Advanced Metal Cutting Technology (MAT-514) – 2013E.C –Y.

Advanced Metal Cutting Technology

Unit – Three
Tool wear, Tool life and Cutting fluids

3.1 Introduction

In the manufacture of metallic components using conventional machine tools,

cutter tool wear, its effects on surface finish and cutter tool failure provide major
limitations to the achievement of economic production. When tool no longer performs
desired function, it means the tool failed. Then, if possible, re-sharpen and use it again.
Modern tools hardly fail prematurely or abruptly by mechanical breakage or rapid plastic
deformation.

The time period between two consecutive re-sharpening, with which the tool cuts the
material effectively is interpreted as tool life. Tool life, generally, indicates the amount of
satisfactory performance or service rendered by a fresh tool till it is declared failed. Tool
life is related to the actual machining time by which a fresh cutting tool [or point]
satisfactorily works after which, it needs reconditioning or replacement. Tool life is
important factor in production work since considerable time is lost whenever a tool is re-
sharpened and reset on the machine.

Those fail mostly by wearing processes which systematically grows slowly with the
machining time. In that case, tool life means the span of actual machining time by which
a fresh tool can work before attaining the specific limit of tool wear. Tool wear is the
gradual failure of cutting tools due to regular operation. Tools affected include tipped
tools, tool bits, and drill bits that are used with machine tools.

3.2 Tool wear

The life of a cutting tool can be terminated by a number of means, although they fall
broadly into two main categories:

Gradual wearing of certain regions of the face and flank of the cutting tool, and abrupt
tool failure. Considering the more desirable case, the life of a cutting tool is therefore
determined by the amount of wear that has occurred on the tool profile and which reduces
the efficiency of cutting to an unacceptable level, or eventually causes tool failure. When

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the tool wear reaches an initially accepted amount, there are two options, to re-sharpen
the tool on a tool grinder, or to replace the tool with a new one. This second possibility
applies in two cases, when the resource for tool re-sharpening is exhausted. Or the tool
does not allow for re-sharpening, e.g. in case of the indexable carbide inserts.

Wear may be classified into several types as follows:

1. Attritions (small particle) wear associated with adhesion, prow formation and shear
plane ends

2. Abrasive wear (due to the cutting action of hard particles)

3. Erosive wear (cutting action of particles in a fluid)

4. Diffusion wear at high surface temperatures

5. Corrosive wear (due to chemical attack of a surface)

6. Fracture wear (chipping of brittle surfaces)

Practical wear situations rarely involve only one of these types of wear and there are
important interactions.

Wear zones

Gradual wear occurs at three principal locations on a cutting tool. Accordingly, three
main types of tool wear can be distinguished, Crater wear, Flank wear, Corner wear

Crater wear: consists of a concave section on the tool face formed by the action of the
chip sliding on the surface. Crater wear affects the mechanics of the process increasing
the actual rake angle of the cutting tool and consequently, making cutting easier. At the
same time, the crater wear weakens the tool wedge and increases the possibility for tool
breakage. In general, crater wear is of a relatively small concern.

Flank wear: occurs on the tool flank as a result of friction between the machined surface
of the workpiece and the tool flank. Flank wear appears in the form of so-called wear
land and is measured by the width of this wear land, VB, Flank wear affects to the great
extend the mechanics of cutting. Cutting forces increase significantly with flank wear. If
the amount of flank wear exceeds some critical value (VB > 0.5~0.6 mm), the excessive
cutting force may cause tool failure.

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Corner wear: occurs on the tool corner. Can be considered as a part of the wear land and
respectively flank wear since there is no distinguished boundary between the corner wear
and flank wear land. We consider corner wear as a separate wear type because of its
importance for the precision of machining. Corner wear actually shortens the cutting tool
thus increasing gradually the dimension of machined surface and introducing a
significant dimensional error in machining, which can reach values of about 0.03~0.05
mm.

