ANCIENT EGYPTIAN GODS

Aker
The double lion god, guardian of the sunrise and sunset. Guardian of the peaks that
supported the sky.

Am-heh
Egyptian chthonic underworld god

Amun
"The Hidden One." An Egyptian sky god who evolved into a sun god and the head of the
Egyptian pantheon. Originally a local god of Khmun and then of Thebes. Amun's cult rose
in prominence as Thebes rose in status. In the New Kingdom he became combined with
the Heliopolitan sun god Ra as Amun-Ra, in which form he was the "king of the gods" and
the tutelary deity of the Pharaohs. The Pharaohs, who had been considered "sons of Ra",
thus came to be regarded as incarnations of Amun-Ra. Amun took on the role of a
primeval deity and creator in the cosmology of the New Kingdom, creating earth and sky
out of his thought. By Dynasty XVIII Amun was the "King of the Gods." Karnak was his
most famous temple. The temple is the largest religious structure ever built by man.
Amun sometimes appears as a protector of any devotee in need.

Amun was a member of the Ogdoad, paired with the goddess Amaunet. They represented
hidden power. He was also a member of the Theban triad, where he was the husband of
Mut and adoptive father of Khons. Amun was depicted in human form, with blue skin and
either the head of a bearded man or a ram's head with curved horns. He wore a crown
composed of a modius surmounted by two tall feather plumes. He was sometimes
depicted in ithyphallic form with an oversized erect penis. His true appearance was
considered beyond human understanding. Amun was said to be "hidden of aspect,
mysterious of form", invisible yet omnipresent throughout the cosmos. His sacred animals
were the ram and the goose. His primary sanctuaries were at Karnak and Luxor near
Thebes. Amun and his influential Theban priests suffered a temporary eclipse during the
reign of Akhenaten, who tried to impose a monotheistic worship of Aten. The cult of Amun
revived soon after Akhenaten's death. It was not until the sack of Thebes by the Assyrians
in 663 BC that Amun was reduced to mere local importance. As Ammon, however, he had
an oracle at the Siwa Oasis in the western desert that remained prominent at least until
the time of Alexander the Great, who visited the oracle.

Amun-Re ( Amon-Ra )
A combination of Amun and Ra worshipped in later Egyptian history. Under this name, the
Theban god Amun became the national god of Egypt. Pharaohs considered themselves to
be sons of Amun-Ra. Displaced during Akhenaten's rule, he was restored to full power
afterwards.

Andjety ( Anezti, Anedjti )

Egyptian underworld god. Andjety was responsible for the rebirth of the individual in the
afterlife. He wore a high conical crown surmounted by two feather plumes, and bore the
crook and flail. Andjety was associated with Osiris, whose symbols were also the crook
and flail, as well as the atef crown, which resembled that worn by Andjety. His worship
originated in the ninth Nome of Lower Egypt. Both Osiris and him had their main cult
center at Busiris.

Anezti ( Anedjti )
A god of the ninth Nome of Lower Egypt.
Anhur ( Anhert, Anhuret, Greek Onuris )
Egyptian warrior and hunter god. His consort was the lion goddess Mekhit. He was
depicted as a bearded warrior wearing a long robe and a headdress with four tall plumes,
often bearing a spear. Mekhit is often shown accompanying him. Anhur was the champion
of Egypt who hunted and slew the enemies of Ra. Occasionally equated with the god Shu
and with Ares by the Ptolemaic Greeks. Anhur was the Divine Huntsman. His cult
originated in the Upper Egyptian city of Thinis (This), near Abydos, but his main cult
center was at Sebennytos in the Nile Delta.

Anti
An Egyptian guardian deity. Depicted as a falcon or with a falcon's head, often standing
on a crescent-shaped boat.

Anubis (Greek; Egyptian: Anup)

An Egyptian god of the dead. Also known as Khenty-Imentiu - "Chief of the Westerners" -
a reference to the belief that the realm of the dead lay to the west and a association with
the setting sun and the Egyptian custom of building cemeteries on the west bank of the
Nile. He was represented as a black jackal/dog or as a man with the head of a jackal/dog.
His father was normally given as Ra, while is mother was sometimes Nephthys or Isis.

After the early period of the Old Kingdom, he was replaced by Osiris as god of the dead
and was demoted to a supporting role as a god of the funeral cult and the care of the
dead. His black color represented the color of human corpses after they had undergone
the embalming process. In the Book of the Dead, he was depicted as presiding over the
weighing of the heart of the deceased, in the Hall of the Two Truths. As god of the care of
the dead, he was referred to as the "conductor of souls." Because of this title the Greeks
later identified him with Hermes. The two were merged to form the deity Hermanubis.
Anubis' principal sanctuary was at the necropolis in Memphis as well as other cities.

Apedemak
A Nubian Lion god.

Apis ( Greek form; Egyptian Hapi, Hape)

Egyptian bull god of Memphis. Originally a form the god Hapi, he was later regarded as
the living embodiment of the god Ptah. Apis was supposedly conceived after a flash of
lightning struck Isis. When he, the Apis Bull, died it was said that he became/entered the
god Osiris. Based on distinguishing marks, a black and white bull was selected to
represent Apis. It must be all black save for a white triangular patch on the forehead.
Omens were derived by it's behavior. After a Apis bull died, it was mummified and buried
with much ceremony at Sakkarah in an underground tomb known to the Greeks as the
Serapeum, afterwards, his priests searched for a calf with the appropriate markings
which indicated that it was his successor. The Pharaohs were closely associated with the
Apis bull. They partook of it's strength and fertility in life and aided in their ascent to the
sun god after death. The Apis bull was depicted with the solar disk between its horns and
also bearing the uraeus (cobra amulet) on its head.

Apophis ( Apepi, Apep )

Egyptian snake god and personified darkness, evil and the forces of chaos. Apophis was
the eternal enemy of Ra and cosmic order. Each night he did battle with Ra on his journey
through the underworld on the barque of the sun, and each night Ra triumphed to be
reborn at dawn in the east. Often the god Set or the serpent Mehen was the one who
defended Ra and the solar barque from Apophis. During an eclipse it was said that
Apophis had gained a temporary victory however, Ra always triumphed in the end. In one
account, it was said that Ra gained a permanent victory over Apophis when he cut up and
burned Apophis' body.
Aten
Name of the god who gained its prominence during the reign of Akhenaten. Akhenaten
abolished the traditional cults of Egypt in favor of the Aten. A sun with multiple arms
holding/offering Ankh, was the Aten's representation. This was the first monotheistic cult
in the world.

Atum
The primeval sun god and creator of the world. He represents the setting sun. Later he
was combined with Re as the god Atum-Re. According to the myths, he was the first
substance (a hill) who emerged from the primeval waters. Atum created the deities Shu
and Tefnut from his spittle or from his semen in the act of masturbation.

His main cult center was at Heliopolis, where he was the head of the Ennead cult. The
black bull Mnewer, who bore the sun disk and uraeus between its horns, was his
representation. As the father of the pharaoh, he played an important part in the
coronation rites. Atum was shown as old man symbolizing the setting sun, a scarab, a
snake, and a mangust (pharaoh hat). His sacred animals were the bull, the snake, lizard,
lion and ichneumon.

In the Memphite creation myth Atum was conceived in the heart of Ptah and was created
by his word. "He who completes, or perfects."
 

B
Ba
Early ram god of Mendes in Lower Egypt. He was a fertility deity whom women
worshipped in the hope that he would aid them in conceiving children.

Babi
Egyptian demonic god. Depicted as a baboon with an erect penis. Babi was both a
dangerous god, but was also associated with sexual prowess in the afterlife. As a demonic
god he was said to live on human entrails. He is mentioned in the Books of the Dead
where he attends the ceremony of the Weighing of the Heart in the Hall of the Two
Truths. He waits with Ammut to devour the souls of those found unworthy. His penis was
depicted being employed as the mast of the underworld ferry.

Banebdjedet ( Ba Neb Tetet, Banebdedet, Baneb Djedet, Banaded )

Ram god of Lower Egypt. His consort was the fish goddess Hatmehyt. He was the father
of Harpokrates. In one tradition, he interceded in the contest between Horus and Set for
the Egyptian throne. Banebdejedet advised the gods to consult the goddess Neith. Neith
advised the gods to award the throne to Horus. In this account, he was said to reside on
the island of Seheil near the first cataract of the Nile at Aswan, but generally his cult was
centered on Mendes in the Nile Delta. He was depicted with the head of a ram.

Ba-Pef
"That Soul." Minor Egyptian god of malevolent aspect.

Behedti
Egyptian god in the form of a crouching falcon. Worshipped at Behdet (Edfu), he later was
identified as a local form of the god Horus.

Benu
A bird-like sun god. Linked with Atum, the better known sun god of Heliopolis. He was
said to have been self-created from the primeval ocean.
Bes (Bisu)
Dwarf god who guarded against evil spirits and misfortune. Unlike the other Egyptian
deities, who were usually depicted in profile, Bes was depicted full face. He was ugly and
grotesque in appearance, with a large head, a protruding tongue, bowlegs and a bushy
tail. He bore a plumed crown and wore the skin of a lion or panther. Despite his
appearance, he was a beneficent deity and his appearance was meant to scare off evil
spirits. He bore swords and knives to ward off evil spirits, as well as musical instruments,
to create a din to frighten them off. Bes aided the goddess Taweret in childbirth. He was
originally the protective deity of the royal house of Egypt, but became a popular
household deity throughout Egypt.

Bennu
An aspect of Ra-Atum in the form of a phoenix. Bennu was the patron of the reckoning of
time and carrier of eternal light from the abode of the gods to the world of men.

Buchis
Egyptian holy bull of Hermonthis and the living image of the god Montu. He had a white
body and a black head.
 

C
Chenti-cheti ( Greek Chentechtai )
Originally an Egyptian crocodile god, he later took on the form of a falcon.

Chenti-irti ( Machenti-irti )
Falcon-god of law and order identified with Horus.

Cherti
Ram god and ferryman of the dead. His cult was centered on Letopolis.

Chnum ( Chnumu )
Ram god and protector of the source of the Nile. He was said to fashion children out of
clay and then place them in the mother's womb. Depicted as a human with a ram's head.

Chons
Egyptian moon god; the son of Amun and Mut. Normally depicted as a young man in the
posture of a mummy.

Chontamenti ( Chonti-amentiu )
A god of the dead and the land of the west. He was represented as a crouching
dog/jackal.

D
Djebauti (Zebauti)
A local god

Dua
The Egyptian god of toiletry.

Duamutef (Tuamutef)
God of the deceased's stomach
 

E
F

G
Geb (Keb, Seb)
Earth god. It is quite rare to find a ancient religion with the earth personified in the form
of a man. Geb was the son of Shu and Tefnut and Brother-consort of the sky goddess Nut.
Father of Osiris and Isis, Set and Nephthys. Geb was generally depicted lying on his back,
usually wearing the crown of Lower Egypt, with the naked body of Nut arched above him.
As such, he was often shown with an erect penis pointing upward toward Nut.
Occasionally the air god Shu was shown standing on the body of Geb and supporting Nut,
supposedly separating her from Geb. In any other case he is shown with the head of a
goose. He as "the Great Cackler," he was represented as a goose. Also as "The Great
Cackler" he was said to have laid the egg from which the sun was hatched.

Equated as the third divine king of earth. His skin was often green, indicative his role as a
god of vegetation and fertility. Geb was also said to imprison the souls of the dead,
preventing them from passing on to the afterlife. The laughter of Geb was said to cause
earthquakes. The goose was his sacred animal and his symbol in Egyptian hieroglyphics.
In his honor, the royal throne of Egypt was occasionally known as the 'throne of Geb.'
 

H
Ha
God of the west and the western desert. Because the entrance to the underworld was in
the western desert, he plays a part in the death cult. He is shown as a human with a
hieroglyph that represents the west on his head.

Hapi (Hapy, Hap, Hep)

God of the Nile. Mostly associated with the annual floods, the inundation (which was
responsible for the fertility of the land adjacent to the river). Although he had no specific
cult centers, Hapi was believed to live in caves near the Nile cataracts. His court included
a retinue of crocodile-gods and a harem of frog-goddesses. Depicted in human form with
a large belly, female breasts (which indicated his powers of nourishment), a beard,
colored blue or green, and a clump of aquatic plants. He often bore a tray of produce
symbolizing the abundance and prosperity brought by the Nile floods.

Harakhti (Harachte)
God of the morning sun. His name means 'Horus of the Horizon.' He is a manifestation of
Horus. The Pharaoh was supposedly born on the eastern horizon as Harakhti and to rule
over the eastern and western horizon in that form. In Heliopolis he combined with Re and
was worshipped as Re-Harakhti. He was depicted in the form of a falcon.

Harendotes (Egyptian Har-nedj-itef)

A guardian god and a manifestation of Horus. In this form, he guards Osiris in the
underworld and is called 'Horus the savior of his father.' Har-nedj-itef also protects the
dead and is portrayed as a falcon on sarcophagi.

Harmachis (Egyptian Har-em-akhet)

"Horus upon the Horizon" also known as Her-Akhety, "Horus of the Two Horizons." A
manifestation of Horus where he figures as a sun god (identified with Re-Her-Akhety).
Later the sphinx of Giza represented "Horus of the Morning Sun" because it/he looked
toward the eastern horizon.

Harmerti
Horus' name, as the falcon-god 'with the two eyes,' which represented the sun and the
moon. Harmerti was also worshipped as the hero that restrains monsters.
Haroeris (Egyptian Har-wer)
"The Elder Horus." Horus, when he reaches maturity, and avenges his father, Osiris,
against his enemy, Seth. In this form, Horus defeats Seth and seizes the throne of Egypt.

In Noebt, (Kom Ombo) in Upper Egypt, Har-wer was regarded as the son of the god Re
and was identical with the sky god Shu. He is depicted in the form of a falcon.

Harpokrates (Harpocrates, Egyptian Har-pa-khered)

"Horus the Child." This was Horus as a young boy, not Horus as an adult. He is portrayed
as a naked child with a finger in his mouth, sitting on a lotus flower or on the knee of his
mother Isis. He was invoked to ward off dangerous creatures. He was also a vegetation
god and was portrayed with a jar or a horn of plenty.

He became very popular during the Roman Empire and his cult was expanded
substantially. Statuettes of Har-pa-khered from the Greco-Roman period show him riding
on a goose or a ram.

Harsiesis (Harsiese, Egyptian Har-sa-iset)

This was Horus as the son of Isis and a guardian deity. In the Osiris-myth he was born
when Isis impregnated herself by her deceased husband, Osiris. Isis protects Horus as a
child. The Pyramid texts state that Har-sa-iset performed the rite of the 'opening of the
mouth' on the dead pharaoh, ensuring that the pharaoh would have the use of his
faculties in the afterlife.

Harsomtus (Egyptian Har-mau)

"Horus the Uniter." Horus when he achieves the uniting of the kingdoms of Upper and
Lower Egypt.

Heh
God of infinity and a member of the Ogdoad. His consort was Hauhet.

Hemen
An Egyptian falcon god.

Herishef (Arsaphes)
A ram-headed god who originated in Heracleopolis.

Horus (Egyptian Har or Hor)

Egyptian sky god; son of Isis and the dead Osiris. Usually depicted as a falcon or in human
form with the head of a falcon. The sun and the moon are said to be his eyes. He was born
at Khemmis in the Nile Delta, and Isis hid him in the papyrus marshes to protect him
against Set, his father's murderer.

Horus later avenged the death of his father against Set. Horus lost his left eye (the moon)
in the contest between the two. Horus was identified with Lower Egypt and Set with
Upper Egypt in this battle, which lasted eighty years. The gods judged Horus to be the
winner, and Set was either killed or castrated. The consequence of Horus's victory was
the union of Upper and Lower Egypt. The Egyptian Pharaoh was believed to be an
incarnation of Horus, and the name of Horus formed part of his name. The Pharaoh was
said to become Horus after death. Set restored the eye he had torn from Horus, but Horus
gave it instead to Osiris. The image of the "eye of Horus", a human eye combined with the
cheek markings of a falcon, became a powerful amulet among the Egyptians.

Among the various manifestations of Horus were:

Harpokrates (Heru-Pa-Khret, Harpakhrad):
"Horus the child." This refers to his birth and secret rearing by Isis. In this form he is
often depicted as a naked child seated on Isis's lap.

Haroeris (Har Wer):

"Horus the elder." In this form Horus battled against Set.

Harakhte (Harakhti, Heraktes):

"Horus of the horizon." Horus at Heliopolis, linked with Ra in the sun cult. In this form he
is associated with the rising and setting sun. He was pictured as a falcon, or as a sphinx
with the body of a lion. The Great Sphinx of Giza is an example of "Horus in/of the
Horizon."

Harendotes (Har-nedj-itef, Har-End-Yotef):

"Horus the savior of his father." A reference to the avenging of his father's murder.

Harmachis (Heru-Em-Akhet, Harmakis):

"Horus in the horizon." Horus as symbol of resurrection, linked with the setting sun.

Harsiesis (Harsiese, Har-si-Ese, Hor-Sa-Iset):

"Horus, son of Isis." Horus as a baby/child

Harsomtus (Har-mau):
"Horus the Uniter." This is a reference to his role in uniting Upper and Lower Egypt.

Hor Behdetite (Behedti):

"Horus of Behdet." Originally a local form of Horus, at Behdet. In this form he symbolized
by the winged solar disk.

Hu
The creating word of the sun-god of Heliopolis and a god of authority. With Sia Hu forms a
primeval pair, both born from a drop of blood from the penis of Ra (sometimes by the
tears of Ra), and together the personify the wisdom and insight of the sun-god. They also
accompany him on his solar barque and help the bring order in chaos.
 

I
Imiut
A protective deity of the underworld.

Imhotep (Amenhotep, Amenhotep-Son-of-Hapu)

Imhotep was the chief minister of the Pharaoh Djoser. He was the architect of the Step
Pyramid, which was the first of the Egyptian Pyramids. Imhotep was latter raised to the
level of a god (deified). As a god he was responsible with medicine and learning. Normally
depicted as a seated man holding an open papyrus.

Imsety (Amset, Mestha)

God of the deceased's liver, he was protected by Isis; One of the Four Sons of Horus.
 

J
Joh (Jah)
An Egyptian god of the moon.

K
Kebechsenef (Kebehsenuf, Qebshenuf, Qebehsenuf)
A Son of Horus. He protected the Canopic jar where the viscera of the lower body where
kept after mummification.

Kek
God of darkness and a member of the Ogdoad. His consort was Kauket.

Kepra (Kheper, Khepera, Khepris, Chepre, Chepri)

An Egyptian sun god who appeared often in the form of a scarab or a dung beetle and
often as a beetle within the sun disk. He was a manifestation of the god Ra rising in the
east at dawn. This association supposedly resulted for the similarity between the scarab
rolling a ball of dung along the ground and Ra rolling the sun across the sky. Kepra was
the one who pushed the sun up from the underworld to be reborn at dawn. In the
Heliopolitan cosmology he appeared as a primordial sun god who created himself out of
the earth. His principal cult center was at Heliopolis.

