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2019-01-0564 Published 02 Apr 2019
A Dual Fuel Hydrogen - Diesel Compression
Ignition Engine and Its Potential Application in
Road Transport
Jiri Vavra, Ivan Bortel, and Michal Takats Czech Technical University in Prague
Citation: Vavra, J., Bortel, I., and Takats, M., “A Dual Fuel Hydrogen - Diesel Compression Ignition Engine and Its Potential Application
in Road Transport,” SAE Technical Paper 2019-01-0564, 2019, doi:10.4271/2019-01-0564.
Abstract
I
n this paper investigations of hydrogen use as a main fuel
for a compression ignition engine with pilot injection of
diesel fuel will be  presented. The experiments were
performed in steady state conditions on a single cylinder
research compression ignition engine with a bore of 85 mm
and piston stroke of 90 mm, coupled with an electric dyna-
mometer. The diesel engine with optimized compression ratio
was equipped with a diesel fuel direct injection common rail
system. A homogeneous mixture of air and hydrogen was
formed using a port fuel injection. The influence of hydrogen
share on total fuel energy was systematically investigated
between limits given by the pure diesel operation and up to
a maximum hydrogen share, reaching 98% by energy. The
tested hydrogen share was constrained by practical limits at
various loads between 4 and 16 bar of IMEP with simulation
of the real turbocharger performance and at three engine
speeds. It was observed that increase in the hydrogen share
Introduction
C
ompression ignition (CI) engines are used in a wide
range of applications, as stationary power-generating
units and in transportation covering the range from
large marine engines to small passenger car engines [1].
The CI engine provides good energy conversion efficiency
with excellent vehicle driving range. The contemporary
requirements on CI engines introduce strict limits for prob-
lematic harmful emissions as nitrogen oxides (NOx) and
particle matter (PM). On the other hand requirements for
carbon dioxide reduction (CO2) [2] are being tightened
up significantly.
It is well known, that harmful emissions of CI engine can
be successfully suppressed via appropriate, precisely controlled
aftertreatment system [3]. Issue of very strict limits on CO2
emission remains and it calls for alternative solutions.
The implementation of alternative fuels should improve
the emissions of CI engines [4] and improve the real CO2
balance. Besides the renewable liquid fuels as FAME or HVO,
the gaseous fuels can be partially used in CI engines. This
approach is usually called a dual fuel (DF) approach. DF mode
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reduces emissions of CO2 and CO proportionally with
decrease in carbon content in the fuel. Simultaneously, PM
emissions in raw exhaust gas dropped continuously with
increase in hydrogen share. NOx emissions for the highest
H2 share dropped only slightly from the level of the diesel
engine. The engine efficiency was slightly reduced, when
operated with a highest share of hydrogen compared to the
pure diesel operation. Based on experimental results a steady
state performance and emissions maps of a turbocharged
four cylinder hydrogen  - diesel dual fueled engine were
compiled. A particular implementation of a dual fuel H2 -
diesel engine in a passenger van in a WLTP driving cycle was
simulated. Two fueling strategies were compared. The simula-
tions showed a potential of almost 70 percent reduction of
the driving cycle CO2 emissions for the strategy using the
highest hydrogen share, compared to the pure diesel opera-
tion. Vehicle range with a reasonable hydrogen storage
exceeds 460 km.
of CI engine is characterized by combustion of homogenous
mixture of gaseous fuel and air, initiated by pilot injection of
diesel fuel. Mostly used gaseous fuel for the DF CI engine is
methane. Advantages of methane are high knock resistivity,
which is compatible with a high compression ratio of CI
engine, and lower carbon content in comparison with diesel
fuel. More significant drop in CO2 emissions can be obtained
by use of hydrogen as a gaseous fuel in DF CI engine.
Hydrogen benefits from a carbonless structure with high
energy content, that can be  used as an excellent fuel for
contributing to the effort towards the sustainability of the CI
engine [5].
Hydrogen features merits compared to hydrocarbon
fuels. For example, the burning velocity is fast, and very rapid
combustion can be  achieved [6], which leads to almost
isochoric combustion [7]. The limits of flammability are very
wide and engine can be operated with a wide range of air/fuel
ratios including very lean ones. Self-ignition temperature of
H2 is high and a special ignition source is needed while the
minimum ignition energy is considerably small. [6]. One of
the disadvantages of hydrogen combustion is its tendency to
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2 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
abnormal combustion as a knock or preignitions [6]. It should
be expected, that this is the reason, why most authors use only
low energy fraction of hydrogen [8] and [9] or investigated
naturally aspirated engines [10],[7],[11], [12], [13] and [14] or
implemented H2 in low loads in case of boosted engine [15].
