in Table 2-2 below and is then discussed.
This example corresponds to the design of a fiber optic data link with the following attributes:

34
 1. Data Rate of 50 MBPS.
2. BER of 10-9.
3. Link length of 5 km (premises distances).
4. Multi-mode, step index, glass fiber optic cable having dimensions 62.5/125.Transmitter
uses LED at 850 nm.
5. Receiver uses PIN and has sensitivity of -40 dBm at 50 MBPS.
6. Fiber optic cable has 1 splice.

LINK ELEMENT VALUE COMMENTS

Transmitter LED output power 3 dBm Specified value by vendor
Source coupling loss -5 dB Accounts for reflections, area mismatch etc.
Transmitter to fiber optic cable Transmitter to fiber optic cable with ST connector.
-1 dB
connector loss Loss accounts for misalignment
Splice loss -0.25 dB Mechanical splice
Fiber Optic Cable Attenuation -20 dB Line 2 of Table 2-1 applied to 5 km
Fiber optic cable to receiver Fiber optic cable to Receiver with ST connector. Loss
-1 dB
connector loss Accounts for misalignment
Optical Power Delivered at -24.25
Receiver dB
Receiver Sensitivity -40 dBm Specified in link design. Consistent with Figure 2-14
LOSS MARGIN 15.75 dB

Table 2-2: Example Power Budget for a fiber optic data link

The entries in Table 2-2 are more or less self-explanatory. Clearly, the optical power at the
Receiver is greater than that required by the sensitivity of the PIN to give the required BER.
What is important to note is the entry termed Loss Margin? This specifies the amount by which
the received optical power exceeds the required sensitivity. In this example it is 15.75 dB. Good
design practice requires it to be at least 10 dB. Why? Because no matter how careful the power
budget is put together, entries are always forgotten, are too optimistic or vendor specifications
are not accurate.

9.0 Considerations for Optical Fiber Termination

AEN 89, Revision 3

Introduction
Current telecommunications systems are transmitting greater amounts of information at
faster and faster speeds. Optical fiber cables and high-precision connectors are integral and
necessary components of these systems. After appropriate optical fiber cables have been selected

35
for a system, the appropriate connector and termination method must be selected in order to
meet system requirements such as insertion loss and return loss. This Applications Engineering
Note explains how different optical fiber termination methods impact the optical performance of
telecommunications systems.

Optical Fiber System Insertion Loss

Optical fiber cabling systems support various communications technologies that use digital as
well as analog signaling. Gigabit Ethernet (GbE), which is typically a baseband local area
networking (LAN) technology, uses digital signaling. Community access television (CATV),
which is a broadband video application, often uses analog signaling. Regardless of signaling
method, the communications hardware has a specification for maximum channel insertion loss
measured in units of decibels (dB). Optical fiber channel insertion loss is the decrease in optical
power that occurs when an active transmitter is linked to an active receiver via terminated,
optical fiber cables and patch cords and may include splice points and optical couplers.

In general, loss is the natural decay of a signal that propagates through a distance of any medium
(i.e., optical fiber cabling, copper cabling or air) and is a function of propagation distance
through the medium as well as through interfaces that impede the propagation of the signal (e.g.,
connectors, splices or couplers). The quality of optical fiber link terminations directly affects
channel insertion loss. Poor quality terminations cause an increase in loss while high-
performance terminations produce less loss. If the insertion loss of an optical fiber channel is
less than the maximum channel insertion loss specification, then the system will not fail due to
excessive insertion loss (provided the maximum channel length is not exceeded). The industry
standard TIA/EIA-568-B.3, “Optical Fiber Connector Performance Specifications” specifies
maximum connector insertion loss to be 0.75 dB. However, high performance connectors can be
routinely installed with average insertion loss 0.5 dB.

Optical Fiber System Return Loss

Return loss is the power of the optical signal that returns towards the optical source against the
direction of signal propagation. System contributors to return loss are Fresnel reflections

-END-

Detailed Course Description:

 Structure of Optical fibre cable: Core, Clad, strength members, Snell’s laws , Total Internal
Reflection, Light propagation, Multimode and Single mode, Attenuation Characteristics,
Power loss, Minimum bending radius, Dispersion and ISI, Explain how dispersion can be
controlled. [6hours L, 2hours P]
 Photo Detection: Electromagnetic spectrum, Coherent and non-coherent light sources, PIN
photodiode, APDs, construction and operation, Single mode and multimode photodectors,

36
 Conversion form electrical to light, commonly used photo detectors. [8hours L, 2hours
P]

 Optic Fibre Networks: Bandwidth, Classification of Networks, Generations of Optic Fibre,

Modulation, IMDD modulation, modulation bandwidth, Def of chirp and its significance,
External modulator and electro-absorption modulator, Multiplexing and Demultiplexing,
Transmission codes, Key features of 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation opti fibre networks. [8hours
L, 4hours P]

 Optical transmission: Optical transmitters, Lasers, MLM,and SLM lasers, construction and
operation, Modulators, Dense Wavelentgh Division Multiplexing, Limits in Optical
Communication. [10hoursL,4 hoursP]

 Installation and Maintenance: Network planning, Link Loss Budget, Safety Measures, Tools,
components and splicing equipment, Documentation, Cable laying, Testing; continuity,
attenuation, Locating faults, OTDR. [10hours L, 8hours P]

 Optical Devices: PIN diodes and APDs, Connectors, MUX and DMUX, Optical, amplifiers,
Modulators, Switches, ICs and amplifiers. [10hoursL,3 hoursP]

Mode of Delivery
Course should be taught by lectures, presentations, practical laboratory exercises and discussions

Assessment
The course is assessed by assignment, tests and final examination whose contributions are:

Requirements: Contribution
Coursework 40%
Final Examination 60%
Total 100%

References:
(i) Jim Hayes Fiber; (November 7, 2000); Optics Technician’s manual 2nd Ed; Delmar
Cengage Learning; ISBN-10: 076681825X
(ii) Eduard Sackinger; (March 11, 2005); Optic Fibre Communication 1st ed;
Wiley-Interscience; ISBN-10: 0471712337

37