Khepri
A scarab headed god. The Egyptians believed that Khepri pushed the sun across the sky in
much the same fashion that a dung beetle (scarab) pushed a ball of dung across the
ground.

Kherty (Cherti)
"Lower One." Ram god of the underworld and ferryman of the dead. In the Pyramid Texts
Kherty was said to be a threat to the Pharaoh, who had to be defended by Ra himself.
However, as an earth-god, he also acts as a guardian of the Pharaoh's tomb. Letopolis,
northwest of Memphis, was Kherty's main cult center. He was shown as a man with the
head of a ram or as a ram.

Khnum (Khnemu)
"To Create." Egyptian ram god. Khnum was credited with creating life on a potter's wheel
at the behest of the other gods. He was also said to control the annual inundation of the
Nile, although the god Hapi physically generates the inundation. The goddesses Satis and
Anuket assisted him in their supervisory role. His major cult center was on the
Elephantine Island near the first cataract of the Nile (Near modern Aswan) where
mummified rams sacred to Khnum have been found. He also had an important cult center
at Esna, to the north of the first cataract. He was usually depicted inhuman form with a
ram's head - the horns extending horizontally on either side of the head - often before a
potter's wheel on which a naked human was being fashioned.

Khonsu (Khons, Khensu, Chons)

"Wanderer." Egyptian moon god. Son of Amun and Mut (occasionally the son of Sekhmet)
with whom he forms the triad of gods revered in Thebes. Depicted in human form,
sometimes with the head of a hawk, clothed in a tight-fitting robe and wearing a skullcap
topped by the crescent of the new moon subtending the disk of the full moon. His head
was shaven except for the side-lock worn by Egyptian children, signifying his role as
Khnosu-pa-khered - "Khonsu the child." His principal sanctuary was in Thebes, where he
figured prominently as a member of the Theban triad. He also had a temple in Karnak. His
sacred animal was the baboon, considered a lunar animal by the Egyptians.

Kis
The Egyptian god of Kusae.
 

M
Maahes (Mihos, Miysis)
A obscure lion god who may be of foreign origin. Maahes ("True Before Her") was
worshipped in Bubastis, Leontopolis, and especially Upper Egypt. He is regarded in later
times to be the son of Bastet and Ptah in Memphis. He is sometimes regarded as a son of
the triad in Memphis with Nefertem and occasionally Imhotep. Maahes punished the
transgressors of Ma'at. His protection was invoked over the innocent. He was represented
as either a lion or a man with a lion's head and a knife.

Mahes (Miysis)
The Egyptian personification of the summer heat. Known as "Lord of the massacre." He
was principally worshipped in the area of the Nile Delta. He is represented as a lion or a
man with a lion's head.

Mehen
An Egyptian serpent god. He defends the solar barque during Ra's nightly passage
through the underworld. Usually shown as a snake coiled about the barque.

Mihos
Lion-god, son of Bastet.

Min
Chief of Heaven. A primeval god of Coptos. In early times he was a sky-god whose symbol
was a thunderbolt. Also seen as a rain god that promoted fertility of nature, such as grain.
Later he was revered as a fertility god who bestowed sexual powers on men. Normally
represented as a human holding a flagellum.

Montu (Mont, Mentu, Methu; Greek Month)

Falcon-headed war god of Upper Egypt. His cult developed at Thebes and spread
throughout Egypt under the Theban kings, who expanded the country's borders beginning
around 2000 BC. He was the tutelary god of the Theban monarchs, and brought them
victory in war. Depicted in human form with the head of a falcon, crowned with the solar
disk, the uraeus cobra and two tall plumes, His sacred animal was a white bull with a
black face, known as Buchis. After death, the bulls were buried in a necropolis near
Hermothis (Armant) known as the Bucheum. His cult centers included Medu (Medamud),
Karnak and Hermothis.
 

N
Nefertum (Nefertem; Greek Nepthemis)
Egyptian god of the primordial lotus blossom . A personification of the blue lotus of which
the sun god Ra emerged. In the Pyramid Texts, he was described as the 'lotus blossom on
the nose of Ra.' He was usually depicted in human form wearing a headdress topped by a
lotus blossom. He could also be depicted with a lion's head when given as the child of the
Memphite lion goddess Sekhmet out of her union with Ptah. His major cult center was in
Memphis. In Buto, in the Nile Delta region, Nefertum was held to be the child of the cobra
goddess Wadjet. Elsewhere his mother was called the cat goddess Bastet.

Nehebkau (Nehebu-Kau, Nehebkhau)

Egyptian snake god of the underworld. Represented either as a serpent with human arms
and legs or with a man's body, holding the eye of Horus. In the Pyramid Texts, he was
said to be the son of the scorpion goddess Serket. Another tradition made him the son of
the earth god Geb and the harvest goddess Renenutet. According to legend, he was
tamed by the sun god Ra and thenceforth acted as the god's servant, riding with him in
the sun barque. His name was invoked in spells providing protection against snake bites
and scorpion stings. Nehebkau protected the dead Pharaoh in the afterlife.
Nenun (Nenwen)
An Egyptian falcon-god.

Neper
An Egyptian god of grain. Neper was mostly associated with barley and emmer wheat.

Nun (Nu)
Egyptian god who personified the swirling primeval waters/chaos from which the cosmic
order was produced. In the beginning there was only Nun. Consort of Naunet and a
member of the Ogdoad. He was referred to as the 'father of the gods,' which referred to
his primacy in the time rather than any literal parentage. Nun played no part in Egyptian
religion rituals and had no temples dedicated to him. Nun was symbolized by the sacred
lakes, which were associated with some temples, such as Karnak and Dendara. Depicted
inhuman form holding the solar barque of Ra above his head.
 
 

O
Osiris (Usire)
Egyptian god of the underworld and of vegetation. Son of Nut and Geb and brother of
Nephthys, Set and brother-husband to Isis. His birthplace was said to be Rosetau in the
necropolis west of Memphis. Osiris was depicted in human form wrapped up as a mummy,
holding the crook and flail. He was often depicted with green skin, alluding to his role as a
god of vegetation. He wore a crown known as the 'atef,' composed of the tall conical
whittle crown of Upper Egypt with red plumes on each side. Osiris had many cult centers,
but the most important were at Abydos (Ibdju) in Upper Egypt, where the god's legend
was reenacted in an annual festival and at Busirs (Djedu) in the Nile delta.

P
Petbe
The Egyptian god of retaliation.

Petesuchos
An Egyptian crocodile-god.

Ptah
Egyptian creator god. Also a god of artisans, designers, builders, metal workers,
architects and masons, whose skills he was said to have created. He was the one who
created the barque for the dead to sail in. His major cult center was at Memphis. In
Memphis and Thebes his consort was the lioness goddess Sekhmet. Together with
Sekhmet's son Nefertum, they formed the 'Memphite triad.' His sacred animal was the
bull. The Apis bull in Memphis, which acted as an intermediary between the god and
humankind, represented Ptah in particular. He was depicted inhuman form, tightly
wrapped like a mummy, with a shaven head or wearing a close fitting skull cap, holding
the scepter of dominion composed of a 'djed' staff topped by the Ankh (life) symbol.

According to one tradition (Memphite creation myth) Ptah was the primary motive force
in creation, thinking and speaking the cosmos into existence (elsewhere he was said to
have created the cosmos out of mud.) In this tradition, propagated by his priesthood, it
was Ptah who was pre-eminent among the gods. He was said to have invented the
'opening of the mouth' ceremony, restoring the faculties of life to corpse by performing it
on the mouths of gods when he created them.

Ptah-Seker-Osiris
He incorporated the principal gods of creation, death, and after-life. Represented as a
mummified king.
 

Q
Qebehsenuef
God of the deceased's intestines
 

R
Ra (Re)
Egyptian sun and creator god. He was usually depicted in human form with a falcon head,
crowned with the sun disc encircled by the uraeus (the sacred cobra). The sun itself was
taken to be either his body or his eye. He was said to traverse the sky each day in a solar
barque and pass through the underworld each night on another solar barque to reappear
in the east each morning. His principal cult center was Heliopolis ("sun city") near modern
Cairo. Ra was also considered to be an underworld god, closely associated in this respect
with Osiris. In this capacity he was depicted as a ram-headed figure.

By the third millennium B.C. Ra's prominence had already become such that the Pharaohs
took to stylizing themselves as "sons of Ra." After death, the Egyptian monarch was said
to ascend into the sky to join the entourage of the sun god. According to the Heliopolitan
cosmology, Ra was said to have created himself, either out of a primordial lotus blossom
or on the mound that emerged from the primeval waters. He then created Shu (air) and
Tefnut (moisture), who in turn engendered the earth god Geb and the sky goddess Nut.
Ra was said to have created humankind from his own tears and the gods Hu (authority)
and Sia (mind) from blood drawn from his own penis. Ra was often combined with other
deities to enhance the prestige of the later, as in Ra-Atum or in the formula "Ra in Osiris,
Osiris in Ra."

Resheph (Reshpu, Reshef)

A god of war and thunder. He was of Syrian origin.
 

S
Sarapis (Serapis)
A god supposedly imported during the Ptolemacic period in Egypt. Later, a deity
worshipped throughout the Roman Empire. Sarapis was supposedly the Greek form of
Osiris-Apis, a deity who combined the attributes of the bull god Apis (or Greek Zeus) and
the underworld god Osiris. To this the Hellensitic rulers of Egypt added characteristics
taken from Greek deities such as Zeus, Dionysos, Hades, Helios and Asklepios to create a
universal god. Depicted inhuman form with curly hair and crowned with a basket-shaped
headdress known as a kalathos.

Sepa (Sep)
An Egyptian chthonic god.

Sesmu
The Egyptian god of oil and wine pressing.

Set (Seth, Setekh, Setesh, Seti, Sutekh, Setech, Sutech)

Egyptian god of Chaos who embodied the principles of hostility, if not outright evil. Early
in Egyptian Mythology he was spoken with reverence as a god of storms and wind. Later
on, after his battle with Horus, he was associated with foreign lands and was the
adversary of the god Osiris. Set was usually depicted in human form with the head of
aardvark. He was sometimes represented in entire animal form with a body similar to that
of a greyhound. He was said to be the son of Nut and Geb or Nut and Ra, and the brother
of Osiris, Isis and brother-husband of Nephthys. He was more commonly associated with
the foreign, Semitic goddess Astarte and Anat. Despite his reputation he had an important
sanctuary at Ombos in Upper Egypt, his reputed birthplace and had cults mostly in the
Nile delta.

For a time, during the third millennium BC, Set replaced Horus as the tutelary deity of the
Pharaohs. However, when the story of Set's murder of Osiris got and the subsequent war
with Horus got around, Horus was restored to his original status. The war with Horus
lasted eighty years, during which Set tore out he left eye of his advisory and Horus tore
out Set's foreleg and testicles. Horus eventually emerged victorious, or was deemed the
victor by a council of the gods, and thus became the rightful ruler of the kingdoms of
Upper and Lower Egypt. Set was forced to return the eye of Horus and was either
castrated or killed. In some versions Set then went to live with the sun god Ra, where he
became the voice of thunder. In the Book of the Dead, Set was refereed to as the "lord of
the northern sky" and held responsible for storms and cloudy weather. Set protected Ra
during his night voyage through the underworld On the other hand, Set was a peril for
ordinary Egyptians, he was said to seize the souls of the unwary. Among the animals
sacred to Set were the desert oryx, boar, the hippopotamus as a destroyer of boats and
planted fields, and the crocodile. The pig was the ultimate taboo in Set's cult. The Greeks
later equated him with their Typhon.

Shu (Su; Greek Sos)

Primordial Egyptian god of air and supporter of the sky. In the Heliopolitan creation myth,
Shu was, with his sister-wife Tefnut, one of the first deities created by the sun god Atum,
either from his semen or from the mucus of his nostrils. Tefnut then became Shu's
consort, giving birth to the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb. Shu separated Geb
and Nut (heaven and earth) by interposing himself between them. Depicted in human
form wearing an ostrich feather, with his arms raised to support the goddess Nut above
the supine form of Geb.

Sobek (Greek Suchos)

Egyptian crocodile god and son of Neith. Sobek symbolized the might of the Egyptian
Pharaohs. At Ra's command, He performed tasks such as catching with a net the four sons
of Horus as they emerged from the waters in a lotus bloom. Sobek was admired and
feared for his ferocity. Depicted as a crocodile or in human form with the head of a
crocodile, crowned either by a pair of plumes or sometimes by a combination of the solar
disk and the uraeus. His cult was widespread. Faiyum was particularly noted as a center
of his worship and at least one town came to be "Crocodilopolis" by the Greeks. Gebelein,
Kom Ombo and Thebes in Upper Egypt were other centers of his cult.

Sokar (Seker; Greek Socharis, Sokaris)

Egyptian funerary god of the Memphis necropolis. Depicted in human form with a hawk's
head. As early as the Old Kingdom, Sokar came to be regarded as a manifestation of the
dead Osiris at Abydos in Upper Egypt. Also in the Old Kingdom, he came to be combined
with Ptah as Ptah-Sokar, in which form he took the lioness goddess Sekhmet as his
consort. In the Middle Kingdom, the three were sometimes merged in the form Ptah-
Sokar-Osiris. Sokar was associated with the manufacture of various objects used in
embalming and in funerary rituals. He became a god of the craftsman working in the
necropolis at Memphis and ultimately a patron deity of the necropolis itself. He also
played a prominent role at Thebes where he was depicted on the royal tombs. An
important annual festival was held in his honor at Thebes. The festival celebrated the
resurrection of Osiris in the form of Sokar and the continuity of the Egyptian monarchy. At
this festival his image was carried in an elaborate boat known as the 'henu.'

Sopedu (Sopdu)
Egyptian god of the eastern frontier (eastern desert). Depicted either in the form of a
falcon or as a Asiatic warrior with the Bedouin crowned with tall plumes. He was also the
god of the Sinai Peninsula and of the turquoise mines in the Sinai. In the Pyramid Texts
he took on an astral aspect. Impregnating Isis in her manifestation as the star Sirius,
whose appearance in July heralded the annual inundation of the Nile. Isis subsequently
gave birth to the composite deity Sopedu-Horus. His primary cult center was at Saft el-
Henna in the northeastern Nile delta.
 
 

T
Tatenen (Tathen, Tatjenen, Tanen, Tenen, Ten)
"Exalted Earth." Primordial Egyptian god who personified the fertile silt of the Nile.
Originally an independent god at Memphis, he was combined with Ptah in his aspect as a
creator god. In this form he took on an a androgynous form and was given he epithet
'father of the gods.' He was usually depicted in human form with ram's horns and wearing
a feathered crown. As a vegetation god, he could be portrayed with green skin.

Thoth (Thot, Thout; Egyptian Djhowtey, Djehuti, Tehuti, Zehuti)

Egyptian moon god. Over time, he developed as a god of wisdom, and came to be
associated with magic, music, medicine, geometry, drawing, writing, surveying and
astronomy. He was the inventor of the spoken and written word; credited with the
invention of geometry, medicine and astronomy. He was also the scribe of the gods and
patron of all scribes. Thoth was the measurer of the earth and counter of the stars as well
as keeper and recorder of all knowledge including the Book of the Dead. Thoth was
generally depicted in human form with the head of an ibis, wearing a crown consisting of
a crescent moon topped by a moon disk. He could also be depicted as an ibis or a baboon
which were both sacred to him. His principal sanctuary was at Hermopolis (Khmunu) in
the Nile delta region.

Thoth served as an arbiter among the gods. In the Osirian legend, he protected Isis
during her pregnancy and healed her son Horus when Set tore out his left eye. Thoth was
later identified with the Greek god Hermes in the form of Hermes Trismegistos - "Hermes
the thrice great" - in which form he remained popular in medieval magic and alchemy.
Thoth was also a god of the underworld, where he served as a clerk who recorded the
judgments on the souls of the dead. Alternatively, it was Thoth himself who weighed the
hearts of the dead against the Feather of Truth in the Hall of the Two Truths.
 
 

U
Uneg
An Egyptian plant-god.
 

W
Wepwawet (Upuaut; Greek Ophois)
"Opener of Ways." Egyptian jackal god. Wepwawet had a dual roe as a god of war and of
the funerary cult ad could be said to "open the way" both for the armies for the Pharaoh
and for the spirits of the dead. He originated as a god of Upper Egypt, but his cult had
spread throughout Egypt by the time of the Old Kingdom. Depicted as a jackal or in
human form with the head of a jackal, often holding the 'shedshed,' a standard which led
the Pharaoh to victory in war and on which the Pharaoh was said to ascend into the sky
after death. Despite his origin in Upper Egypt, in inscription said that he was born in the
sanctuary of the goddess Wadjet at Buto in the Nile delta. Another inscription identified
him with Horus and thus extension with Pharaoh. Wepwawet also symbolized the
unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. In his capacity as a funerary deity, he used his adze
to break open the mouth of the deceased in the "Opening of the Mouth" ceremony, which
ensured that the person would have the enjoyment of all his faculties in the afterlife. At
Abydos, the 'procession of Wepwawet' opened the mysteries of Osiris as a god of the
dead.

EGYPTIAN GODESSES

Amaunet
Means "Hidden One." She was an Egyptian mother and/or fertility goddess. At the
beginning of time aspects of Amaunet merged with those of the goddess Neith. Among
the Ogdoad, Amun was her consort. She was regarded as a tutelary deity of the Egyptian
Pharaohs, and had a prominent part in the Pharaoh's accession ceremonies.

Ammut (Ammit)
"Devouress of the Dead." Demonic goddess who attends the Judging of the Dead. She
was depicted as having the head of a crocodile, the torso of a lioness and the
hindquarters of a hippopotamus. She waited in the Judgement Hall of the Two Truths
during the Weighing of the Heart ceremony, and devoured those who were sinners in life.

Anat
A goddess of Syrian origin. Anat had a warlike character. She usually was represented as
a woman holding a shield and an axe.

Anentet ( Amenthes )
Egyptian goddess of the West. The west was considered to be the Underworld.

Anuket ( Anqet, Anquet, Greek Anukis )

Egyptian goddess who personified the Nile as Nourisher of the Fields. She was mainly
associated with the lower cataracts near Aswan. Also was a protective deity of childbirth.
She was considered to be the daughter of Ra, Satis or Khnum. Depicted in human form,
bearing a crown topped with ostrich feathers. Her principal sanctuary was at Elephantine.
Her sacred animal was the gazelle.

Astarte (As-start-a)
A goddess of Syrian origin. Introduced in Egypt during the 18th Dynasty. Was also known
as The Queen of Heaven and as such, her cult often overlapped with Isis' worshipers.

Ausaas
Egyptian wife of Herakhty (Horus).
 

B
Bastet ( Bast, Ubasti )
Egyptian sun, cat and of the home goddess. As a sun goddess she represents the warm,
life giving power of the sun. A goddess of the home, pregnant women and of the domestic
cat, although she sometimes took on the war-like aspect of a lioness. Normally said to be
the daughter of the sun god Ra, but sometimes her father was said to be Amun. Bastet
was wife of Ptah and mother of the lion-god Mihos. She was also associated with 'Eye of
Ra', as such she was a instrument of the sun god's vengeance. She was depicted as a cat
or in human form with the head of a cat, often holding the sistrum. Her cult was centered
on her sanctuary at Bubastis in the Delta region. A necropolis has been found there,
containing mummified cats.
Bat (Bata)
Cow goddess of fertility and primarily a deity of Upper Egypt. She was depicted as a cow
or in human form with cow's ears and horns.