Another reason for using lean mixture of hydrogen and air is
the danger of backfire to inlet port which is initiated from hot
spots inside the combustion chamber [16]. This can be reduced
by timed hydrogen port injection rather than continuous
carburetion or single point injection [16]. There is a lack of
publications about compression ratio (CR) optimization for
DF hydrogen combustion.
Most of the studies were performed on engines, equipped
with a mechanical diesel injection system [7], [13], [14] and
[12] which does not provide enough space for combustion
optimization in comparison with common rail injection
system presented in [10] and [11].
The increased risk of abnormal combustion represented
as pre-ignition or knocking or backfire is observed for
hydrogen energy fraction about 50 % and more. [11]. As
hydrogen fraction is over about 50%, the cylinder head
temperature becomes strongly dependent on it. It is supposed
that hydrogen flame could expand towards the chamber walls
so that the cylinder structure temperatures rise with increase
in hydrogen fraction or equivalence ratio of hydrogen [11].
Applying exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) can compensate
the increased pressure and heat release rate, resulting by the
hydrogen enrichment [5] and should be more effective than
corresponding diesel operation due to high content of water
in exhaust gases [8]. EGR under optimum parameters should
provide simultaneous reduction of all emissions compared to
the diesel engine [5].
Lower hydrogen energy fraction leads to decrease in effi-
ciency due to the increased emission of unburned hydrogen.
On the other hand, higher loads and higher hydrogen fraction
might improve thermal efficiency, while unburnt hydrogen
emission decreases [7] and [11]. In [6] the authors state that
thermal efficiency of their four-stroke single cylinder diesel
engine (with the bore 92 mm and the stroke of 96 mm and
the compression ratio of 17.7) with hydrogen-air mixture was
slightly smaller than that in ordinary diesel combustion under
the condition of ordinary injection timing. With advanced
injection timing, the brake thermal efficiency became slightly
smaller and with equivalence ratio of 0.4 the combustion
became incomplete. The brake thermal efficiency, was
unchanged for hydrogen fraction from zero to 0.8 with equiva-
lence ratio of 0.5 at engine speed of 1000 rpm without speci-
fication of engine load.
Other authors presented slight increase in engine effi-
ciency of the single cylinder four stroke, water cooled DI
stationary diesel engine. [12] and [16]. At full load the brake
specific energy consumption (BSEC) for hydrogen operated
engine was 14.2 MJ/kWh compared to diesel, which was 15.4
MJ/kWh. The reduction in BSEC was due to the uniformity
in hydrogen mixture formation with air resulting in better
combustion efficiency.
As it is expected, the CO2 tailpipe specific emissions can
be significantly reduced by replacing conventional fossil fuel
with hydrogen [7], [11], [5] and [6].
Smoke emissions represented by a Smoke number (SN)
decrease remarkably with hydrogen addition according to
pure diesel fueling [7], [12], [16] and [7]. The formation of PM
is favored in the fuel-rich core of the diesel spray and by rela-
tively low flame temperatures during diffusion combustion
(between 1000 and 2800 K) [1] and [17]. The effect of DF
hydrogen operation at low loads and higher lambda values is
a reduction of overall PM emissions [11], [5] and [18], as soot
burnout by thermal oxidation offsets the effects of soot forma-
tion via pyrolysis. At higher engine loads, the effect of dilution
of intake O2 due to displacement by H2 becomes the primary
influence on particulate matter generation and a small rise in
PM emissions should be observed [10] and [17]. Only few
authors deal with assessment of particle number (PN). Bika
[18] presents results, where drop of tens of percent with H2
addition was observed.
Although hydrogen supply demonstrated significant
reduction of smoke and particle emissions of the harmful
diesel engine emissions, NOx formation is still a critical issue
in CI engines operation. Further extensive research is required
to assess whether low-temperature combustion techniques
can assist in NOx reduction while maintaining a knock-free
operation [5].
In this paper, practical view on DF hydrogen engine
concept is presented. Engine tests were performed with opti-
mized compression ratio, which allows operating with higher
hydrogen energy shares. Optimized compression ratio
together with boosting leads to reaching practical load levels.
The usage of common rail injection system allows optimiza-
tion of the diesel fuel injection timing along with quantity
and consequently optimal combustion phasing for each mode
can be reached.