Figure 3.1 Diagram of worn cutting tool, showing the principal locations and types of
wear that occur

Some general effects of tool wear include:

Increased cutting forces

Increased cutting temperatures
Poor surface finish
Decreased accuracy of finished part
May lead to tool breakage
Causes change in tool geometry

Reduction in tool wear can be accomplished by using lubricants and coolants while
machining. These reduce friction and temperatures, thus reducing the tool wear. Tool life

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 Advanced Metal Cutting Technology (MAT-514) – 2013E.C –Y.Z

excludes the following points: (i) removing, (ii) regrinding and (iii) resetting. If
somehow, we can manage to reduce the time for the above three operations, we can
increase the productive time.

Parameters, which affect the rate of tool wear, are:-

Cutting conditions (cutting speed V, feed f, depth of cut d)

Cutting tool geometry (tool orthogonal rake angle)
Properties of work material

3.3 Tool life

Tool wear is a time dependent process. As cutting proceeds, the amount of tool
wear increases gradually. But tool wear must not be allowed to go beyond a certain limit
in order to avoid tool failure. The most important wear type from the process point of
view is the flank wear; therefore the parameter which has to be controlled is the width of
flank wear land, VB. This parameter must not exceed an initially set safe limit, which is
about 0.4 mm for carbide cutting tools. The cutting time required for the cutting tool to
develop a flank wear land of width is called tool life, T, a fundamental parameter in
machining.

3.3.1 Taylor’s Equation

In 1907, F. W. Taylor developed relation between tool life and cutting speed and
temperature, by keeping feed as constant. The Taylor’s Equation for Tool Life
Expectancy provides a good approximation, as follows:

Where:-

VC = Cutting speed (m/min)

TL = Tool life (min)

n = Taylor’s tool life exponent. It depends on tool and work material combination and
cutting conditions (the tool-work materials and the cutting environment, cutting
fluid application).

o For High Speed Steel (HSS), n = 0.08 - 0.2

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o Cast alloys, n = 0.1 - 0.15

o For uncoated hard metal (carbides), n = 0,2 - 0.5
o For coated hard metal, n = 0.4 - 0.6
o For ceramics, n = 0.5 - 0.7

C = Machining constant that depends on properties of tool material, work piece, feed
rate and the cutting environment (cutting fluid application). C is found by
experimentation or published data
data-book.

If T = 1 min, then C = VC

So, the constant C can be interpreted physically as the cutting speed for which the tool
life is equal to one min.. The tool life equation can be represented on log-log
log paper; it
becomes straight line as shown in Fig. 3.2. When the cutting speed increases, the tool life
decreases. This criterion is valid for all types of cutting tools materials, as can be seen in
Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2. Tool Life plots for various tool materials

Table 3.1 shows common values of n and C for different tool and work material
combinations. Also, assuming that for invariable conditions (tool material, work piece,
feed rate and the cutting environment) in Taylor’s equation for given cutting tool C =
Constant andd n = constant, then

VC1T1n = VC2T2n = VC3T3n = … = C.

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Table 3.1: Typical n & C values for different tool and work material combinations

Work material Tool material n C

HSS 0.125 120
Non-steel work
Cemented Carbide 0.25 Up to 900
HSS 0.1 ‒ 0.16 110 ‒ 150
Steel Cemented Carbide 0.18 ‒ 0.22 250 ‒ 500
Ceramic 0.4 ‒ 0.5 Up to 3000
HSS 0.08 ‒ 0.1 100 ‒ 180
Cast Iron Cemented Carbide 0.2 ‒ 0.28 250 ‒ 325
Ceramic 0.45 ‒ 0.6 Up to 3000

3.3.2 Limitations of Taylor’s Equation for Tool Life expectancy

From the analysis made above, it is clear that Taylor’s tool life equation does not
account for feed (f), depth of cut (d) and tool geometry (Rake Angle). In Taylor’s tool life
equation, only the effect of variation of cutting velocity (VC) on tool life is considered,
what implies some constrains when calculating tool life expectancy.

But practically the variation in feed and depth of cut and work piece material also play
some role in tool life in some extent. Consequently, Taylor’s Equation for Tool Life
expectancy is mostly used to estimate the tool life when other influencing parameters
such as feed and depth rate, cutting environment and work piece material are
considered as invariables.

Also, because tool wear is related to the total chip area that passes across the tool face, it
is more advantageous to express tool life in terms of the volume of metal removed, but
expressing the tool life in minutes has the advantage in computing machining costs.