Beset
Egyptian goddess, a female version of Bes.

Buto ( Edjo, Udjo, Wadjet, Wadjit )

A tutelary goddess of Lower Egypt.
 

C
Chensit
Egyptian goddess of the twentieth nome of Lower Egypt.

H
Hathor (Hethert, Athyr)
Cow goddess. A goddess of love and motherhood, Hathor was the daughter of Nut and Ra.
In early Egyptian mythology she was said to be the mother Horus, but was later replaced
with Isis. After being displaced, Hathor became a protectress of Horus. The Greeks
identified Hathor with Aphrodite.

Her name means "House (or Mansion) of Horus," referring to her role as a sky goddess.
The heavens were often depicted as being a cow with stars on it, thus the "house." She
was often regarded as the mother of the Pharaoh, who called himself the "son of Hathor."
Since the Pharaoh was also considered to be the Living Horus, as the son of Isis, it is
plausible that the phrase "son of Hathor" came from when Hathor was the mother of
Hours.

The snake, the Egyptian rattle known as the sistrum, and the papyrus reed often
symbolized Hathor. Her image could also be used to form the capitals of columns in
Egyptian architecture. Her principal sanctuary was at Dandarah, which may also be where
Hathor got her origins. At Dandarah, she was mainly worshipped in her role as a goddess
of fertility, women and childbirth. At Thebes she was regarded as a goddess of the dead
with the title of "Lady of the West." This associated her with Ra on his descent below the
western horizon and various deaths related gods, such as Osiris and Anubis. She was
depicted either as a cow or in human form wearing a crown consisting of a sun disk held
between the horns of a cow.

Hat-mehyt (Hatmehit)
Fish goddess of Mendes in the Delta and the consort of Banebdjedet. She was
occasionally represented as a woman with a fish on her head.

Hauhet
Goddess of infinity and a member of the Ogdoad. Her consort was Heh
Hedetet
A scorpion goddess.

Heket (Heqet)
A goddess of childbirth and protector of the dead. She is the daughter of Ra and is
sometimes called the 'Eye of Ra' and 'Mother of the gods'. She is shown as a frog, a
symbol of life and fertility (millions of them are born after the annual inundation of the
Nile), or as a woman with a frog's head. Women often wore amulets of her during
childbirth. She is regarded as the consort of Khnum.

Hemsut (Hemuset)
The Egyptian goddess of fate.

Heqet
A frog-goddess of Antinoopolis. She was a helper of women during childbirth. At
Antinoopolis she was associated with Khnum.

Hermouthis
See the goddess Renenutet

Hesat
An Egyptian cow goddess. The ancient Egyptians referred to milk as 'the beer of Hesat.'
 

I
Isdes
She was a goddess of Heliopolis whose name means, "she comes who is great." She was a
counterpart to the creator god Atum. Normally depicted wearing a scarab beetle on her
head.

Isis (Aset, Eset, Aat, Menkhet, Hert, Ament, Menhet)

"Throne." Egyptian mother goddess. Isis has many names: "Mistress of Magic,The Queen
of Heaven (similar to Astarte), The Great Lady, the God-Mother, lady of Re-a-nefer; Isis-
Nebuut, Lady of Sekhet; Lady of Besitet; Isis in Per Pakht, the Queen of Mesen; Isis of Ta-
at-nehepet; Isis, dweller in Netru; Isis, Lady of Hebet; Isis in P-she-Hert; Isis, Lady of
Khebt; Usert-Isis, Giver of Life, Lady of Abaton, Lady of Philae and Lady of the Countries
of the South."

Isis ruled over all matters concerning mothering, life, and sorcery. She was the daughter
of Geb and Nut, according to the Heliopolitan genealogy, sister-wife of Osiris and,
according to most myths, the mother of Horus. As the personification of the throne, Isis
was an important source of the Pharaoh's power. Isis' Latin epithet was Stella Maris,
which means, "star of the sea." Isis was depicted in human form, crowned either by a
throne or by cow horns enclosing a sun disk, occasionally a vulture was incorporated in
her crown. She is also depicted as a kite above the mummified body of Osiris. She was
divinely represented by the Ankh. Isis' cult was popular throughout Egypt, however, the
most important sanctuaries were at Giza and at Behbeit El-Hagar. During the Late Period,
Philae was her main cult-center. Later on, she had an important cult in the Greco-Roman
world, with sanctuaries at Delos and Pompeii.

Isis is one of the four great protector goddesses, which included Bast, Nephyths, and
Hathor. She guarded coffins and the Canopic jars. In the origin myth of Ra and the world,
Isis found out Ra's name by enchanting a poisonous snake to bite him. When Ra was
close to dying, Isis told him that she could only heal him if she knew Ra's true name. By
knowing Ra's name, she then had power equal to him and was then given all of her
magical power and was forever known as the Divine Sorceress.
Isis and Nephyths were the divine mourners for the dead (Osiris). Isis was the one who
retrieved and reassembled the body of Osiris after his murder and dismemberment by Set.
In this way she took on the role of a goddess of the dead and funeral rites. Isis
impregnated herself from the corpse and gave birth to Horus. She gave birth in secrecy at
Khemmis in the Nile delta and hid the child from Set in the papyrus swamps. Horus later
defeated Set and became the first ruler of a united Egypt. Isis, as mother of Horus, was by
extension regarded as the mother and protectress of the Pharaohs. This relationship
between Isis and Horus may also have influenced the Christian conception of the
relationship between Mary and the infant Jesus Christ. There is a resemblance to the
depiction of the seated Isis holding or suckling the child Horus and the seated Mary and
the baby Jesus.
 

K
Kauket
Goddess of darkness and a member of the Ogdoad. Her consort was Kek.

Kebechet
Goddess who personified the purification through water. Daughter of Anubis, Kebechet
plays an important role in the funeral cult. Her appearance is that of a snake.
 

M
Ma'at (Maat, Mayet)
"Straight": law and order. Egyptian goddess of cosmic harmony, truth and justice. Ma'at
was depicted as a woman with an ostrich feather on her head, she was sometimes
represented only by the feather. Ma'at was closely associated with Ra from the beginning
and eventually became known as the 'daughter of Ra.' Thoth was sometimes given as her
consort. The Pharaohs were said to derive their authority from Ma'at and claimed to
uphold the cosmic order embodied in her. In the funerary papyri of the New Kingdom it
was Ma'at who sat in judgement at the weighting of the heart ceremony in the Hall of the
Two Truths. The heart of the deceased was weighed against the image of Ma'at, often
represented simply by the ostrich feather. Her only know sanctuary was in Karnak.

Mafdet
The first deity to be mentioned who is half-cat (domesticate). She appears to be
associated with the protection of the king's chambers. OR Panther Goddess Her ferocity
prevails over snakes and scorpions.

Mekhit (Mechit)
A lion goddess and consort of Anhur

Meret (Mert)
The Egyptian goddess of song and rejoicing.

Meretseger (Mertseger,Meresger)
"She who loves silence." Egyptian cobra goddess and protective deity of the Theban
necropolis. She was believed to live on a mountain overlooking the Valley of the Kings.
Worshiped by the workers at the necropolis, she was believed to poison or blind anyone
who committed a crime. Supposedly, this belief was intended to reinforce the taboo
against desecrating or robbing the tombs. She was depicted as a coiled cobra or as a
cobra with the head of a woman and a single human arm. Her cult died out when the
Theban necropolis was abandoned during the XXI Dynasty.

Mut
Egyptian vulture goddess and chief goddess of Thebes. Also a mother goddess
occasionally referenced to as the queen of all gods. She was depicted in the form of a
vulture or in a human form with a vulture headdress and the combined crowns of Upper
and Lower Egypt. She was usually dressed in a bright red or blue gown. In Thebes she
replaced Amaunet as the consort of the sun god Amun. With their adoptive son Khonsu,
the two formed the Theban triad. Her principal sanctuary was in Thebes.
 

N
Naunet
Goddess of the primordial abyss and member of the Ogdoad. Her consort was Nun.

Nebethetepet
A goddess whose name means "mistress of the offering." She is a feminine counterpart of
the male creative principle of Atum. She supposedly was "namely his Hand with which he
brought about the ejaculation that brought the cosmos into being." A goddess of
Heliopolis.

Neith (Neit)
Egyptian creator goddess and of war, the hunt and domestic arts. Her symbol was a shield
bearing crossed arrows. Said to be a self-begotten virgin. She later came to be identified
as the consort of Set and the mother of the crocodile god Sobek. Her principal sanctuary
was at Sais in the Nile Delta, where she originally developed as a local goddess. After
rising to national prominence, a sanctuary was dedicated to her in Memphis. In the Esna
cosmology, Neith was said to have emerged from the primeval waters to create the world,
subsequently following the Nile north to the delta where she founded Sais. Depicted in
the form of a woman wearing the red crown of Lower Egypt and bearing a shield with
crossed arrows.

Nekhbet (Nekhebet, Nechbet)

"She of Nekhbet." Egyptian vulture and tutelary goddess of Upper Egypt. She was also a
protective goddess of childbirth who was depicted as the nurse of the future monarch
during his infancy. In her capacity as protectress of the infant monarch she was known as
the "Great White Cow of Nekheb." She was usually depicted as a vulture wearing the
white crown of Upper Egypt and holding the eternity symbols in her talons. Her principal
sanctuary was in Nekheb (El Kab) in Upper Egypt.

Nephthys (Greek form; Egyptian Neb-hut, Nebthet)

"Mistress/Lady of the House." Egyptian goddess of the dead and daughter of Geb and
Nut. Nephthys was the sister of Isis, Osiris and Set. She was the consort of Set until Set
killed Osiris. According to one tradition, she was also the mother of Anubis by Osiris.
Nephthys' principal sanctuary was in Heliopolis. Along with Isis, she was one of the
guardians of the corpse of Osiris. She is shown in human form wearing a crown in the
form of the hieroglyph for house. Sometimes depicted as a kite guarding the funeral bier
of Osiris.

Nepit
An Egyptian corn goddess. She is the female counterpart of the god Neper.

Nut (Neuth, Nuit)

Egyptian goddess of the sky and the heavens. Daughter of Shu and Tefnut, in the
Heliopolitan genealogy. Originally just a mother goddess who had numerous children. The
hieroglyph of her name is thought to be a womb although a water pot represented the
womb. She was typically depicted as a woman with her elongated and naked body
arching above Shu and the earth god Geb to form the heavens. Sometimes she appeared
in the form of a cow whose body forms the sky and heavens. Nut was the barrier
separating the forces of Chaos form the ordered cosmos in this world. Her fingers and
toes were believed to touch the four cardinal points or directions. The sun god Ra was to
be reborn from her vagina each morning. Nut was also a goddess of the dead, and the
Pharaoh was said to enter her body after death, from which he would later be
resurrected. Her principal sanctuary was in Heliopolis.
 

P
Pachet (Pakhet)
Lioness Goddess of the Eastern Desert and a night huntress.
 

Q
Qadesh (Qetesh)
A goddess of Syrian origin. Often represented as a woman standing on a lion's back.
 

R
Renenutet (Ernutet, Renenet)
Egyptian cobra goddess. Depicted either as a hooded cobra or in human form with the
head of a cobra. Her name seems to have the meaning of nurturing or raisin a child, and
she was both a goddess associated with motherhood and the tutelary deity of the
Pharaoh. Her gaze was said to have the power to vanquish all enemies and also to ensure
the fertility of the crops and the bounty of the harvest. She was associated with the
magical properties believed to inhere in the linen bandages that wrapped the dead and
was known at Edfu as the 'mistress of the robes.' She had an important cult center in the
fertile Faiyum region, where she was closely associated with the local crocodile god
Sobek. In the Greco-Roman period she was worshipped as the goddess Hermouthis, in
which form she came to be combined with Isis.

Renpet
The Egyptian goddess of youth and springtime.

Reret
An Egyptian hippopotamus goddess.
 

S
Satet
Goddess of the inundation of the Nile and fertility

Satis (Greek form, also Sati; Egyptian Satjit or Satet)

An Egyptian goddess whose primary role was that of a guardian of Egypt's southern
(Nubian) frontier and killing the enemies of the Pharaoh with her arrows. As 'Queen of
Elephantine' she figures as the consort of Khnum and the mother of Anuket, the three
sometimes being referred to as the 'Elephantine's triad.' Depicted in human form wearing
the tall conical white crown of Upper Egypt bounded on either side by plumes or antelope
horns, holding a scepter and the Ankh (life) symbol. She had a major sanctuary on the
island of Sahel near Elephantine (Aswan). She was also associated with the annual
inundation of the Nile.
Sekhmet (Sachmet, Sakhmet)
"The Powerful One." Egyptian lioness goddess, daughter of Ra. In Memphis she formed
part of the Memphite triad together with Ptah as her consort and Nefertum (otherwise
the son of Bastet) as her son. Depicted as a lioness or in a human form with the head of a
lioness. She was generally shown crowned by the solar disk, holding the Ankh (life)
symbol or a scepter in the shape of a papyrus reed. In Thebes Sekhmet came to be
combined with Mut, the consort of the Theban sun god Amun. She had a warlike aspect
and was said to breathe fire at the enemies of the Pharaoh. Like the goddess Hathor,
Sekhmet could become the 'eye of Ra,' an agent of the sun god's punishment. She was
believed to be the bearer of plague and pestilence, but in a more benign aspect she was
called upon in spells and amulets to ward of disease.

Selkis (Selkit, Selket, Selkhet, Serqet)

A scorpion-goddess who was identified with the scorching heat of the sun. A protector
goddesses, she guarded coffins and Canopic jars. Sometimes shown as a woman with a
scorpion on her head.

Sentait
A cow goddess.

Serket (Selket, Selkis, Selchis, Selquet; Egyptian Serket-hetyt)

"She who causes the throat to breathe." Egyptian scorpion goddess. Depicted in human
form with a scorpion-shaped headdress or with a scorpion body and a human head. She
was an early tutelary deity of the Egyptian monarchs. Serket was associated with
mortuary rites and helped guard the Canopic jars in which the viscera of the dead were
placed. From this association she came to be a tutelary goddess of the dead. She was
called upon in Egyptian magic to advert venomous bites and stings.

Seshat (Sesat, Sesheta)

The goddess of writing; the divine keeper of royal annals. Was represented as a woman.

Shait
An Egyptian goddess of destiny.

Sothis (Greek form; Egyptian Sopdet)

Egyptian goddess who personified the Dog Star, Sirius. The appearance of Sirius at dawn
in July (called the helical rising) heralds the annual inundation of the Nile. She naturally
became associated with fertility and prosperity resulting from the annual floods. Depicted
in human form, wearing the tall conical white crown of Upper Egypt, surmounted by a
star. In a forth century BC papyrus, Isis identifies herself with Sothis as she laments the
death of Osiris and vows to follow him in his manifestation as the constellation Orion.
 

T
Tasenetnofret
An ancient Egyptian goddess. She was the consort of Horus when he was Har-wer ("Horus
the Elder").

Tawret (Taueret, Taurt, Apet, Opet; Greek Thoueris, Thoeris, Toeris)

"The Great One." Egyptian hippopotamus goddess and protective deity of childbirth, also
protectress of rebirth into the afterlife. She was depicted with the head of a
hippopotamus, the legs and arms of a lion, the tail of a crocodile, human breasts, and a
swollen belly. This appearance was meant to frighten off any spirits that might be
harmful to the child. She was often depicted holding the Sa, amulet symbolizing
protection. As a protective deity of childbirth, she was often depicted in the company of
the dwarf god Bes, who ad a similar function. Taweret was the most popular among
ordinary Egyptians as a protectress. Pregnant women commonly wore amulets bearing
the goddess' image.

Tefnut (Tefnet, Tefenet; Greek Tphenis)

Primeval Egyptian goddess personifying moisture, particularly in the forms of dew, rains
and mist. According to the Heolopolitan cosmology, she was the daughter of Atum (sun),
sister-wife of Shu (air) and the mother of Geb (earth) and Nut (sky). Tefnut could take on
the role of the 'eye of Ra' (Ra being another form of her sun god father), in which case
she was depicted as a lioness or in human form with the head of a lioness. She could also
be depicted as a snake coiled about a scepter. In the Pyramid Texts she was said to create
pure water from her vagina. Her principal sanctuary was at Heliopolis. Tefnut and Shu
were also worshipped as a pair of lions at Leontopolis in the Nile delta.

Tenenit
The Egyptian goddess of beer.
 

U
Unut
An Egyptian rabbit-goddess.
 

W
Wadjet (Buto, Uajyt, Uto)
Cobra and tutelary goddess of Lower Egypt.

Wosyet
The Egyptian protector goddess of the young.

Z
Zenenet
The Egyptian goddess of Hermonthis.

List of pharaohs
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Pharaoh of Egypt

FORMER MONARCHY
 The Pschent combined the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and
the White Crown of Upper Egypt.

A typical depiction of a pharaoh.

First monarch Narmer (a.k.a. Menes)

Last monarch Nectanebo II

[1]
(last native)

Cleopatra & Caesarion

(last actual)

Style Five-name titulary

Official residence Varies by era

Appointer Divine right

Monarchy started c. 3100 BC

Monarchy ended 343 BC

[1]
(last native pharaoh)

30 BC
(last Greek pharaohs)

This article contains a list of the pharaohs of Ancient Egypt, from the Early Dynastic Period
before 3000 BC through to the end of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, when Egypt became a province
of Rome under Augustus Caesar in 30 BC.
Note that the dates given are approximate. The list of pharaohs presented below is based on
the conventional chronology of Ancient Egypt, mostly based on the Digital Egypt for
Universities database developed by the Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, but
alternative dates taken from other authorities may be indicated separately.