Methods
The approach of this study is twofold, experimental and theo-
retical. The first, the experimental single cylinder engine
investigations describe the mapping of hydrogen share from
the pure diesel operation up to the maximum possible share
of hydrogen, constrained with practical limits. These were a
minimum diesel fuel injection quantity for a combustion
initiation, knock and preignition occurrence. This mapping
was done at engine loads covering the whole load spectrum
of the contemporary turbocharged automotive compression
ignition engine. This mapping was performed at three engine
speed conditions 1200, 2000 and 3200 rpm and resulted in
performance maps with different fueling strategies.
The second, theoretical part introduces an example of
potential practical implementation of the dual fuel H2-diesel
engine as a power unit for a passenger van. Two different
fueling strategies were selected and compared.
•• The diesel only fueling
•• The maximum allowable share of H2 energy
Full performance maps for the two strategies were
compiled and drive cycle simulations were performed to assess
a drive cycle fuel consumption and CO2 emissions.
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 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE 3

Experiments operation, the injector had to be equipped with the copper

cooling sleeve [19] on the injector tip to reduce tip thermal
stress and to avoid injector clogging [20] Figure 1. Hence, the
Experimental Setup hole for the injector in the cylinder head, was rebored [21].
The AVL research engine’s intake manifold consists of
All measurements presented in this paper were performed in three branches. This allows investigations of various swirl
a steady state operation on an AVL 5402 diesel single cylinder ratios. For a DF operation a VW CNG port fuel injector was
research engine in engine laboratory. The combustion installed in one branch of intake manifold as shown in
chamber geometry or position of the injector was adopted Figure 1. During all mentioned experiments all ports were
from the diesel engine. Initially compression ratio (CR) of 16:1 kept open.
was tested, however due to hydrogen preignition at medium The laboratory is equipped with a gas mixing station for
and high loads the CR was reduced to 14:1 by means of shims mixing of up to 5 gaseous (either fuel or inert) components
with calibrated thickness, inserted between the crankcase and into a surrogate gaseous fuel. In this study, only hydrogen
the cylinder block. section of this station with two cylinders (200 bar, each of
The engine specifications are presented in Table 1. The water volume of 50 liters) was exploited. Each fuel line consists
engine is equipped with a Bosch CR 4.1 common rail diesel of a cascade of pressure regulators and flow is metered with
fuel injection with a centrally mounted injector. According the mass flow controller. The safety is managed with the over-
to previous experience with a DF Diesel-Natural gas engine pressure valves and vents outside the laboratory and solenoid
and manual emergency shut-off valves in series. The entire
TABLE 1  Engine, operation parameters and fuel properties
laboratory is equipped with gas leak detectors and the opera-
tion is secured by a dedicated control panel connected to the
Bore x stroke, compression 85 x 90 mm, 14:1 laboratory safety system. On the engine side the solenoid CNG
ratio PFI (compressed natural gas port fuel) injector was used for
Number of valves / swirl ratio 4 / 1.7 a sequential injection and homogeneous air-fuel mixture
Valve timing measured at 0.3 mm valve lift formation in the intake port within the whole intake stroke.
EVO/EVC 128°/378° aTDC Gas pressure upstream the injector is given by the adjusted
IVO/IVC 352°/578° aTDC flow at the flow controller, flow characteristics of the injector
Diesel injection type BOSCH Common Rail, CP 4.1 and the air pressure in engine intake manifold. The diesel fuel
Diesel injection nozzle DLLA 162 P2160, 8 x ϕ0.12 mm x
injection pressure for this study set at 700 bar for the engine
162° speed of 1200 rpm and increased proportionally with the
Piston bowl design
increased speed up to 1400 bar at 3200 rpm according to
Table 1.
The test cell (Figure 2) is equipped with an AVL 515 Boost
Operation parameters Unit and external compressor that allowed independent
Engine speed 1200 - 3200 rpm control of intake air pressure and temperature. The exhaust
manifold was equipped with 60 l tank and a back pressure
Intake Pressure 0.9 - 3 bar abs.
throttle valve downstream of it. A Bosch LSU 4.9 lambda
Exhaust Pressure Based on a fictitious
turbocharger overal efficiency of
sensor was installed downstream of the throttle valve to avoid
50% the sensor response variation with increased pressure level
Intake temperature 35°C
and oscillations. The signal from the lambda sensor was
processed via an ETAS ES635 Lambda Module. Fuel C/H ratio
H2 rail pressure/ CR rail 3 - 9.0 bar / 700 bar @
pressure 1200 rpm and 2000 rpm, 1400
was parameterized for a diesel fuel composition.
bar @ 3200 rpm The oil and coolant flows are driven externally via an AVL
Start of H2 injection SOI = 350° bTDC, single 577 conditioning unit that keeps the constant pressure and
injection temperature. Coolant temperature was set at 80°C and oil
Start of diesel injection for constant CA50 = 10° aTDC or temperature at 85°C. Diesel fuel consumption was measured
to comply with limits below
pCylmax / Rmax 150 bar / 10 bar/°CA  FIGURE 1   A copper sleeve for a passive cooling of the
Diesel fuel composition Pump diesel, CN > 48, & without diesel injector tip (left), a gaseous fuel injector installed in the
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bio components engine inlet manifold (right).