Example 3.1

When machining carbon steel with T-grade HSS, tool life of 50 min was observed for a
cutting speed of 100 m/min. Determine general Taylor’s tool life equation for these tool.

Answer: Given: -  VC = 100 m/min, TL = 50 min, n = ???

But since the tool used is HSS tungsten-based, let’s assume n = 0.09

Taylor’s equation: VCTn = C

Required: Taylor’s tool life equation using the given conditions

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Solution

Taking the log10 in both sides: log (VC) + log (TLn) = log (C)

Then substituting each parameter with its value: log (100) + log (500.09) = log (C)

Applying log properties: log (100) + 0.09 log (50) = log (C)

Solving and grouping: 2 + 0.09 (1.69897) = log (C) or log (C) = 2.152907

Applying log properties again: 102.152907 = C => C = 142.2

Hence, General Taylor’s tool life equation is: VCTL0.09 = 142.2

3.3.3 Modified Taylor’s Equation

It is clear that the cutting speed has the highest effect on tool life followed by feed and
depth of cut, respectively. As cutting speed increases, the cutting temperature increases,
and tool life decreases. To allow for a better tool life estimation, a number of suggested
extensions to the Taylor’s equation have been published.

Taking in consideration the effects of all those parameters, the Taylor’s tool life equation
has been modified as:

= =( )

Where: - TL = Tool life (min)

CT = A constant depending mainly on the tool-work materials and tool geometry

VC = Cutting speed (m/min)

f = Feed rate (mm/min)

d = Depth of cut (mm)

n, m and p = Tool Life exponents (depend upon the tool-work materials and the
machining environment)

The values of constants CT, n, m and p are available in Machining Data Handbooks or
can be evaluated by machining tests.

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Furthermore, because of the property of CT being constant, the modified Taylor’s

equation also applies for:

= = =⋯= !

Example 3.2

For a turning operation using a ceramic cutting tool, if the speed is increased by 50%, by
what factor must the feed rate be modified to obtain a constant tool life if the depth of cut
is also kept constant? Use n = 0.5 and m = 0.6.

Answer: Given: - V2 = V1 + 0.5V1 = 1.5 V1

 TL = constant, what is: TL1 = TL2

 d1 = d2,  n = 0.5,  m = 0.6

 Modified Taylor’s equation: =

"
Required: The feed rate modification factor,
#

Solution

Considering the given conditions the modified Taylor’s equation may be written as:

# # # # = " " " " =

Since # = " # = ", # # =% " "

Grouping: #
= ( " ) => #
= ( " )'.)
" # " #

Because " = #. * # +,- #

= ( " )'.)
#.* # #

#
Solving: ( " )'.) = #.*
#

#
"
= (#. *).'.)
#

" "
= '. *'/ Converting into percent: = '. *'/ × #''%,
# #

"
= *'. /%
#

Hence, feed must be modified by a factor of 50.9%

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3.4 Cutting fluids

Cutting fluid (coolant) is any liquid or gas that is applied to the chip and/or cutting tool to
improve cutting performance. Cutting fluids address two main problems: (1) heat
generation at the shear zone and friction zone, and (2) friction at the tool–chip and tool–
work interfaces. A very few cutting operations are performed dry, i.e., without the
application of cutting fluids. Generally, it is essential that cutting fluids be applied to all
machining operations.

Cutting fluids serve three principle functions:

To remove heat in cutting: the effective cooling action of the cutting fluid depends on
the method of application, type of the cutting fluid, the fluid flow rate and pressure. The
most effective cooling is provided by mist application combined with flooding.
Application of fluids to the tool flank, especially under pressure, ensures better cooling
that typical application to the chip but is less convenient.

To lubricate the chip-tool interface: cutting fluids penetrate the tool-chip interface
improving lubrication between the chip and tool and reducing the friction forces and
temperatures.

To wash away chips: this action is applicable to small, discontinuous chips only. Special
devices are subsequently needed to separate chips from cutting fluids.

Figure 3.3 Schematic illustrations of the proper methods of applying cutting fluids
(flooding) in various machining operations: (a) turning, (b) milling, (c) thread grinding,
and (d) drilling.