Contents
[hide]

 1 Existing primary old lists of pharaohs

 2 Legendary period
 3 Archaic period
o 3.1 Early Dynastic: Lower Egypt
o 3.2 Early Dynastic: Upper Egypt
o 3.3 First Dynasty
o 3.4 Second Dynasty
 4 Old Kingdom
o 4.1 Third Dynasty
o 4.2 Fourth Dynasty
o 4.3 Fifth Dynasty
o 4.4 Sixth Dynasty
 5 First Intermediate Period
o 5.1 Seventh and Eighth Dynasties
(combined)
o 5.2 Ninth Dynasty
o 5.3 Tenth Dynasty
o 5.4 Eleventh Dynasty
 6 Middle Kingdom
o 6.1 Eleventh Dynasty Continued
o 6.2 Twelfth Dynasty
 7 Second Intermediate Period
o 7.1 Thirteenth Dynasty
o 7.2 Fourteenth Dynasty
o 7.3 Fifteenth Dynasty
o 7.4 Sixteenth Dynasty
o 7.5 Seventeenth Dynasty
 8 New Kingdom
o 8.1 Eighteenth Dynasty
o 8.2 Nineteenth Dynasty
o 8.3 Twentieth Dynasty
 9 Third Intermediate Period
o 9.1 Twenty-First Dynasty
o 9.2 Twenty-Second Dynasty
o 9.3 Twenty-Third Dynasty
o 9.4 The Libu
o 9.5 Twenty-Fourth Dynasty
 10 Late period
 o 10.1 Twenty-fifth Dynasty
o 10.2 Twenty-sixth Dynasty
o 10.3 Twenty-seventh Dynasty
o 10.4 Twenty-eighth Dynasty
o 10.5 Twenty-ninth Dynasty
o 10.6 Thirtieth Dynasty
o 10.7 Thirty-first Dynasty
o 10.8 Argead Dynasty
o 10.9 Ptolemaic Dynasty
 11 Rome
 12 See also
 13 Notes
 14 References
 15 External links

Existing primary old lists of pharaohs

The texts of existing primary old lists of pharaohs are incomplete:

 Palermo stone
 Turin Royal Canon
 Manetho's Aegyptiaca (History of Egypt)
 Abydos King List
 Karnak Tablet
 South Saqqara Stone (discovered 1923, includes dyn. 6)
 Saqqara Tablet (discovered 1861, includes dyn. 1-12)

Archibald Sayce gave comparative data on several of these lists in his book The Ancient
Empires of the East (1884),[2] in addition to the lists found in Herodotus, Diodorus,
Eratosthenes, and even a fanciful list found in "the Arabic writers". Yet another fanciful list
that does not appear in Sayce, is found in the Book of Sothis that George Syncellus attributed
to Manetho.

Legendary period
In the texts of the Palermo, Turin and Manetho king lists, there are different versions of
names of eight god kings that ruled Egypt in the beginning.[3]

Manetho
Turin King List Function
(Egyptian equivalent)
Hephaistos
Ptah Craftsmen
(Ptah)
Helios
Ra Sun
(Ra)
Sosis or Agathosdaimon (perhaps Sothis?)
- Air
(Shu)
 Kronos
Geb Earth
(Geb)
Osiris Osiris Afterlife
Typhon
Set Evil
(Set)
Horus Horus War
Thoth Knowledge
Ma'at Order

These god kings are followed by differing sets of semi-divine rulers.

Turin King List Length Manetho Length

Second dynasty of gods unknown Dynasty of Halfgods unknown
3 Achu-Dynasties unknown 30 Kings from Memphis 1790 years
Dynasty of Disciples of Horus unknown 10 Kings from This 350 years

Archaic period
The Archaic period includes the Early Dynastic Period, when Lower Egypt and Upper Egypt
were ruled as separate kingdoms, and the First and Second Dynasties

Early Dynastic: Lower Egypt

Lower Egypt, known as the Black Land[citation needed], consisted of the northern Nile and the Nile
Delta. The following list may not be complete:

Name Comments Dates

[4]
Hsekiu Only known from the Palermo stone  ?
Khayu[4] Only known from the Palermo stone  ?
Tiu[4] Only known from the Palermo stone  ?
Thesh[4] Only known from the Palermo stone  ?
Neheb[4] Only known from the Palermo stone  ?
Wazner[4] Only known from the Palermo stone c. 3100 BC?
Mekh[4] Only known from the Palermo stone  ?

Early Dynastic: Upper Egypt

Upper Egypt, known as the Red Land[citation needed], consisted of the southern Nile and the
deserts. The following list may not be complete (there are many more of uncertain existence):

Name Comments Dates

Scorpion I Oldest tomb at Umm el-Qa'ab had scorpion insignia c. 3200 BC?
Iry-Hor kingship uncertain c. 3150 BC?
Ka[5][6] — c. 3100 BC
King Scorpion Potentially pronounced Serqet, but uncertain; possibly c. 3100 BC
 the same person as Narmer.
Narmer The king who combined Upper and Lower Egypt.[7] c. 3100 BC

First Dynasty

The First Dynasty ruled from approximately 3050 BC to 2890 BC, by some chronological
schemes. (There are no precise or agreed-upon year dates for any of the Old or Middle
Kingdom periods, and reign estimates differ widely from one Egyptologist to the next.)

Name Comments Dates

Potentially the same person as Narmer, Hor-Aha, Scorpion
Contingent
Menes King, or any combination of the three. First known
upon identity
pharaoh in Egyptian history
Hor-Aha Arguably the unifier of Upper and Lower Egypt.[8] c. 3050 BC
Djer — 41 years
Djet — 23 years
Merneith Regent for Den —
Den — 14 to 20.1 years
Anedjib — 10 years
Semerkhet — 9 years
Qa'a — 2916?–2890 BC

Second Dynasty

The Second Dynasty ruled c. 2890 — 2686 BC.

Name Comments Dates

Hotepsekhemwy[9] — 38 years
Raneb[10] — 39 years
Nynetjer[11] — 40 years
Wneg[12] — 8 years
Senedj[13] — 20 years
Seth-Peribsen[14] — 17 years
Sekhemib-Perenmaat —
Khasekhem(wy)[15][16]  ?–2686 BC 17 to 18 years

Old Kingdom
The Old Kingdom is the period in the third millennium BC when Egypt attained its first
continuous peak of civilisational complexity and achievement (the first of three so-called
"Kingdom" periods which mark the high points of civilization in the Nile Valley), spanning
the period when Egypt was ruled by the Third Dynasty through the Sixth Dynasty (2345–
2181 BC). Many Egyptologists also include the Memphite Seventh and Eighth Dynasties in
the Old Kingdom as a continuation of the administration centralised at Memphis. The Old
Kingdom was followed by a period of disunity and relative cultural decline referred to by
Egyptologists as the First Intermediate Period -- or, as the Egyptians called it, the "first
illness."
The royal capital of Egypt during the Old Kingdom was located at Memphis, where Djoser
established his court. The Old Kingdom is perhaps best known, however, for the large number
of pyramids which were constructed at this time as pharaonic burial places. For this reason,
the Old Kingdom is frequently referred to as "the Age of the Pyramids".

Third Dynasty

The Third Dynasty ruled from 2686 to 2613 BC.

Name Image Comments Dates

Sanakhte — 2686-2668

2668–2649; Radiocarbon date

Had the Step Pyramid
Djoser[17][18] start reign between 2691 and
constructed by Imhotep[19]
2625[20]

Sekhemkhet[21] — — 2649–2643
Khaba — — 2643–2637

Huni[22] — 2637–2613

Fourth Dynasty

The Fourth Dynasty ruled from 2613 to 2498 BC and included the pharaohs who had the
Great Pyramids built, Khufu (Cheops), Khafra (Chephren) and Menkaura (Mycerinus).

Nomen
Image Comments Dates
(Praenomen)
 Built the Bent Pyramid, which is a pyramid built at a
normal angle at the bottom but drastically changes at
the top. He also built the first "true" pyramid, known
as the Red Pyramid. Some say that he was buried at 2613–
Sneferu
the Red Pyramid, while others say that he was buried 2589
at the Bent Pyramid. Bones have been found at the
Red Pyramid, but there is no evidence that this is
Sneferu's body.

Greek form: Cheops. Built the great pyramid of Giza.

Note that Khufu is spoken of in early sources as being
"third" of his family to rule, although there is no
known record of a Pharaoh between Sneferu and 2589–
Khufu
Khufu. One supposition is that there might have been 2566
a very short reign of some elder brother of Khufu,
whose inscriptions, name, and monuments have
perished for one reason or another.
Believed to have created the Great Sphinx of Giza as a
monument for his deceased father. He also created a
pyramid at Abu Rawash however this pyramid is no
longer intact as it is believed the Romans recycled the
Djedefra materials it was made from. Before being demolished 2566–
(Radjedef) by the Romans, according to a documentary aired by 2558
the History Channel, the pyramid may actually have
been the highest ever built (about 20 meters taller than
the Great Pyramid of Giza although this is due to its
elevated location rather than the size from base to tip).

Greek form: Chephren His pyramid is the second 2558–

Khafra
largest in Giza. Built the Sphinx of Giza. 2532

here some authorities insert Bikheris, following

— – —
Manetho

Greek form: Mycerinus. His pyramid is the third and 2532–

Menkaura
smallest in Giza. 2503
 2503–
Shepseskaf –
2498

Djedefptah – – —
here some authorities insert Thampthis, following
– – —
Manetho

Fifth Dynasty

The Fifth Dynasty ruled from 2498 to 2345 BC.

Name Image Comments Dates

Userkaf Buried in a pyramid in Saqqara 2498–2491

Sahure Moved the royal necropolis to Abusir 2490–2477

Neferirkare Kakai — 2477–2467

Shepseskare Isi — 2467–2460

Neferefre — 2460–2453
Nyuserre Ini — 2453–2422

Menkauhor Kaiu — 2422–2414

Djedkare Isesi — — 2414–2375

Unas — — 2375–2345

Sixth Dynasty

The Sixth Dynasty ruled from 2345 to 2181 BC.

Name Comments Dates

Teti — 2345–2333
Userkare — 2333–2332
Meryre Pepi I — 2332–2283
Merenre
— 2283–2278
Nemtyemsaf I
Possible unto 2224 which would explain the following 4
Neferkare Pepi II 2278–2184
kings.
Only mentioned in the Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient
Neferka Egypt. Reigned during Pepi II; was possibly his son or co- 2200–2199
ruler.
Reign of 2 years, 1 month and a day according to Turin
Nefer 2197–2193
Canon
Reigned for 4 years and 2 months. Reign dates don't follow
Aba 2193–2176
Turin Canon. Highly unlikely.
Unknown king Unknown king attested here
Merenre
Uncertain pharaoh. 2184
Nemtyemsaf II[23]
This king may have been confused in later years as a
Neitiqerty Siptah 2184–2181
supposed female ruler Nitocris.[24]

First Intermediate Period

The First Intermediate Period (2181-2160 BC) is the period between the end of the Old
Kingdom and the advent of the Middle Kingdom.

The Old Kingdom rapidly collapsed after the death of Pepi II. He had reigned for 94 years,
longer than any monarch in history, and died aged 100. The latter years of his reign were
marked by inefficiency because of his advanced age.

The Union of the Two Kingdoms fell apart and regional leaders had to cope with the resulting
famine.

Around 2160 BC, a new line of pharaohs tried to reunite Lower Egypt from their capital in
Herakleopolis Magna. In the meantime, a rival line based at Thebes was reuniting Upper
Egypt and a clash between the two rival dynasties was inevitable.

Around 2055 BC, a descendant of the pharaoh Intef III defeated the Herakleopolitan
pharaohs, reunited the Two Lands, founded the Eleventh Dynasty and ruled as Mentuhotep II,
the first pharaoh of the Middle Kingdom.

Seventh and Eighth Dynasties (combined)

The Seventh and Eighth Dynasties ruled from 2181 to 2160 BC. (This table is based on the
Abydos Table from the Temple of Seti I, taken from www.narmer.pl/main/abydos_en.html)

Name Comments Dates

Neferkara I -
Netjerkare -
Menkare -
Neferkare II -
Neferkara Nebi -
Djedkara Shemai -
Neferkara Khendu -
Some authorities place here Merenhor
Neferkamin Seneferka -
Nikara -
Neferkara Tereru -
Neferkahor -
Neferkara Pepyseneb -
Neferkamin Anu -
Qakare Ibi - 2169-2167
Neferkara II - 2167-2163
Neferkawhor Khuwihap - 2163-2161
Neferirkara - 2161-2160

Ninth Dynasty

The Ninth Dynasty[25] ruled from 2160 to 2130 BC. The Turin King List has 18 kings reigning
in the Ninth and Tenth Dynasties. Of these, twelve names are missing and four are partial.[25]
 Name Comments Dates
— Manetho states that Achthoes founded this dynasty. 2160– ?
— -  ?
Neferkare III -  ?
Khety (Acthoes II) -  ?
Senenh— or Setut -  ?
— -  ?
Mer[ibre Khety] -  ?
Shed— -  ?
H— -  ?

Tenth Dynasty

The Tenth Dynasty was a local group that held sway over Lower Egypt that ruled from 2130
to 2040 BC.

Name Comments Dates

Meryhathor — 2130– ?
Neferkare IV —  ?
Wankare (Acthoes III) —  ?
Merykare —  ? –2040

Eleventh Dynasty

The Eleventh Dynasty was a local group with roots in Upper Egypt that ruled from 2134 to
1991 BC.

Name Comments Dates

Mentuhotep I Tepy-a —
Sehertawy Intef I — 2134–2117
Wahankh Intef II — 2117–2069
Nakhtnebtepnefer Intef III — 2069–2060

Middle Kingdom
The Middle Kingdom (2060-1802 BC) is the period from the end of the First Intermediate
Period to the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period. In addition to the Twelfth
Dynasty, some scholars include the Eleventh, Thirteenth and Fourteenth Dynasties in the
Middle Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom can be noted for the expansion of trade outside of the
kingdom that occurred during this time. This opening of trade eventually led to the downfall
of the Middle Kingdom, induced by an invasion from the Hyksos.

Eleventh Dynasty Continued

The second part of the Eleventh Dynasty is considered to be part of the Middle Kingdom of
Egypt.
 Name Comments Dates
Nebhetepre Mentuhotep
Gained all Egypt 2040, Middle Kingdom begins. 2060–2010
II[26]
Sankhkare Mentuhotep
— 2010–1998
III[27]
Nebtawyre Mentuhotep
— 1997–1991
IV[28]

Twelfth Dynasty

The Twelfth Dynasty ruled from 1991 to 1802 BC, and is considered by later Egyptians to
have been their greatest dynasty.

Name Comments Dates

Sehetepibre Amenemhat I[29]
[30] — 1991–1962
Kheperkare Senusret I[31]
—Built the white chapel 1971–1926
(Sesostris I)
Nubkaure Amenemhat II[32] — 1929–1895
Khakheperre Senusret II[33]
— 1897–1878
(Sesostris II)
Khakaure Senusret III[34]
Most powerful of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs. 1878–1860
(Sesostris III)
Nimaatre Amenemhat III[35] — 1860–1815
Had a co-regency lasting at least 1 year based on
Maakherure Amenemhat IV[36] 1815–1807
an inscription at Konosso.
Sobekkare Sobekneferu[37] A rare female ruler. 1807–1802

Second Intermediate Period

The Second Intermediate Period (1802-1550 BC) is a period of disarray between the end of
the Middle Kingdom, and the start of the New Kingdom. It is best known as when the
Hyksos, whose reign comprised the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Dynasties, made their appearance
in Egypt.

The Thirteenth Dynasty was much weaker than the Twelfth Dynasty, and was unable to hold
onto the long land of Egypt. The provincial ruling family in Xois, located in the marshes of
the western Delta, broke away from the central authority to form the Fourteenth Dynasty.

The Hyksos made their first appearance during the reign of Sobekhotep IV, and around 1720
BC took control of the town of Avaris (the modern Tell el-Dab'a/Khata'na). The Hyksos, led
by Salitis, the founder of the Fifteenth Dynasty, overran Egypt during the reign of Dedumose
I.

Around the time Memphis fell to the Hyksos, the native Egyptian ruling house in Thebes
declared its independence and set itself up as the Seventeenth Dynasty. This dynasty
eventually drove the Hyksos back into Asia
Thirteenth Dynasty

The Thirteenth Dynasty (following the Turin King List) ruled from 1802 to around 1649 BC
and lasted 153 or 154 Yrs according to Manetho. This table should be contrasted with Known
kings of the 13th Dynasty

Name Comments Dates

Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Founded the 13th Dynasty. His reign is attested 1802–1799
or Wegaf by several Nile Records and Papyri. 4 yrs.
Amenemhat V Senebef, brother of Sekhemre
Sekhemkare —
Khutawy. 3 Yrs.
Amenemhat — 1795–1792
Sehetepre —  ? –1790
Iufni —  ?
Seankhibre —  ?
Semenkare —  ?
Sehetepre —  ?
Sewadjkare —  ?
Nedjemibre 7 months  ?
Khaankhre Sobekhotep I —  ?
Renseneb 4 months c. 1775
Awybre Hor I? — c. 1775?
A well known king attested on numerous stelas
Sedjefakare c. 5 to 7 yrs.
and other documents.
Sekhemre Khutawy Sobekhotep Compare Wegaf c. 1767
Khendjer Minimum 4 yrs and 3 months c. 1765
Imyremeshaw —  ?
Antef V —  ?
Sekhemresewadjtawy
4 years and 2 months c. 1755
Sobekhotep III
Khasekhemre Neferhotep I 11 years 1751–1740
Khaneferre Sobekhotep IV 10 or 11 years 1740–1730
Khahotepre Sobekhotep V — c. 1730
c. 1725–
Wahibre Ibiau 10 years & 8 months
1714
c. 1714–
Merneferre Ay 23 years & 8 months
1691
Merhotepre Ini 2 years & 2 months  ?
Sankhenre Sewadjtu —  ?
Mersekhemre Ini —  ?
Sewadjkare Hori —  ?

The position of the following kings is uncertain:

Name Comments Dates

Dedumose I — c. 1654
Dudimose II —  ?
Senebmiu —  ?
Mentuhotep V —  ?
Senaaib —  ?

Fourteenth Dynasty

The Fourteenth Dynasty was a local group from the eastern Delta, based at Xois, that ruled
from around 1705 to around 1690 BC.

Name Comments Dates

Nehesy - c. 1705
Khakherewre ? -  ?
Nebefawre - c. 1704
Sehebre ? -  ?
Merdjefare - c. 1699
Sewadjkare ? -  ?
Nebdjefare - c. 1694
Webenre ? -  ?
— -  ?
Djefare? -  ?
Webenre - c. 1690

The position of the following pharaohs are uncertain:

Name Comments Dates

[38]
Sheshi —
Yakubher[38] —  ?

The Turin King List provides an additional 25 names, some fragmentary, and no dates. None
are attested to elsewhere, and all are of very dubious provenance.

Fifteenth Dynasty

The Fifteenth Dynasty arose from among the Hyksos people who emerged out of the Fertile
Crescent to establish a short-lived governance over much of the Nile region, and ruled from
1674 to 1535 BC.

Name Comments Dates

Salitis
Sakir-Har -  ?
Khyan - 30-40 Years
40 Years or
Apepi -
more
Khamudi - 1555-1544

Sixteenth Dynasty
The Sixteenth Dynasty was a local native kingdom from Thebes who ruled Egypt for between
80 and 100 years, according to Kim Ryholt.

Name Comments Dates

name of the first king is lost here in the Turin
— -
King List, and cannot be recovered
Djehuti
– 3 yrs
(Sekhemresementawy)
Sobekhotep VIII
– 16 yrs
(Sekhemreseusertawy)
Neferhotep III
– 1 yr
(Sekhemresankhtawy)
Mentuhotep VI (Sankhenre) – 1 yr
Nebiriau I (Sewadjenre) – 26 yrs
Nebiriau II –
Semenre –
Bebiankh (Seuserenre) – 12 yrs
(Sekhemre Shedwast) –
The names of five kings are lost here in the Turin
— King List, and cannot be recovered. Their -
identity is uncertain

Some sources include as many as six more names –

Seventeenth Dynasty

The Seventeenth Dynasty was based in Upper Egypt and ruled from 1650 to 1550 BC:

Name Comments Dates

Rahotep Sekhemrewahkhau 1650- ?
Sobekemsaf I
- 3 years
Sekhemreshedtawy
Sekhemre-Wepmaat Intef - -
Nubkheperre Intef -
Sekhemre-Heruhirmaat Intef - -
Sobekemsaf II
- -
Sekhemrewadjkhau
Tao I the Elder (ie:
- c. 1558
Senakhtenre)
c. 1558 - c.
Tao II the Brave (Seqenenre) -
1554
Kamose - c. 1555 - 1550

New Kingdom
The New Kingdom (1550-1077 BC) is the period covering the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and
Twentieth dynasty of Egypt, from the 16th century BC to the 11th century BC, between the
Second Intermediate Period, and the Third Intermediate Period.

Through military dominance abroad, the New Kingdom saw Egypt's greatest territorial extent.
It expanded far into Nubia in the south, and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian
armies fought with Hittite armies for control of modern-day Syria.

Two of the best known pharaohs of the New Kingdom are Akhenaten, also known as
Amenhotep IV, whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as the first instance
of monotheism, and Ramesses II, who attempted to recover the territories in modern
Israel/Palestine, Lebanon and Syria that had been held in the Eighteenth Dynasty. His
reconquest led to the Battle of Qadesh, where he led the Egyptian armies against the army of
the Hittite king Muwatalli II.

Eighteenth Dynasty

The Eighteenth Dynasty ruled from c. 1550 to 1292 BC:

Name Image Comments Dates

c.1550-1525 BCE;
Radiocarbon date
range for the start
Nebpehtire Ahmose I, of his reign is
Successor to Kamose, above.
Ahmosis I 1570-1544 BCE,
the mean point of
which is 1557
BCE[39]

Djeserkare Amenhotep I - 1541-1520

Aakheperkare Thutmose I - 1520-1492

Aakheperenre Thutmose II - 1492-1479

Often called the "Napoleon of

Egypt." Dominated early in
his reign by his stepmother
Menkheperre Thutmose III 1479-1425
Hatshepsut; after she died, he
began expanding Egyptian
rule into the Levant.
The second known female
ruler, though quite possibly
the seventh (the reigns of five
Maatkare Hatshepsut other women are likely, but 1473-1458
disputed). Recent evidence
suggests she died of bone
cancer.[40]

Aakheperrure Amenhotep II - 1425-1400

Menkheperure Thutmose IV - 1400-1390

His name means Lord of the

truth is Ra. He ruled Egypt at
the peak of her glory, his
mortuary temple was the
Nebmaatre Amenhotep III
largest ever built, but was 1390-1352
The Magnificent King
destroyed by Rameses II to
build his own temple.
Thought to be the grandfather
of Tutankhamun
 Founder of brief period of a
Neferkheperure-waenre solar-centered religion
1352-1334
Amenhotep IV/Akhenaten (Atenism). His original name
means "Amun is pleased."

Co-regent and successor of

Akhenaten. The identity of
this individual is uncertain
and disputed. Usually
believed to be either a son or
son-in-law of Akhenaten but
sometimes identified as
Akhenaten's wife Nefertiti.
Ankhkheperure Smenkhkare Other scholars distinguish 1334-1333
two individuals between
Akhenaten and Tutankhamun,
namely Smenkhkare, who is
then seen as male, and a
female ruler, who is then
most often identified as
Akhenaten's eldest daughter
Meritaten
Commonly believed to be the
son of Akhenaten, probably
reinstated the polytheistic
Nebkheperure
religion and the name change 1333-1324
Tutankhaten/Tutankhamun
reflects the change in primary
deity from Aten to Amun. He
is also known as the boy king.

Kheperkheperure Ay - 1324-1320

Former General and advisor

to Tutankhamun. Obliterated
Djeserkheperure-setpenre
images of the Amarna queens 1320-1292
Horemheb
and kings (all except
Amenhotep III and Tiye).

Nineteenth Dynasty
The Nineteenth Dynasty ruled from 1292 to 1186 BC and includes one of the greatest
pharaohs: Rameses II the Great:

Name Image Comments Dates

Menpehtire Ramesses 1292-

-
I[41] 1290

1290-
Menmaatre Seti I -
1279

The ruler usually associated with Moses;

he reached a stalemate with the Hittites at
Usermaatre-setpenre 1279-
the Battle of Kadesh in 1275 BC, after
Ramesses II the Great 1213
which a peace treaty was signed in 1258
BC

A stele describing campaigns in Libya and

1213-
Banenre Merenptah[42] Canaan contains the only extant reference
1203
to "Israel" in Ancient Egyptian records.

Menmire-setpenre 1203-
-
Amenmesse 1200
 1203-
Userkheperure Seti II[43] -
1197

Sekhaenre/Akhenre 1197-
-
Merenptah Siptah[44] 1191

A rare female ruler also known as Tawosret

Satre-merenamun 1191-
in some places, she was probably the wife
Tausret 1190
of Seti II.[45]

Twentieth Dynasty

The Twentieth Dynasty ruled from 1190 to 1077 BC:

Name Image Comments Dates

1190-
Userkhaure Setnakht -
1186

Usermaatre-meryamun 1186-
Fought the Sea Peoples in 1175 BC
Ramesses III 1155
User/Heqamaatre-
1155-
setpenamun Ramesses -
1149
IV

Usermaatre-
1149-
sekheperenre Ramesses -
1145
V

Nebmaatre-meryamun 1145-
-
Ramesses VI 1137

Usermaatre-setpenre-
1137-
meryamun Ramesses -
1130
VII

Usermaatre-akhenamun 1130-
-
Ramesses VIII 1129

Neferkare-setpenre 1129-
-
Ramesses IX 1111

Khepermaatre-
1111-
setpenptah Ramesses -
1107
X[46]

Ended rule sharing power with High Priest

Menmaatre-setpenptah of Amun Herihor ruling in the south and 1107-
Ramesses XI[47] Smendes I ruling in the north, a period 1077
[48]
known as wehem mesut.

Third Intermediate Period

The Third Intermediate Period (1077-732 BC) marked the end of the New Kingdom after the
collapse of the Egyptian empire. A number of dynasties of Libyan origin ruled, giving this
period its alternative name of the Libyan Period.
Twenty-First Dynasty

The Twenty-First Dynasty was based at Tanis and was a relatively weak group. Theoretically,
they were rulers of all Egypt, but in practice their influence was limited to Lower Egypt. They
ruled from 1069 to 943 BC

Name Image Comments Dates

Hedjkheperre-setpenre
Also known as Smendes I 1077-1051
Nesbanebdjed[49]
Neferkare Heqawaset
- 1051-1047
Amenemnisu

Aakheperre Pasebakhenniut I
- 1047-1001
(Psusennes I)

Usermaatre Amenemope - 1001-992

Aakheperre Setepenre Osorkon

- * ( Osochor ) 992-986
(Osorkon the Elder)

Netjerikheperre-setpenamun
- 986-967
Siamun-meryamun

Titkheperure Pasebakhenniut II
- 967-943
(Psusennes II)

Twenty-Second Dynasty

The pharaohs of the Twenty-Second Dynasty were Libyans, ruling from around 943 to 720
BC:

Name Image Comments Dates

Hedjkheperre-setepenre
943-922
Shoshenq I
Sekhemkheperre Osorkon I - 922-887

Heqakheperre Shoshenq II - 887-885

Takelot I - 885-872

Hedjkheperre Harsiese A rebel, at Thebes 880-860

Usermaatre-setepenamun
- 872-837
Osorkon II

Usermaatre-setepenre
- 837-798
Shoshenq III

Shoshenq IV - 798-785

Usermaatre-setepenre Pami - 785-778

Aakheperre Shoshenq V - 778-740

Aakheperre-setepenamun
- 740-720
Osorkon IV

Twenty-Third Dynasty

The Twenty-Third Dynasty was a local group, again of Libyan origin, based at Herakleopolis
and Thebes that ruled from 837 to c.735 BC:

Name Image Comments Dates

Previously thought to be a 22nd Dynasty
Hedjkheperre-setpenre
pharaoh, he is now known to be the 837-813
Takelot II
founder of the 23rd
Usermaatre-
A rebel—seized Thebes from Takelot II 826-801
setepenamun Pedubast
Usermaatre-
- 812-811
setepenamun Iuput I
Usermaatre Shoshenq
Successor to Pedubast 801-795
VI
Usermaatre-
Son of Takelot II- recovered Thebes, then
setepenamun Osorkon 795-767
proclaimed himself king
III

Usermaatre-
- 773-765
setpenamun Takelot III

Usermaatre-
- 765-762
setpenamun Rudamun

The Libu
Not recognised as a dynasty as such, the Libu were yet another group of western nomads
(Libyans) who occupied the western Delta from 805 to 732 BC.

Name Image Comments Dates

Inamunnifnebu - 805-795
 ? - 795-780
Niumateped - 780-755
Titaru - 763-755
Ker - 755-750
Rudamon - 750-745
Ankhor - 745-736
Tefnakht - 736-732

Twenty-Fourth Dynasty

The Twenty-fourth Dynasty was a short-lived rival dynasty located in the western Delta
(Sais), with only two Pharaoh ruling from 732 to 720 BC.

Name Image Comments Dates

Shepsesre Tefnakhte - 732-725
Wahkare Bakenrenef
- 725-720
(Bocchoris)

Late period
The Late Period runs from 732 BC to Egypt becoming a province of Rome in 30 BC, and
includes periods of rule by Nubians, Persians, and Macedonians.

Twenty-fifth Dynasty

Nubians invaded Egypt in 732 BC and took the throne of Egypt, establishing the Twenty-fifth
Dynasty which ruled until 656 BC.

Name Image Comments Dates

King of Nubia; conquered Egypt in 747-716
Usermaatre Piye 20th year; full reign at least 24 years, according to
possibly 30+ years Peter Clayton

716-702
Neferkare Shabaka - according to
Peter Clayton
 702-690
Djedkaure Shebitku - according to
Peter Clayton

Khuinefertemre
- 690-664
Taharqa

lost control of Upper Egypt in 656 BC

Bakare Tantamani when Psamtik I extended his authority 664-653
into Thebes in that year.

They were ultimately driven back into Nubia, where they established a kingdom at Napata
(656-590), and, later, at Meroë (590 BC-4th cent. AD).

Twenty-sixth Dynasty

The Twenty-sixth Dynasty ruled from around 672 to 525 BC.[50]

Name Image Comment Dates

Menkheperre Nekau I 672 – 664
-
(Necho I) BC

Wahibre Psamtik I 664 – 610

-
(Psammetichus I) BC
Wehemibre Necho II (Necho 610 – 595
-
II) BC

Neferibre Psamtik II 595 – 589

-
(Psammetichus II) BC

589 – 570
Haaibre Wahibre (Apries) -
BC

Khnemibre Ahmose II 570 – 526

-
(Amasis) BC

Ankhkaenre Psamtik III 526 – 525

-
(Psammetichus III) BC

Twenty-seventh Dynasty

Egypt was conquered by the Persian Empire in 525 BC and annexed by the Persians until 404
BC. The Achaemenid shahs were acknowledged as pharaohs in this era, forming a "Twenty-
seventh" Dynasty:
 Name Image Comments Dates

Metsuire Cambyses Defeated Psamtik III at the Battle of 525 – 521

(Cambyses II) Pelusium at 525 BC BC

522 – 521
Smerdis (Bardiya) Son of Cyrus the Great
BC

Setutre Darius I the 521 – 486

-
Great BC

486 – 465
Xerxes I the Great -
BC

Artabanus the 465 – 464

-
Hyrcanian BC

464 – 424
Artaxerxes I Longhand -
BC

424 – 423
Xerxes II claimant
BC
424 – 423
Sogdianus claimant
BC

424 – 404
Darius II
BC

Twenty-eighth Dynasty

The Twenty-eighth Dynasty lasted only 6 years, from 404 to 398 BC, with one Pharaoh:
 Name Image Comments Dates
Descendant of the Saite pharaohs of the
Amyrtaeus Twenty-sixth Dynasty; led a successful 404 – 398 BC
revolt against the Persians.

Twenty-ninth Dynasty

The Twenty-ninth Dynasty ruled from 398 to 380 BC:

Name Image Comments Dates

398 – 393
Baenre Nefaarud I Also known as Nepherites
BC

Psammuthes - 393 BC

Khenemmaatre Hakor 393 – 380

-
(Achoris) BC

Nefaarud II - 380 BC

Thirtieth Dynasty

The Thirtieth Dynasty ruled from 380 until Egypt once more came under Persian rule in 343
BC:

Name Image Comments Dates

Kheperkare Nekhtnebef 380 – 362

Also known as Nekhtnebef
(Nectanebo I) BC
 362 – 360
Irimaatenre Djedher (Teos) -
BC

Senedjemibre Nakhthorhebyt 360 – 343

-
(Nectanebo II) BC

Thirty-first Dynasty

Egypt again came under the control of the Achaemenid Persians. After the practice of
Manetho, the Persian rulers from 343 to 332 BC are occasionally designated as the Thirty-first
Dynasty:

Name Image Comments Dates

Egypt came under Persian rule for the

Artaxerxes III 343–338 BC
second time

Artaxerxes IV Arses Only reigned in Lower Egypt 338–336 BC

Leader of a Nubian revolt in Upper
Khababash 338–335 BC
Egypt

Upper Egypt returned to Persian control

Darius III 336–332 BC
in 335 BC

Argead Dynasty

The Macedonians under Alexander the Great ushered in the Hellenistic period with his
conquest of Persia and Egypt. The Argeads ruled from 332 to 309 BC:

Name Image Comments Dates

Setepenre-meryamun
Macedon conquered Persia and 332–323
Alexander III (Alexander the
Egypt BC
Great)
Feeble-minded half-brother of 323–317
Philip III Arrhidaeus
Alexander III the Great BC
Son of Alexander III the Great 317–309
Haaibre Alexander IV
and Roxana BC

Ptolemaic Dynasty

The second Hellenistic dynasty, the Ptolemies ruled Egypt from 305 BC until Egypt became a
province of Rome in 30 BC (whenever two dates overlap, that means there was a co-regency).
The most famous member of this dynasty was Cleopatra VII, who in modern times is known
simply as Cleopatra, and who had affairs with Mark Antony and Julius Caesar.

Name Image Comments Dates

Ptolemy I Soter
305–285
(Setepenre-meryamun Abdicated in 285 BC; died in 283 BC
BC
Ptolemy)

Berenice I Wife of Ptolemy I  ?-285 BC

Ptolemy II
Philadelphos 288–246
-
(Weserkare-meryamun BC
Ptolemy)

284/81-ca.
Arsinoe I Wife of Ptolemy II
274 BC

277-270
Arsinoe II Wife of Ptolemy II
BC
 246–222
Ptolemy III Euergetes I -
BC

244/3-222
Berenice II Wife of Ptolemy III
BC

222–204
Ptolemy IV Philopator -
BC

220-204
Arsinoe III Wife of Ptolemy IV
BC

205-199
Hugronaphor Revolutionary Pharaoh in the South
BC
199-185
Ankhmakis Revolutionary Pharaoh in the South
BC

204–180
Ptolemy V Epiphanes Upper Egypt in revolt 207–186 BC
BC

Wife of Ptolemy V, co-regent with 193-176

Cleopatra I
Ptolemy VI during his minority BC

180–164
Ptolemy VI Philometor Died 145 BC
BC

173-164
Cleopatra II Wife of Ptolemy VI
BC

Proclaimed king by Alexandrians in 170

Ptolemy VIII Euergetes BC; ruled jointly with Ptolemy VI 171–163
II Philometor and Cleopatra II from 169 to BC
164 BC. Died 116 BC
 Egypt under the control of Ptolemy VIII
163-145
Ptolemy VI Philometor 164 BC–163 BC; Ptolemy VI restored 163
BC
BC

Married Ptolemy VIII; led revolt against

163-127
Cleopatra II him in 131 BC and became sole ruler of
BC
Egypt.

Ptolemy VII Neos Proclaimed co-ruler by father; later ruled 145-144

Philopator under regency of his mother Cleopatra II BC

Ptolemy VIII Euergetes 145-131

Restored
II BC

142-131
Cleopatra III Second wife of Ptolemy VIII
BC

Proclaimed King by Cleopatra II; soon

Ptolemy Memphitis 131 BC
killed by Ptolemy VIII

Ptolemy VIII Euergetes 127-116

Restored
II BC

Restored with Ptolemy VIII; later co- 127-107

Cleopatra III
regent with Ptolemy IX and X. BC

Reconciled with Ptolemy VIII; co-ruled 124-116

Cleopatra II
with Cleopatra III and Ptolemy until 116. BC
 116–110
Ptolemy IX Soter II Died 80 BC
BC
Shortly married to Ptolemy IX, but was 116-115
Cleopatra IV
pushed out by Cleopatra III BC

110–109
Ptolemy X Alexander I Died 88 BC
BC

Forced to marry Ptolemy XI; murdered on

Berenice III 81-80 BC
his orders 19 days later
Young son of Ptolemy X Alexander;
Ptolemy XI Alexander installed by Sulla; ruled for 80 days before
80 BC
II being lynched by citizens for killing
Berenice III

Ptolemy XII Neos

Son of Ptolemy IX; died 51 BC 80–58 BC
Dionysos (Auletes)

Wife of Ptolemy XII, mother of Berenice

Cleopatra V Tryphaena  ?-57 BC
IV
Cleopatra VI Daughter of Ptolemy XII  ?-58 BC
Daughter of Ptolemy XII; forced to marry
Berenice IV Seleucus Kybiosaktes, but has him 58–55 BC
strangled

Ptolemy XII Neos Restored; reigned briefly with his daughter

55–51 BC
Dionysos Cleopatra VII before his death

Jointly with her father Ptolemy XII, her

brother Ptolemy XIII, her brother-husband
Cleopatra VII 51–30 BC
Ptolemy XIV, and her son Ptolemy XV;
also known simply as Cleopatra
Ptolemy XIII Brother of Cleopatra VII 51–47 BC

Arsinoe IV In opposition to Cleopatra VII 48-47 BC

Younger brother of Cleopatra VII and

Ptolemy XIV 47–44 BC
Ptolemy XIII

Infant son of Cleopatra VII; aged 3 when

proclaimed co-ruler with Cleopatra. Last
Ptolemy XV 44-30 BC
known ruler of ancient Egypt when Rome
took over.

Rome
Cleopatra VII had affairs with Roman Dictator Julius Caesar and Roman General Marc
Antony, but it was not until after her suicide in 30 BC (after Marc Antony was defeated by
Octavian, who would later be the emperor Augustus) that Egypt became a province of Rome
in 30 BC. Subsequent Roman Emperors were accorded the title of Pharaoh, although
exclusively while in Egypt. One Egyptian king-list lists the Roman Emperors as Pharaohs up
to and including Decius. See the list of Roman emperors.

EARLY DYNASTIC KINGS, PART I FIRST DYNASTY

BY MARIE PARSONS
 

Aha, probably the son of Narmer and his queen Nithotep, is thought to be the first king of the 1 st Dynasty. A
tomb at Abydos is attributed to him. It is the largest in the northwestern part of the cemetery, and another tomb
close by contained labels with the name Berner-Ib, or "Sweetheart," possibly his queen.