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3.4.1 Methods of application

Manual application: - Application of a fluid from a can manually by the operator. It is

not acceptable even in job-shop situations except for tapping and some other operations
where cutting speeds are very low and friction is a problem. In this case, cutting fluids are
used as lubricants.

Flooding: - In flooding, a steady stream of fluid is directed at the chip or tool-workpiece

interface. Most machine tools are equipped with a re-circulating system that incorporates
filters for cleaning of cutting fluids. Cutting fluids are applied to the chip although better
cooling is obtained by applying it to the flank face under pressure

Coolant-fed tooling:- Some tools, especially drills for deep drilling, are provided with
axial holes through the body of the tool so that the cutting fluid can be pumped directly to
the tool cutting edge.

Mist applications: - Fluid droplets suspended in air provide effective cooling by

evaporation of the fluid. Mist application in general is not as effective as flooding, but
can deliver cutting fluid to inaccessible areas that cannot be reached by conventional
flooding.

3.4.2 Types of cutting fluid

Cutting Oils: - Cutting oils are cutting fluids based on mineral or fatty oil mixtures.
Chemical additives like sulphur improve oil lubricant capabilities. Areas of application
depend on the properties of the particular oil but commonly, cutting oils are used for
heavy cutting operations on tough steels.

Soluble Oils:- The most common, cheap and effective form of cutting fluids consisting
of oil droplets suspended in water in a typical ratio water to oil 30:1. Emulsifying agents
are also added to promote stability of emulsion. For heavy-duty work, extreme pressure
additives are used. Oil emulsions are typically used for aluminum and cooper alloys.

Chemical fluids: - These cutting fluids consist of chemical diluted in water. They
possess good flushing and cooling abilities. Tend to form more stable emulsions but may
have harmful effects to the skin.

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3.4.3 Environmental issues

Cutting fluids become contaminated with garbage, small chips, bacteria, etc., over time.
Alternative ways of dealing with the problem of contamination are:

Replace the cutting fluid at least twice per month,

Machine without cutting fluids (dry cutting),
Use a filtration system to continuously clean the cutting fluid.

Disposed cutting fluids must be collected and reclaimed. There are a number of methods
of reclaiming cutting fluids removed from working area. Systems used range from simple
settlement tanks to complex filtration and purification systems. Chips are emptied from
the skips into a pulverizer and progress to centrifugal separators to become a scrap
material. Neat oil after separation can be processed and returned, after cleaning and
sterilizing to destroy bacteria.

3.5 Machinability

Machinability is a term indicating how the work material responds to the cutting process.
In the most general case good machinability means that material is cut with good surface
finish, long tool life, low force and power requirements, and low cost.

Machinability of different materials

Steels Leaded steels: lead acts as a solid lubricant in cutting to improve considerably
machinability.

Resulphurized steels: sulphur forms inclusions that act as stress raisers in the chip
formation zone thus increasing machinability.

Difficult-to-cut steels: a group of steels of low machinability, such as stainless steels,

high manganese steels, precipitation-hardening steels.

Other metals

Aluminum: easy-to-cut material except for some cast aluminum alloys with silicon
content that may be abrasive.

Cast iron: gray cast iron is generally easy-to-cut material, but some modifications and
alloys are abrasive or very hard and may cause various problems in cutting.

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Cooper-based alloys: easy to machine metals. Bronzes are more difficult to machine than
brass.

Selection of cutting conditions

For each machining operation, a proper set of cutting conditions must be selected during
the process planning. Decision must be made about all three elements of cutting
conditions,

Depth of cut
Feed
Cutting speed

There are two types of machining operations:

Roughing operations: the primary objective of any roughing operation is to remove as

much as possible material from the work piece for as short as possible machining time. In
roughing operation, quality of machining is of a minor concern.

Finishing operations: the purpose of a finishing operation is to achieve the final shape,
dimensional precision, and surface finish of the machined part. Here, the quality is of
major importance. Selection of cutting conditions is made with respect to the type of
machining operation. Cutting conditions should be decided in the order depth of cut -
feed - cutting speed.

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