Djer, whose name may have meant "Horus who Succors," is said to have reigned for 57 years. Nine years from
his reign are recorded on the main Cairo fragment of the royal annals, describing the royal progress, or the
"following of Horus," the fashioning and dedication of cult statues, and an expedition to Western Asia. These
were the first records of military expeditions outside of the Two Lands. Forces were sent east into Sinai and
perhaps beyond. The annals refer to one regnal year being called "The Year of Smiting the Land of the Stjt", a
word later referring perhaps to Syria-Palestine.

The sciences may have flourished at this time, because Djer was remembered later on as a great physician.
Manetho claims that Djer wrote on anatomy and treatment of diseases in circulation 3,000 years after his death.
One of his prescriptions was for hair strengthening.

Djer’s tomb lies at Umm el-Quab, at Abydos. It was a subterranean brick structure containing a wooden inner
chamber, much more elaborate than those of his predecessors Aha and Narmer and other kings from Dynasty 0
so far known. Djer’s burial area also includes 300 retainer graves, more than do the earlier ones. Fragments of
at least a dozen vessels of Syro-Palestinian origin were found in the tomb, confirming trade contacts between
Egypt and its neighbors.

Although the tomb had been robbed, Flinders Petrie discovered an arm near the entrance, still wearing four
bracelets. Three of these were composed of gold, amethyst, turquoise and lapis beads, the fourth consisting of
13 gold and 14 turquoise alternating plaques, with a pair of gold cone end pieces. The arm has been lost, but
the bracelets are now in the Cairo Museum.

Ivory and wood labels are best direct evidence for the existence of Djer, since writing was still in its early stages.
One example is an ivory label found at Saqqara. A Horus-falcon surmounts the serekh containing the king’s
name. Small figures advance to the serekh carrying offerings, while a mummy, or perhaps a statue, follows.
Others carry a fish, a bird and a great spear to the falcon. At the other end of the label, two figures are shown,
one whose arms appear to be drawn back or pinioned, and another apparently plunging a knife into the first.
The figure wielding the knife also holds some sort of vessel, perhaps to catch the flowing blood.

Another ivory label includes characters for two ships, the sign for "town" and Djer’s name in the serekh. The
label may record a visit to the Delta cities of Buto and to Sais.

Merytneith, or Merneith
Around this time MerytNeith, or Merneith, meaning "Beloved of Neith," seems to have taken the throne, either to
rule alone after Djer, or perhaps after his successor Djet, as regent for her son Den, if she was Djet’s wife. On a
clay seal impression the names of the early kings from Narmer to Den are inscribed, and MerytNeith is given
the title of "King’s Mother." At this time the Queens, or more properly, Great wives, since there is no word for
"queen" in the Egyptian language, bore the titles "She who unites the Two Lands" and "She who sees Horus
and Set." The inclusion of the name Neith, or Nit, goddess of Sais in the Delta, would seem to indicate that
MerytNeith at least had strong northern connections. A later necropolis seal belonging to Qaa, last king of the
first dynasty, omitted MerNeith’s name from the list of kings.

MerytNeith was buried at Abydos and the building associated her reign at Saqqara, with 41 subsidiary or
servant graves, indicates the pomp and solemnity generally accorded to the King.

Horus Djet

King Djet, the Horus Cobra, used the name sign of the serpent. His stela is now in the Louvre, and shows his
name sign shows the rearing serpent, suspended in the sky above fortified battlements. Djet may have had a
short reign, less than 20 years. All that is known about him was that an expedition made its way to the Red Sea
and perhaps beyond.
 

His tomb lies at Abydos. The building at Saqqara formerly attributed to his reign is now thought to be that of a
noble named Sekhem-kha, whose sealings were found in the debris. The room was originally paneled in wood,
inlaid with strips of gold plating. The building itself was surrounded by a low platform on which were mounted
some 300 bulls’ heads modeled in clay with the actual horns. The same display is made around the tomb of
Queen Her-Neith, perhaps Djer’s consort who was buried after the reign of King Djet.

Horus Den

Djet was followed on the throne by Den, Horus who Strikes, also called Udimu. Den probably had a long reign,
since he possibly celebrated not one but at least two Sed-festivals or jubilees. His chancellor was Hemaka,
known from the discovery of his tomb at Saqqara. Hemaka’s tomb was particularly rich, yielding artifacts such
as inlaid gaming discs and a wooden box containing the oldest papyrus to survive from Egypt.

 
 

Den’s throne name, or nisu-bity (literally meaning "the sedge and the bee,") was Semti. This was the first time
this title was used. For the first time the Double Crown, that is, the Red and White Crowns together, is shown
being worn by the king. Like Djer, Den too was thought of as a physician, and a prescription recorded in the
Ebers medical papyrus is attributed to him. One of the medical studies thought to date from this time had to do
with the treatment of fractures.

The name Smti was written with the sign for high desert or foreign land, perhaps reflecting his preoccupation
with the northeast frontier. Den apparently campaigned to the East. Five labels record military activity in
southern Palestine, though perhaps at least some of these expeditions may have been symbolic. The Palermo
Stone records that in Year x+2 of his reign Den smote the Iwnw, a word usually indicating the nomads of the
eastern or western deserts. Eight years later the annals record the destruction of a possibly Asiatic locality
named Wt-k3.

Another innovation of this reign was the use of stone in tomb-making, as his tomb possessed a granite
pavement, and granite blocks supported the wooden roof.

Horus Anedjib

After Den came Enezib, or Anedjib, "Safe is his heart," who according to the Saqqara king list was named the
first king of united Egypt. There may have been a dynastic struggle between north and south (an event which
seems to have happened on and off during the Early Dynastic period ever since Narmer "unified" Egypt. Anedjib
adopted the "Two Lords" title, anticipating Khasekhemwy in the 2nd Dynasty. He may have had a long reign,
since two stone vessel fragments from Saqqara and Abydos make reference to a Sed festival.
For all that, little is known of this king. Though his own tomb was modest compared to those of Den and Djet,
Anedjib installed sixty-four servants in subsidiary graves. But he was quite possibly overthrown, his name on
stone vases erased, probably by his successor Semerkhet.

Horus Semerkhet

Manetho records that in the reign of King Semerkhet, meaning "Thoughtful Friend," a great calamity came to
Egypt. It has been suggested that he was a usurper with a dubious title to the kingship, though he was the first
to use the "Two Ladies" or nbty name, of Irynetjer. His tomb at Abydos contained a number of stone vessels
originally inscribed with the name of Anedjib, that were re-inscribed for Semerkhet. However, stone vessels
from Djoser’s Step Pyramid in the 3rd Dynasty are inscribed with the kingly sequence of Den-Anedjib-
Semerkhet-Qaa; that is, Semerkhet’s name was not omitted, as was Merneith’s name later on, for example (or
Hatshepsut’s as a New Kingdom example.)

Semerkhet reigned for only nine years. Though the royal annals preserved a complete record of his reign, the
events listed are nothing more than the biennial royal progress (if that is the correct interpretation of the
"following of Horus," of ritual "appearances of the king," and of dedicating divine images. Trade continued
between the Near East and Egypt, evidenced from fragments from 10 or 11 imported Syro-Palestinian vessels
found in Semerkhet’s tomb, and from a grave dated to the same period, found at Abusir, in the form of a
painted, handled flask typical of Early Bronze Age vessels also from Syro-Palestine.

Horus Qa’a
Qa’a, meaning "His Arm is Raised," succeeded Semerkhet, and was the last king of this 1st dynasty and reigned
for 26 years. Qaa built the last tomb and funerary enclosure at Abydos until the last two kings of the 2 nd Dynasty
returned to build their own tombs there. Several large mastabas at North Saqqara are dated to his reign, and a
fragment of a siltstone bowl from Saqqara which mentions the king’s second Sed-festival, suggesting Qaa’s
reign may have been a long one.

Year labels discovered at his tomb record events from the royal progress to the collection of timber, from the
foundation of a religious building to the celebration of cultic festivals, such as the running of the Apis bull and
the festival of Sokar.

A rock-cut inscription near the city of el-Kab in Upper Egypt shows Qaa’s serekh facin a figure of the regnal
goddess Nekhbet.

EARLY DYNASTIC KINGS, PART II

BY MARIE PARSONS
 

In the 2nd Dynasty, bronze vessels were made in Egypt for the first time. The entire ancient Near East had
entered the Bronze Age.

Six kings may have ruled in the 2nd dynasty, which lasted little more than 200 years. The names of the first
three rulers, Hetepsekhemwy, meaning "Pleasing in Powers," Raneb, meaning "Ra is the lord," and Nynetjer,
meaning "Godlike," were inscribed on the back of a statue of a priest named Hotepdief. This priest presumably
was in the royal mortuary cult at Saqqara for these kings.

Horus Hetepsekhemwy

Hetepsekhemwy may have reigned for 38 years. Sealings with his name have been found near the 5th Dynasty
pyramid of Unas at Saqqara, though the tomb attributed to him was empty. Sealings with his name have also
been found in the offering chambers nearest the entrance of Qa’a’s tomb, perhaps indicating that
Hetepsekhemwy oversaw the burial of his predecessor. In addition, an grave from Badari dated to the Early
Dynastic period contained an alabaster vessel fragment inscribed with the royal serekh, the name of an estate,
and the title of a mortuary priest.

 
Horus Nebra

Raneb’s name should more appropriately be Nebra, "lord of the sun." He reigned for 39 years, according to
Manetho. A granite stele from Abydos with Nebra’s name in serekh. appears today in the Metropolitan Museum.
Sealings with his name were also found with those of Hetepsekhemwy in the royal gallery tomb at Saqqara, so
Nebra may have overseen the burial of his predecessor in turn. Nebra’s name in serekh also appears cut on a
rock near Armant in the western desert, close to an ancient trade route linking the Nile with its western oases.

Manetho records that Nebra introduced the worship of the sacred goat of Mendes, of the sacred bull of Mnevis
at Heliopolis, and of the sacred Apis bull at Memphis. However, it is now believed that since a stele dating from
King Den’s reign during the 1st Dynasty attests to his founding of the Apis cult, the worship of the Apis bull is
dated earlier.

Horus Nynetjer

Nynetjer is the best attested king of the early 2nd Dynasty. He ruled for 47 years according to Manetho, and the
Palermo Stone attests to at least 35 regnal years. The royal annals record events between his 6th and 26th
regnal year, including various feasts of gods, including Sokar, a "running of the Apis bull" in the 9th regnal year,
a military campaign in the 13th year, and in year 15, the birth of Khasekhemwy, the fifth and last king of the 2nd
dynasty. The foundation of a chapel named Hr-rn is recorded for the 7th regnal year.

With the exception of a ceremony in the 19th regnal year associated with the goddess Nekhbet of El-Kab, most
of the festival activities of the king were closely connected with the Memphis region. That is to say, Nynetjer
kept himself and his court closer to the Delta area and Lower Egypt. Perhaps this influenced the internal
tensions toward the end of his reign. The Palermo Stone records that in the 13th regnal year, two towns were
attacked. The name of one town has been translated to mean "northland," perhaps referring to Lower Egypt.

Ephemeral rulers

 
Some rather ephemeral rulers may have reigned after Nynetjer died. The royal names of Weneg and Nubnefer
were found incised on stone vessels found in galleries beneath the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. Weneg,
if he existed at all, may have ruled only in the north, as he is unattested outside of Saqqara. Since Unas leveled
a good portion of Saqqara for his pyramid and causeway, Weneg’s tomb and tombs of others may lie beneath
that pyramid.

Another ephemeral successor to Nynetjer was Sened. A block inscribed with the words nswt-bity Snd was found
reused in the funerary temple of King Khafre at Giza, though it may be more correctly dated later than the 2nd
Dynsty. But an inscription dated to the 4th Dynasty from the tomb of a man named Shery, who may served in
the royal mortuary cults, mentions King Sened, and indicates that his mortuary cult was celebrated at Saqqara
and still current more than 100 years after his death. Shery’s titles suggest a connection between the cults of
Sened and Peribsen. If this is true, perhaps Sened ruled in the north and Peribsen in the south, an initially
amicable division. One last piece of evidence for the existence of Sened was the appearance of his name on
the belt of a ate Period bronze statuette of a king.

 
  

Horus Sekhemib/Set Peribsen

The fourth king of the 2nd Dynasty came to the throne under the name of Sekhemib, and reigned for 17 years.
During his reign the rivalry that seemed to be left merely simmering between north or Lower Egypt and the
Delta, and south or Upper Egypt, reached the boiling point once again and a period of internal unrest began. It
is thought possible that the basis for the story of the Contendings between Horus and Set is dated to this time,
as the followers of each deity fought for control of the throne of unified Egypt.

Whereas all the kings up to now had had a Horus name and used the Horus falcon on their royal serekhs,
Sekhemib changed that. He not only changed his name from Horus Sekhemib, meaning "powerful in heart," to
Set Peribsen, meaning "Hope of all hearts," but he also replaced the Horus falcon with the Set animal. His
granite funerary stele from Abydos shows this serekh change.

Peribsen chose to be buried back in Abydos rather than in Saqqara as had his recent predecessors, and though
he is not attested outside Upper Egypt, as earlier mentioned, his mortuary cult was apparently celebrated in
Saqqara.

Horus-Set Khasekhemwy

Khasekhemwy was the last king of the 2nd Dynasty. He may have been born with the name Khasekhem, but
after putting down the various rebellions and once more uniting Egypt, he changed his name to Khasekhemwy,
meaning "The Two Powerful Ones Appear." He also included both the Horus falcon and the Set animal on his
serekh and added the epithet nbwy -htp im=f, meaning "the two ladies are at peace in him," perhaps referring to
the tutelary goddesses of Upper and Lower Egypt, once again united under his sole rule.

 
  

A study of Nile levels recorded on the Palermo Stone indicate that the annual inundation had significantly
dropped after the end of the 1st Dynasty. Perhaps ecological as well as political factors influenced the repeated
upsurge in conflict between Upper and Lower Egypt.

 
An inscription on a stone vase reads, "The year of fighting the northern enemy within the city of Nekheb." The
vulture goddess Nekhbet was the royal tutelary deity of this city, now known as el-Kab, which lay on the eastern
bank of the Nile opposite the city of Nekhen or Hierakonpolis. Two seated statues of Khasekhemwy have
inscribed around their bases images of contorted bodies, supposedly northern rebels, with a figure of 47,209
recorded as the number killed.

Khasekhemwy’s tomb at Abydos is unique, trapezoidal in shape, 230 feet in length and varying from some 56
feet wide at one end to 33 feet at the other, with a stone burial chamber in the center. A royal scepter of gold
and sard, and several small stone pots with gold-leaf lid coverings, were overlooked by tomb-robbers. About
1000 yards away from the tomb is the Shunet el-Zebib, a rectangular mud-brick structure 404 feet by 210 feet.
Its walls stand up to 66 feet high and are about 16 feet thick. It contains a central burial structure of stone.

Khasekhemwy married a northern princess named Nimaathap, who was called "king-bearing Mother" on a jar-
sealing, and later on she was seen as the ancestress of the 3rd Dynasty.

THE ROYAL CULTS OF THE KINGS OF ANCIENT EGYPT

BY JEFFERSON MONET
 

Ancient Egyptian cults can be divided into several categories, including Divine Cults, which worshipped actual
existing gods, Royal Cults for the worship of the king, Private Cults, animal cults and what might be referred to
as other Funerary Cults for the worship of deceased private individuals. Of these, perhaps the second most
important, after Divine Cults, were the Royal Cults.

The cult of the king was one of the most prominent features of ancient Egyptian religion. The Egyptian ruler,
because of his status as a ntr, or god, received both a cult during his life and after his death. He (or she)
acquired and maintained his divinity as a result of specific kingship rituals, of which, the coronation was clearly
the most important. In this ceremony, the king was transformed into a god by means of his union with the royal
ka, or soul. All previous kings of Egypt had possessed the royal ka, and at his or her coronation, the king
became divine as "one with the royal ka when his human form was overtaken by his immortal element, which
flows through his whole being and dwells in it".

As a god, the King became the son of Re, the sun god, and he was a manifestation of Horus, the falcon god, as
well as the son of Osiris. Also, from the Middle Kingdom, there was increasing emphasis placed on his
relationship with Amun-Re, and he was described as the son of Amun, the king of the gods.

 
Thus, the king became an intermediary between mankind and the divine, responsible for sustaining the balance
of the universe through maintaining ma'at, or divine order. Upon his death, the ancient Egyptians believed that
he became fully divine and assimilated with Osiris and Re.

The kings status as a god depended on his or her union with the royal ka, and therefore various rituals were
intended to reinforce this relationship during the king's reign. An obvious example was the Opet festival that was
held each year at the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak during the fourth month of the inundation. There, the king
had his union with the royal ka renewed and therefore his right to rule reconfirmed. After (almost always) thirty
years, the king also celebrated his first sed-festival, which served to reconfirm his relationship to the royal ka as
well as to restore his vitality.

The practice of the king receiving a royal cult during his lifetime became especially prominent during the New
Kingdom, beginning with the reign of Amenhotep III. This cult followed very closely the pattern of the daily
temple rituals of other gods, and kings erected for themselves statues, sometimes colossal, so that offerings
could be received. There are depictions of the king making offerings to his deified self. These statue
represented the royal ka of the living king, and when he or she worships their own statue, they are actually
worshipping the concept of deified kingship as represented in the royal ka, which the king embodies.

 
Cults associated with the living pharaoh were more significant during certain periods, and may have been linked
with various political, economic and religious trends. For example, this type of cult may have been emphasized
during periods of coregency. Evidence suggests that, during the Middle and New Kingdoms, some successors
could have been coronated prior to the death of the elder king. In these cases, the elder ruler may have been
projected into a fully divine role, perhaps conceptualized as a living Osiris.

However, clearly the most important development in the cult of the living king occurred during the New
Kingdom, focusing on his or her divine birth. The key here is that the pharaoh was engendered not by the seed
of his actual paternal father, but rather by that of Amun himself. Cults focused on the divinity of the ruling
monarch could have been linked to a need to legitimize the king's claim to the throne by rulers such as
Hatshepsut, the Early 18th Dynasty female ruler.

Yet, the expanded role of the cult of the living pharaoh persisted through the New Kingdom. It's strength
perhaps may be seen as a means of contributing to royal power and legitimacy over an increasingly complex
governmental and religious system. The cult of the living king probably had it's greatest emphasis during the
Amarna period, when Akhenaten focused the state religion on the supreme power of the sun disk known as
Aten. His religious program emphasized the indispensable role of the king as the sole intermediary between
mankind and the life giving force of the sun disk. Direct worship of the Aten was actually limited to Akhenaten
himself, while the king and his royal family were intended to be the object of worship by the population at large.
There have been unearthed offering stelae depicting the royal family belonging to private households, and such
veneration of the king within domestic spheres represents an emphasis on kingly divinity not seen in other
periods. However, after the Amarna period, royal cult buildings continued to be erected, such as that of
Ramesses II at Abu Simbel, that presented the royal cult as an inseparable part of the divine order.

The Temple of Luxor may be seen as the greatest surviving monument relating to the divine, living king. Though
the building was begun during the Middle Kingdom, it underwent major additions and restorations during the
reign of Amenhotep III and later during the Ramessid period. This building can best be understood as a cult
place of the living king and his divine association with the Theban triad. It was the focal point of the great Opet
festival, when the image of Amun journeyed from his sanctuary at Karnak and the living king celebrated his
divine origins.

Of course, the worship of the divine king continued after his or her death, and from the very beginning of
Egyptian history, the royal burials included a place where the dead ruler's spirit could receive offerings of food
and drink. Early evidence for the development of the royal funerary cult occurs in the mortuary structures built
by the Early Dynastic kings at Abydos. The burial places of the 1st and 2nd Dynasty kings have associated
"valley enclosures" and there is evidence for long term presentation of offerings in a few of these.

 
 

The famous Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara is the first known fully articulated funerary monument. It
includes various architectural elements that were designed to perpetuate the role of the king in the afterlife,
including symbolic components of the royal palace, both above ground as well as below the pyramid where the
king could rule for eternity. An integrated element of this architecture was a full offering cult, which was housed
in a mortuary temple positioned on the north side of the pyramid.

As early as the 4th Dynasty, kings erected for themselves a mortuary temple complex situated on the east side
of their larger pyramids for their funerary cult. The colossal size and investment that went into these pyramid
complexes of the 4th Dynasty attests to the central importance of the pharaoh and his cult during this period of
very early Egyptian history. In fact, considering the resources that went into these structures, much of the
central government during the Old Kingdom must have been focused on the construction of these funerary
complexes, and so the royal cult became a driving force in the political and economic of the Old Kingdom state.

Royal pyramid complexes from the 4th, 5th and 6th dynasties typically had two main cult buildings, including the
mortuary temple on the pyramid's east side, and a valley temple at the edge of the Nile River floodplain. Like
normal divine cults, the mortuary temples were manned by rotating teams of priests in order to receive offerings
and carry on the cult rituals. The valley temple, on the other hand, was adorned with scenes and statuary
expressing the king's association with a wide variety of deities. Specifically, the valley temples seems to have
been a structure used particularly to link the royal cult with other temples through periodic festivals and
processions.

 
 

Beginning with the pyramid of King Userkaf, the first king of Egypt's 5th Dynasty, there was a false door in the
mortuary temple that became the focal point for offerings to the king's spirit. However, beginning with the
pyramid of Unas, the last ruler of the 5th Dynasty, a major source of information on royal funerary cults is the
Pyramid Texts, where were inscribed on the walls of the burial chambers. These texts provide a complex series
of magical spells and religious statements intended to aid the king during the afterlife. They record embalming
and burial rituals, as well as written versions of he offering formulae and of the offering ritual itself.

During the Middle Kingdom, the construction of pyramid complexes continued, but there were some basic
theological shifts. For example, the first royal mortuary complex build during the eleventh dynasty, belonging to
Montuhotep, represents a departure from the complexes of the Old Kingdom in its emphasis on venerating the
newly important state god of Thebes, Amun-Re. Now, the king's legitimacy is provided through his or her
association with that deity. Hence, the complex of Montuhotep focuses on the Thebian triad, consisting of
Amun, Mut and Khonsu, but integrates a cult statue for the king.

 
 

The association between the the deified king and other gods was emphasized during this period, and later with
the ritual known as the "Beautiful Festival of the Valley", which was held annually. During this ceremony, the
image (statue) of Amun was carried on his sacred bark to the west where he visited the king's funerary temple.

Later, during the Middle Kingdom, there were at times efforts to return to Old Kingdom cult practices, but there
were nevertheless significant changes in conceptions of kingship that effectively restructured ideas on the
nature of the king's role. Changes reflected in the design and decoration of royal cult buildings of the later
Middle Kingdom and afterwards emphasis the veneration of the gods, with the king's cult appended and
legitimized through his association with important gods. By late in the 12th Dynasty, the term "mansion of
millions of years" appears in some records referencing the funerary temple of Amenemhet III at Hawara. This
term can be understood to apply to royal cult complexes where the king's cult was important, but nevertheless
subordinate to the cult of major deities.

 
 

This late 12th Dynasty practice ushered in the New Kingdom, when the mansion of millions of years became the
standard type of royal cult building. They were built on the West bank of the Nile at Thebes, and the best
remaining examples are the Ramesseum of Ramesses II of the 19th Dynasty and Medinet Habu built by
Ramesses III. who ruled during the 20th Dynasty. These temple complexes were built some distance from the
actual tombs of these rulers, who were buried further in on the West Bank in the Valley of the Kings.

Now, rather being independent, these temples were considered a part of the domain of Amun and so were
connected administratively with the great temple of Amun at Karnak. They were surrounded by various
precincts that included storerooms and housing for priests and officials who ran the economic foundations that
sustained their cults.

These complexes, usually referred to as mortuary temples, were actually built and dedicated to Amun-Re. The
cult of the king was mediated by his or her divine association with that deity. The "Beautiful Festival of the
Valley" survived the Middle Kingdom and continued as one of the most important ritual links during the New
Kingdom between the royal funerary temples and the temple of Amun at Karnak.

However, there were mansions of millions of years built elsewhere. One important example is that of Seti I at
Abydos, where the royal cult was linked to one of Egypt's other principal gods, Osiris. The ancient Egyptians
believed that Osiris was a deceased king of Egypt who was reborn to rule in the netherworld. Thus, Seti I's
temple was also a monument dedicated to the institution of kingship itself as embodied in Osiris.
 

Seti I's temple also illustrates another type of cult, which venerates the royal ancestors through cult activity
mandated by the living king. Known as the Cult of the Royal Ancestors to modern Egyptologists, this type of
worship is known from as early as the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but became particularly visible during the New
Kingdom. This type of cult activity could be established through patronage of existing temples, such as at
Karnak, or the dedications of Senusret III within the mortuary temple of Montuhotep. However, it could also be
articulated within a newly founded building such as that of Seti I at Abydos.

There was also a place for the royal cult within the temples of more normal gods.Kings from the earliest
dynasties expressed their association with the gods by dedicating statuary and other religious objects, and in
many of the large state temples, the cults of the gods and king became well linked. We find in the temples such
as those of Horus at Heirakonpolis and Montu at Medamud considerable remains of royal dedicatory material,
and there is no doubt that such temples also maintained a substantial royal cult.

Those in such divine state temples, the king's cult may have been represented by his statue that received a
portion of the daily offerings, in other instances and particularly in large state temples, entire ancillary buildings
were built to link the royal cult with the divine god's cult.There are often referred to as ka-chapels, and can be
found in such locations as Bubastis, Dendera, Heirakonpolis, Abydos and Tell el-Dab'a.

Other structures within the gods' temples were intended to emphasize overtly the king's connection with the
divine. A fine example of these structures is the birth houses known as mammisi, which are decorated with
scenes of the divine birth of the pharaoh and can be found at locations such as the Temple of Hathor at
Dendera.

On a popular level, the king might receive a cult following in a more spontaneous fashion outside the framework
of mortuary and normal state temples. In this regard, the royal cult displays many of the characteristics found in
the worship of local gods. A good example of such a cult is that of Amenhotep I at the community of the royal
tomb builders at Deir el-Medina. From the 18th through the 20th dynasty, Amenhotep I was venerated for his
role in establishing the workers village, where he became the patron deity. There, his cult was celebrated at a
popular level during periodic festivals and processions. There were similar royal cults found at other locals, such
as the Sinai, where during the Middle Kingdom, Egyptian miners carried out a cult for Sneferu. In the Second
Cataract (rapids) region well south of modern Aswan, Senusret III was also venerated as a local god.

 
 

Just as in the case of divine cults, the most important element of royal cult ritual was the daily offering.
Basically, this entailed interaction between priests and the statue of the king which allowed it to be a suitable
abode for the ka of the king. There are elements of the offering cult present as early as the Pyramid Texts.
However, the daily rituals are best documented in the 19th Dynasty temple of Seti I at Abydos, and in the
Ptolemaic period temple of Horus at Edfu. The daily routine involved a series of ritual acts accompanied by
magical spells and offering formulae uttered by the priests, and included the statue's awakening, cleansing,
anointing and dressing. Some parts of the the more involved morning ritual would be repeated several more
times during the day, and in large royal cult temples, it was enacted for multiple images (statues) and subsidiary
cults within the temple. Of course, as explained earlier, there were also periodic festivals and processions in
which a royal cult statue was taken to nearby gods' temples, providing for interaction between the surrounding
community and the royal cult.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE ANCIENT EGYPTIAN CULT

BY JEFFERSON MONET
 

 
 

Unlike our modern religions, ancient Egyptian religion was not based on a set of theological principles, nor did it
really depend on the content of canonical writings. Rather, it evolved around how people interacted with their
gods, and these actions are termed by Egyptologists as "cult", which is roughly synonymous with "ritual". In the
ancient Egyptian language, there is no specific word for "ritual". They variously referred to these interactions
with the gods as irt ht (doing things), irw (things done) or nt (regular procedures).

Cults were focused on ntr, which since the Ptolemaic (Greek) period has been translated as god. However, the
ancient Egyptians applied this term to people and things which we today would hesitate to call gods. In fact,
Dimitri Meeks has recently suggested that the common feature of all entities called ntr by the ancient Egyptians
is that they were the beneficiaries of ritual. However, we might better define these entities by separating them
into several classes.

First of all, there were of course beings who originally existed as gods. Rituals served to preserve their
existence as gods through providing them with sustenance and other benefits. The second class were entities
that became ntr through ritual. This general category can be further divided between those who became ntr
during their lifetimes, and those who became ntr after death. Examples of the first type include the king and
special animals who were thought to be manifestations of the gods. Examples of those who became ntr after
death include various common people who became deified, the most famous of which was probably Imhotep,
and mummified animals.

 
In order to conduct the cult of the gods, the Egyptians constructed religious facilities that remain some of the
most elaborate structures ever built. These temples were called by the ancient Egyptians, hwt-ntr, meaning "the
house of the god". These temples actually usually served several gods, and in order to sustain these cult
activities, considerable resources, such as extensive networks of land, livestock and personnel were required.
These necessary resources that were required to support the activities of a temple were referred to as r-pr,
meaning "temple estate".

Most temples prior to the New Kingdom appear to have not survived. Scholars sometimes attribute this to their
construction using perishable materials, which is probably true of the earliest of these structures. However, it is
also likely that materials from well built temples of, for example the Middle Kingdom,  may have often been
reused in later building projects. Nevertheless, beginning with the New Kingdom and continuing through the
Greco-Roman periods, the Egyptians built enormous stone temples that provide us with our primary source of
information on cult activity.

We know that important Egyptian temples employed a large number of priests and servants who performed a
wide variety of tasks. Theoretically, only the king, who was the only living person in Egypt considered to have
the status of ntr, could officiate in the cult before the gods. It was he who was considered to be the high priest of
all the gods and goddesses of Egypt, and on who's shoulder's fell the responsibility for their contentment.
However, in reality the king delegated to the various priesthoods who served the gods the responsibility of their
welfare. Though many major priestly appointments were made by the king himself, others could be made by
local officials, and at various times during Egyptian history, priestly offices could be inherited.

Priests were usually divided into four groups that were called "gangs of the service", to which the Greeks gave
the name, phyles. Each group served one lunar month in rotation, so that during the year each one served for
three months with three months off between months of service. This actually allowed some priests to hold
priesthoods in several temples. In the mature ancient Egyptian cult, there were two main classes of priests.
Those of the highest class were called hm-ntr, meaning "god's servant". They functioned in the presences of the
god's statue, and the Greeks translated hm-ntr as "prophet", because it was these priests who interpreted the
oracles of the gods. The chief priests of a temple were designated by ordinal numbers and so the high priest of
a temple was called hm-ntr tpy, or "first prophet". In some temple cults, the high priest received special titles.
For example, the high priest of Ptah was called "he who is great at directing the crafts, while the high priest of
Re was "he who is great at seeing. The high priest of Thoth was "the arbitrator between the two" and that of
Khnum was "the modeler of limbs".

The lower class of priests were called the "pure ones". They served such functions such as carrying the god's
bark, pouring water for libations during temple services, as overseers of craftsmen, artisans or scribes, or as
craftsmen themselves, producing sacred objects for the cult. There was also a third class of priest known as it-
ntr, or "god's father". It has been suggested that these priests were senior members of the lower class
priesthood who had perhaps reached the level of prophet, but who were not yet formally inducted into that
office. At least one of their functions seems to have been to walk in front of the god's image in processions and
sprinkle water to purify the path.

Some priests were also specialists. For example, the hry-hb who "he who carries the festival roll", and it was his
responsibility for reading the hymns and spells which accompanied many  rituals. The "scribe of the house of
life" was given the duty of copying the papyri used in temple and funerary rituals.

 
During the Old Kingdom, women could hold the office of priestess (hmt-ntr) of Hathor or Neith. However, they
rarely served as priestess in the cult of a male god. Before the New Kingdom, the office of priest was not
considered a full-time position, but with the later introduction of the professional priest, women could no longer
hold priestly titles. Mainly, they served as musicians, singers and dancers of the cult. Later, however, they could
hold a vary prestigious title at Thebes, known as the Divine Adoratress, which was a prominent position indeed.

The continued existence and prosperity of Egypt was considered to depend on the successful performance of
cult activities, carried out by the priesthood in the temple. At the very point of creation, the ancient Egyptians
believed that there was a small space of order that appeared in the midst of chaos. Only within the space of this
order was life possible, and in order to keep chaos from engulfing the created world, it was necessary to
perform the cult of the gods. These cult activities primarily consisted of rituals that were conducted on a daily
basis, and those carried out periodically during specific festivals.

The focus of all the cult activity was usually a statue of the god known as an "image". These were usually small
objects, averaging about 50 centimeters (22 inches) in height, that resided in a naos or bark shrine in the chapel
of the temple's inner sanctuary. Made of wood, stone, or sometimes precious metals, since most temples
housed more than god, they also contained more than one cult statue. However, these statues were usually
produced with only the most permanent or symbolically significant materials. The skin of the gods was
considered to be pure gold, so divine images were often gilded or made entirely with this precious metal. The
hair of the gods was said to be like lapis lazuli, so this was the semi precious stone that was often inset into
statues of deities to signify their hair and eyebrows.

Like the mummies of the deceased, once these statues were completed by the craftsmen, they underwent a
ritual called the "Opening of the Mouth", which transformed the statue, allowing it to be used by the god to
manifest itself and in which the divine ka and ba could take up residence.  However, it should be noted that the
statue itself was not the subject of worship. They were simply one means by which the gods could receive
worship.

At any particular point in time, the daily temple ritual took essentially the same form in every temple in Egypt.
This ritual evolved from that for the sun god Re at Heliopolis, which evolved around the rebirth of the sun each
morning. Elements of the Osirian belief were later incorporated into this daily ritual, symbolizing the restoration
and revivification of the dismembered body of Osiris. For the purpose of the ritual, the cult-statue became to be
identified as both Re and Osiris.

Our understanding of these rituals comes basically from two main sources, which include the temple reliefs that
depict the king performing the various tasks of the ceremony, and papyri that list the rituals and the hymns
which accompany them. Though these sources have allowed scholars to reconstruct the various events of the
daily ritual, they do not provide the sequence of activities.

However, we might suppose that before dawn, two priests may have been responsible for filling containers with
water from the sacred well of the temple and replenishing all of the libation vessels. In the kitchens, priests
would have been busy preparing offerings for the gods. The main officiating priest, a hm-ntr, would then go to
the "house of the morning" where he would be ceremonially purified, dressed, given a light meal, and prepare to
conduct the morning ceremony.

 
 

As the sun rose, the bolt was drawn back and the door opened to the shrine that contained the god's image.
Since only the king was considered to be able to confront the god, as the officiating priest approached the
statue, he would declare that "it is the king who has sent me to see the god". Now the priest prostrated himself
before the image, and the chapel was ritually purified with water and incense before a small figure of the
goddess Ma'at was presented to the god, symbolizing the proper order established for the world at creation.

Next, the image of the god was probably removed from its shrine, and the clothing and ointment provided the
statue the previous day were removed. We believe that the statue was placed on a pile of clean sand and the
shrine was then purified with water and incense. The image of the god would then be adorned with green and
black eye paint, as well as anointed with several oils. The statue was then dressed in clothes that were colored
white, green, blue and red. The white and red cloths would protect the god from his enemies, while the blue hid
his face and the green ensured his health. The god's image was then presented with his regalia, such as
crowns, scepter, crook, flail and wsh-collar.

Finally, the face of the statue would be anointed, sand scattered around the chapel and the statue replaced in
its shrine, before the door was once more bolted and sealed. As the priest performed the final purifications and
left the sanctuary, he would drag behind him a broom in order to obliterate his own footsteps.
 

Though at what point it took place is unclear, at some time during the morning ritual, the offering would take
place. This provided the god with his "breakfast, and may have occurred before the final purification of the
chapel in preparation for placing the statue in the shrine. Other scholars believe it may have taken place before
the undressing and dressing of the statue. Though an enormous meal consisting of meat, bread, cakes, beer,
milk, honey, vegetables and fruit was prepared for this purpose, only a small, symbolic portion of it was actually
placed before the statue. There was an offering formula listing  the various items that was recited by the priest,
and incense was burned and libations made in order to purify and sanctify the offerings. Of course, the god did
not actually consume the offerings, but rather took from them their essence, so they could be shared with the
other deities of the temple.

In fact, the offerings were also used in the ritual of the royal ancestors, where they were provided to the king's
royal predecessors, often depicted in the form of a list of their names. Next, the offerings were finally provided to
the statues of other individuals found in the temple, before ultimately becoming the property of the priests. The
priests received a share of the offerings based on their rank, and this was one manner in which the priests were
compensated for their service.
 

Though the morning ritual was the primary ceremony of the day, there were also less elaborate ceremonies that
took place at noon and in the evening. However, during these services, the doors of the god's chapel were not
opened. They consisted mainly of pouring water libations and burning incense before the shrines of the gods.

There were other rituals that were performed throughout the night and day, consisting mostly of apotropaic
dramatic rituals meant to repel threats against the gods. Frequently, these threats originated in the form of Seth,
the murderer of Osiris, or Apophis, the serpent who tried to stop the daily voyage of Re thereby bringing an end
to creation. On Re's behalf, hymns were sung during the twelve hours of the day and the twelve hours of the
night to protect Re on his journey. Images of these enemies were created from wax or clay and then destroyed,
thereby bringing about the enemies destruction through magic.

There were also a number of festivals (hbw) that were celebrated throughout the year, though their nature could
vary considerably over Egyptian history. Workers, as evidenced by records at Deir el-Medina, were given days
off for festivals. During the reign of Tuthmosis III, we know that in the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, some fifty-
four festivals were held, and at Ramesses III's temple at Medinet Habu, sixty festival days were celebrated.
Some of these festivals were small, but others could last as many as twenty-seven days and require large
expenditures of food and beverages for participants. Records recording one festival related to Sokar record that
3,694 loaves of bread, 410 cakes and 905 jars of beer were distributed.

Some of the more important of these festivals include the celebrations for New Year's Day, the festival of Osiris
at Abydos, during which the "mysteries" of this god were celebrated, the festival of Hathor, when her statue was
bought before the royal cult complex and the festival of the Coronation of the Sacred Falcon of Edfu. There was
also the Beautiful Festival of the Valley during which the statue of Amun-Re was taken from Karnak to the
temple at Deir el-Bahri, as well as other royal cult complexes on the west bank of the Nile River (particularly that
of the reigning king). This was also a celebration for the people, who would visit the tombs of their relatives and
observe an all-night vigil where they shared a feat with their deceased relatives.

During the festivals, the focus remained on the statue image of the god, but the statue would now be housed in
bark shrines. The Egyptian gods always traveled in boats. Sometimes the boat was real, when the god traveled
on water, but at other times the bark was a symbolic boat carried over land on the shoulders of priests. During
these festivals, the journey could be as short as a procession through the temple, or the god could leave the
temple to visit another deity some distance away. The bark shrine was carried along processional avenues
which were often lined with sphinxes. Along the way, essentially open-ended buildings were placed as stations
on which the priests could rest the bark. At these points, the priests would perform fumigations and provide
libations and hymns to the god's image.
 

These festivals and processions provided the general population with access to the gods, which was otherwise
not available, since the farthest most people were admitted into the temples was the open forecourt. Though
most scholars believe that the bark shrine was closed during these processions, hiding the image from the
onlookers, Dirk van der Plass argued that numerous texts describe the desire of people so see the image of the
god, and therefore believes that the shrine was left open. The ancient Egyptians believed that individuals could
be healed of various illness by beholding the god's image.

People could also approach the gods during festivals in order to seek an oracle, though the first clear evidence
for oracles only occurs as early as the New Kingdom. However, John Baines has suggested that evidence for
the existence of oracles may exist as early as the First Intermediate Period, and that even earlier examples may
exist. This practice consisted of placing questions with simple yes or no answers written out on small flakes of
limestone or ostraca before the gods. These were often questions regarding relatively everyday matters. The
movement of the bark-shrine carried on the shoulders of the priests indicated affirmative, if moved forward, nor
negative if the priests moved the shrine back.

It should be noted that not all cult worship took place in the normal temple environment. Though during the New
Kingdom a type of public chapel, known as a "Chapel of the Hearing Ear" was sometimes built into the rear of
regular temples for the general public, there also came to exist, particularly during the New Kingdom, sites at
Amarna and Deir el-Medina that evidence public chapels which would have contained either a small cult statue,
or more commonly a stela with an image of the god. Areas in some private homes were even set aside for
worship. At Amarna, upper-class homes had domestic shrines containing statues of Akhenaten and his family,
or stelae showing the royal family venerating the Aten (sun disk). Also, many of the houses at Deir el-Medina
contained household shrines consisting of a wall niche which could be equipped with an offering table or libation
trough. Such areas might be found in any room, including the kitchen. Popular gods for such shrines included
Mertseger, Renenutet, Sobek, Amun, Taweret and Hathor, though deceased relatives were frequently
worshipped as the "able spirit of Re".

Small, public chapels were usually served by lay priests, but we have little information about the cult practices in
these, or in home shrines. Doubtless, offerings of food, libations and incense were made, but what other forms
of rituals took place is unknown. These shrines served as places where people could make specific requests of
their gods in prayer.

THE ANIMAL CULTS OF ANCIENT EGYPT

BY JEFFERSON MONET
 

During the classical age, there was no other aspect of Egyptian religion that elicited more derision from writers
than the aspect of Egyptian animal worship. Among the various cults established by the ancient Egyptians, it
seems to many even today to be one of the most strange and mysterious. There is evidence of animal cults that
dates back to at least the fourth millennium BC in Egypt, including predynastic ritual burials of animals such as
gazelles, dogs, cattle, monkey and rams at sights such as Badari, Naqada, Maadi and Heliopolis. Erik Hornung
notes that "the care with which these animals were buried and provided with grave goods is evidence for a cult
of sacred animals".

There is really no evidence of very early animal cults during Egypt's neolithic period, but by the last centuries of
prehistory, there can be scarcely any doubt that the Egyptians worshipped divine powers in animal form. While
the earliest evidence of the cult surrounding the Apis bull dates to the reign of King Aha of the 1st Dynasty,
various animal cults received considerable emphasis beginning with the twenty-sixth dynasty, perhaps as a part
of a resurgence of Egyptian nationalism.

In reality, animals were rarely if ever worshipped as gods in ancient Egypt, but were instead thought of as
manifestations of the gods. Like cult statues, they were actually one vehicle through which the gods could make
their will manifest, and through which the faithful could demonstrate their devotion to the gods. Therefore,
individual animals were cot considered gods, but the god could take up his abode in them and they become
become an image of the god and a vessel for him.

 
 

In fact, the keeping of sacred animals seems a very logical extension of early many cult statues. Horus, for
example, was frequently depicted in statuary and on temple walls in his manifestation as a fully formed falcon,
so it is understandable that the ancient Egyptians might also venerate the living, breathing animal.

We may categorize three different types of sacred animals that were honored by the ancient Egyptians. The
temple animals, one type, functioned very similarly to the cult statues in temples. These animals lived in or near
a temple and were distinguished by special markings.  The Apis bull of Memphis, for example, had to be a black
bull with a white triangle on its forehead, a crescent moon on its chest and another on its flanks, as well as
having black and white in its tail. It was though to be the ka manifestation of Ptah, and like cult statues, these
animals could visit other deities in their temples as well as give oracles. At certain times of the day, the bull
would be released into a courtyard where worshippers would gather to see him and receive oracles. Oracles
were questions that had either a yes or no answer, and this answer was received when the bull entered into one
of two stables. Upon the death of the Apis bull, it was elaborately embalmed and there was a time of general
mourning.  It was then buried in an enormous stone sarcophagus in the Serapeum at Saqqara, after which a
search would be made for its replacement.
 

There were a number of other bulls that were worshipped in this manner, including the Mnevis bull at Heliopolis,
which was the manifestation of Atum-Re and the Buchis bull at Hermonthis, which represented Montu and was
particularly important during the reign of Nectanebo II. Other animals included the ram of Mendes, which was
considered the manifestation of Osiris-Re, and the ram of Elephantine which was associated with Khnum.

A second class of sacred animals were those kept in large numbers near a temple. In animal cults, we
encounter the ability of Egyptian gods to extend their existence almost endlessly so that they could be manifest
not just in one ibis or crocodile, but in all ibises or all crocodiles. At Saqqara, for example, there was an
extensive complex of buildings dedicated to the priestly care of large flocks of ibises, considered to be the
manifestation of Thoth, and of falcons, who represented Horus. These flocks provided the enormous number of
animal burials found in Egypt, which included literally millions of mummified animals in necropolises throughout
the country. Besides the ibis necropolis at Saqqara, there are necropolises for cats at Bubastis, rams at
Elephantine, crocodiles, snakes, falcons and ibises at Kom Ombo and ibises and falcons at Abydos.

The burial of sacred animals were frequently paid for by pilgrims during visits to the temples at festivals or when
seeking divine blessings, and this must have created a considerable priestly industry for animal mummification.
The mummified animal corpse served as a votive offering for the god, and the devotee obviously expected to
earn the goodwill of the deity by providing for the burial of one of its sacred animals. For example, one
inscription preserved on a jar containing an ibis mummy is a prayer asking Thoth to be benevolent toward the
woman who had embalmed his sacred animal. One wonders whether these animals were kept for this specific
reason, and to profit the temple, for while only one temple animal was kept at any one time, which received a
cult, this second class of sacred animal was kept in large numbers and really received no cult. Obviously the
burial of the temple animals was also much more elaborate.

A third type of sacred animal were those kept in private homes as representative of the gods. They included
snakes, cats, dogs and other animals, which were kept in cages and buried upon their death. This practice is
analogous to the construction of household shrines to allow for domestic worship. However, one must wonder
how Egyptologists distinguish between animals kept in private homes for spiritual reasons, and those that were
simply kept as pets.

KING SCORPION
By Marie Parsons

Egypt’s culture is a product of its geography, its people, and at least to some degree by its links with its
neighbors. Egyptian traveled to and traded with Palestine, where pottery and Egyptian-style buildings have
been found, with Afghanistan and beyond to modern Pakistan, the source for lapis lazuli, documented to have
been imported into Egypt from Predynastic time. They also traded with Elam and Sumer, from whence came
elements shown on palettes and cylinder seals, and indicates contact between Egypt and other regions of the
Near East.

However, with all the similarities that can be noted, there are also significant differences between Near Eastern
cultures and that which is undeniably Egyptian. The Egyptian cosmology, cosmogony, governmental hierarchy
and administration, writing, dress, its concept of kingship—these were all things most definitely Egyptian, even if
perhaps influenced by outside contacts.

The movie entitled "The Mummy Returns", and an already-planned sequel, tentatively titled "The Scorpion
King", purport to tell of a semi-mythical king of late pre-dynastic Egypt. The sequel so far is scripted to speculate
about the Scorpion's rise to become King over Egypt. The fact that Scorpion has suddenly leapt into the most
popular Hollywood media is perhaps a victory for the science of Egyptology. Tutankahmun, Cleopatra's Palace
at Alexandria--we know of these things--we race to visit them, to see and touch and learn, because of what the
Egyptologists have accomplished. Scorpion may soon join the ranks of his famous successors. And people will
travel to Egypt to see where he may have walked, just as they do now to see where Hatshepsut walked.
 

Who is this King that may soon be as familiar as his later, more historically documented successors such as
Hatshepsut, Tutankhamun, and Cleopatra VII? His name may very well have been Scorpion, though in Egyptian
it may have been pronounced something like Srqt.

What is known thus far about this ruler?

In the ancient Upper Egyptian town of Nekhen, The Falcon, also called Hierakonpolis, where archaeological
finds have been made that are significant to the earliest days of the unification of Egypt, a fragmented and
incomplete macehead attributed to King Scorpion  was found by J.E. Quibell in 1897-98. Maceheads were early
considered to be symbolic  of Kingly power, and throughout Egypt’s history, were shown in relief carvings as the
weapon of the king as he smote his enemies who were the enemies of Egypt.

 
 

This macehead depicts a King or Chieftain wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt in full ritual dress, with the
bull’s tail representing power, hanging from the back of his belt. The multi-petalled rosette or star at this time
was used to identify Egyptian kings and in fact, in neighboring Sumer, signified divinity itself. It is shown in front
of his face, along with a clearly drawn scorpion sign, thereby giving his name as indicated earlier to be Srqt, or
Scorpion. In another convention of Egyptian art, this kingly, perhaps quasi-divine, figure is drawn towering over
his companions and attendants.

King Scorpion is accompanied by his high officers, who carry standards on which are displayed symbols
identified with particular districts into which Egypt was divided. Many of these district symbols are familiar
throughout Egypt’s history. Two of these interestingly enough are Set animals, showing that at this very early
time Followers of Set supported the royal clan; others represent falcons, a jackal, the god Min, and possibly the
mountains. If these are accurately interpreted as regional standards, there are more here shown than on the
Narmer palette.

On this macehead, Scorpion is apparently performing a ceremony using a hoe. Perhaps he is opening the
irrigation dykes to begin the flooding of the fields, or perhaps he is cutting the first furrow for a temple or even a
city to be built, thus beginning a foundation ritual which was a kingly prerogative in Egypt (similar to Roman
emperors millennia later, shown on coins ploughing the outline of a city at its foundation).

 
 

The decorative frieze around the remaining top of the macehead has lapwing birds hanging by their necks from
vertical standards. In hieroglyphics these rekhyts have been interpreted to represent the common people of
Egypt, and their fate seems to indicate that they were conquered by King Scorpion. However, some authorities
have interpreted the rekhyt symbol as only later representing the Egyptian population, whereas early in
predynastic history they referred to foreigners or non-Egyptians instead. Thus the Scorpion macehead and
Narmer palette may represent the respective rulers as having successfully defeated foreigners from the west
Delta (something which happened later in history as well.)

Although a four-chambered tomb in Abydos designated as B50 has been speculated as being Scorpion’s burial
place, no conclusive evidence of Scorpions existence has yet been found at Abydos, where the tombs of
several First Dynasty kings and even some preceding Dynasty 0 kings have been found. Some scholars are not
even sure Scorpion actually existed (perhaps Scorpion was a title; perhaps the Scorpion sign did not signify the
personage’s name at all

He may have come from the royal house of Hierakonpolis, rather than from This, the origin city of the Thinite
dynasty from whence came his later successor Narmer, the King Catfish. Perhaps This and Hierakonpolis each
were the centers of rival chiefdoms, and when Scorpion’s reign ended, This assumed an uncontested position
as sovereign of Egypt. Perhaps Narmer was the first king who actually reigned unchallenged throughout the
country. Based upon Scorpion’s apparent connection with Hierakonpolis and from the stylistic similarities
between his macehead and the palette and macehead attributed to Narmer, the two rulers may well have been
close contemporaries.

The only other evidences to date of the existence of a King Scorpion come from small serekhs found on vases.
Serekhs were the enclosing devices within which the early names of Kings were written. A serekh of Scorpion
may occur on a wine jar from Minshat Abu Amar, though this inscription has also been read as being that of
"Aha," the later First Dynasty King who may have been the same king known by Manetho as Menes. Two
serekhs written on pottery vessels from Tarkhan have been read as Scorpion, but that is not yet considered a
conclusive reading either. Indeed, it has been proposed that these inscriptions be attributed to a King called
"Crocodile", perhaps a king reigning concurrently with the main Thinite royal family.

As more discoveries are made in Abydos, Hierakonpolis and other Predynastic and Early Dynastic sites, it is
possible that the gaps of legend and history will shrink, and a clearer picture of these earliest days of Egyptian
beginnings will stand clear.

KING CATFISH, ALSO CALLED NARMER

BY MARIE PARSONS
 

 
The unification of Egypt at the end of the Predynastic period took place in two stages: spread of a uniform
material culture, as evidenced by the diffusion of products characteristic of the Naqada culture, centered around
the city of Naqada, also called Nubt, and the establishment of unified political control. Later Egyptian tradition
contains references to the existence of separate northern and southern kingdoms, perhaps at Buto in the Delta
and Hierakonpolis in Upper Egypt, respectively.

Hierakonpolis has been producing much evidence of its being an important center. It was a major urbanized
center of the Naqada culture and a residence of powerful Upper Egyptian chiefs. The two-sided Narmer palette,
for example, is interpreted as being a thanks-offering for the successful definitive victory of the southern over
the northern kingdoms.

 
 

Narmer Palette

King Narmer is thought to have reigned c. 3150 BCE as first king of the 1st dynasty (and/or last king of the 0
dynasty) of a unified ancient Egypt. The rebus of his name as shown on his palette and on other inscriptions is
composed of a chisel, thought to be read mr, above a catfish, thought to be read as n'r. King Narmer, or Catfish
as he could also be called, appears thus on seal impressions from the 1st Dynasty tombs of King Den (tomb)
and King Ka (Tomb) at Abydos (where we believe he may have himself built a tomb), and also at Tell Ibrahmin
Awad. Narmer’s name and that of his possible predecessor Scorpion have also been found on pottery vessels
from the site of Minshat Abu Omar in the eastern Delta. The name of Narmer also occurs in Hierakonpolis on
objects in addition to the Palette and Macehead such as potsherds etc.

Narmer's importance as the probable unifier of Lower and Upper Egypt is indicated primarily by the Palette and
the Macehead which are attributed to him. His name-rebus appear on both. But his power in the region must
have extended further, since Egyptian sherds inscribed with Narmer's name have also been found and in
southern Palestine.

The Narmer Palette was discovered by J.E.Quibell at Hierakonpolis in 1897-98. The obverse is divided into
three registers, uppermost of which gives his name in a serekh flanked by human-faced bovines. The second
register shows Narmer wearing the White Crown of Upper Egypt smiting an enemy. The third register shows
dead, nude enemies. On the reverse the upper register showing his name-serekh is repeated. The second
register shows Narmer now wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt, inspecting rows of nude, decapitated
enemies. The third register shows a man mastering serpent-necked lions, and the fourth register shows a bull
destroying a town and trampling a dead enemy.

Narmer may have considered Buto as the central capital of the Delta he had just conquered. On his palette is a
hieroglyphic group that could be read as Ta Mehu, the later name for the Delta region. Since Narmer is shown
with the Red Crown he was thus the first to ascribe this Crown to the entire Delta and thus Lower Egypt. He
may have transferred the Red Crown from Nubt/Naqada to represent the entirety of Lower Egypt.

The Narmer macehead, also discovered at Hierakonpolis, has had three interpretations. Petrie's theory, also
held by later scholars, was that the mace head depicted the political marriage of Nithotep, princess of the north,
with Narmer. Other scholars feel the macehead depicts a celebration by Narmer of his conquest of the north,
while still others regard the macehead as commemorating a Sed-festival of the king. Nithotep’s grave has been
found at Naqada, with Narmer’s name as well as with King Aha’s name. Nithotep thus is linked with two kings
as wife and mother.
 

Narmer Macehead

Most recently, new studies of the images on the macehead put forth the theory that the scenes are not primarily
commemorative but are simply pictorial versions of year-names. The focus of the scene is the king's figure,
seen sitting robed in a long cloak enthroned under a canopy on a high dais, wearing the Red Crown and holding
a flail. The enclosure within which he sits can be interpreted as a shrine or temple. He is attended by minor
figures of fan-bearers, bodyguards, with long quarterstaves and an official who may be either vizier or heir-
apparent. In front of Narmer three men run a race towards him, while above them stands four men carrying
standards. Facing the king is a cloaked and beardless figure, over whom is a simple enclosure in which stands
a cow and calf (a nome sign).

The running figures may represent Muu dancers, long associated with Buto, presenting a welcome to the new
lord of the Delta. The seated figure facing Narmer may be the chief of Buto rather than a princess of the Delta.

Beneath these figures are symbols of numbers. The numbers have been recently interpreted to indicate
400,000 cattle, 1,422,000 small animals, and 120,000 men (not women and children, only males.) This would
have provided for a total human population of the Delta of perhaps 600,000.

 
The macehead then commemorates the completion of the conquest of Lower Egypt, not with a royal dynastic
marriage etc, but perhaps, with the first Appearance of the King of Lower Egypt, by an actual census of the
Delta people, similar to and a precursor of the census taken by William the Conqueror after he won England.

Some scholars speculate that Menes and Narmer may be the same person. Menes is the Greek form of the
name of the legendary first human king of Egypt as given by Manetho, the historian living in Hellenistic times
who constructed one form of King Lists.

Jar-sealings found by Petrie at Abydos associate the "mn" glyph, the gaming board, from which Menes
apparently receives his name, with Narmer. Narmer was shown in a serekh and Meni was shown in an
unenclosed space, like a son and heir.

Hor-Aha, the first king of the 1st Dynasty and thus Narmer’s probable successor and possibly his son by Queen
Nithotep, perhaps took the second royal name of Men, which means "established", thus being the origin of the
name Menes.

Evidence indicating all this is an ivory label from the tomb of Queen Nithotep at Naqada. It shows the name Hor-
Aha, and the name Men, in front of it.