Hydrogen purity 4.0
Fuel properties from [1] H2 diesel
Formula H2 CnH1.8n
Molecular weight 2.015 170
Density [kg/m3] at 0°C, 0.089 0.84
101,325 kPa at 25 °C and 39.24
70 MPa from [26]
Lower Heating Value [MJ/kg] 120 43.0
Stoichiometric air fuel ratio 34.3 14.5 © 2019 SAE International. All Rights Reserved.

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4 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

 FIGURE 2   Overview of the single cylinder test cell. with a paramagnetic detector (PMD). Particle number (PN)
was measured by the NanoMet3 particle counter. A TSI
3090AK particle sizer was used to detect a particle size distri-
bution. Both particle instruments used their own gas diluters
with rotation disks for the exhaust gas dilution.
Molar fraction of unburnt hydrogen in exhaust gas was
measured with a H-Sense mass spectrometer.

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Most of the measurement instruments worked in the
recommended measurement range. According to the equip-
ment OEM documentation indicated mean effective pressure
reproducibility accounts +/-2%. Hydrogen flow was metered
with a Brooks mass flow controller with the accuracy of +/-1%.
Gaseous emission measurements uncertainties according to
manufacturers is 1% drift and reproducibility of 0.5% of full
scale. All gas analyzers were calibrated with calibration gases
composition uncertainty of 2%. The diesel fuel balances
worked at the low end of the measurement range of 40 kg/h,
especially at high H2 substitution ratio and low engine loads.
For 30 seconds time measurements the uncertainty according
by an AVL 733s Fuel balance. A Brooks model SLA5853 flow to manufacturer is 0.003 kg/h. Measurement deviations of all
controller was used for metering of the hydrogen mass flow. integral quantities were suppressed by 30 seconds averaging
An uncooled piezoelectric pressure sensor AVL GU22C was of all instantaneous readings. Wherever possible the cross-
installed in a cylinder head and for fast measurements of check between relevant physical quantities was performed.
intake and exhaust gas pressure the piezoresistive KULITE
ETL-189-190M absolute pressure transducers were installed
in the intake/exhaust manifold next to the connection flanges. Experimental Results
The AVL INDIMODUL and accessories were used for high-
speed data acquisition. A 365C crank angle encoder was DF Mapping at Constant Engine Speed Initial
installed at free end of the engine crank shaft. The high-speed mapping of variable hydrogen share was performed at the
quantities were sampled on a crank angle base with the resolu- engine speed of 2000 rpm and different engine loads, starting
tion of 0.1° crank angle (CA). Typically, 200 consecutive cycles at 4 bar of IMEP. All the measurements started at the point
were recorded, and an average cycle was evaluated and used with the diesel fueling only. For all boosted conditions, air
for detailed thermodynamic analysis. All specific parameters excess ratio lambda for the diesel base points was kept approx-
in this paper are related to indicated power. imately constant. The value of lambda was obtained at 6 bar
A rapid prototyping engine control unit (ECU) Ricardo of IMEP, where the boosting is not necessary. To reduce a large
rCube2 [22] was used for an independent control of injection number of degrees of freedom of control parameters, associ-
of both fuels. An in-house developed control algorithm in ated with boosting, the air excess ratio was kept at one level
Matlab/Simulink was used for a complete control of a diesel for all boosted points. The higher lambda value allows to
fuel rail pressure and a precise control of multiple injections reduce the risk of abnormal combustion at naturally aspirated
per cycle for both diesel and gaseous fuels. The ECU param- modes and for simplification, this precaution was adopted for
eterization was performed using an INCA software. The test all boosted modes. For further optimization of the practical
cell is equipped with an in-house developed control and low- level of the lambda, the characteristics of the real boosting
speed data acquisition system based on National Instruments system should be emulated and considered. At this (initial)
cDAQ and cRIO hardware, and a LabVIEW software. An stage the real characteristics of boosting system were not
in-house developed software [23] was used for a detailed heat fully respected.
release analysis of the crank angle indexed in cylinder pressure The exhaust back pressure was controlled respecting the
record. The software enables to specify multiple (up to 20) fuel constant fictitious overall turbocharger (TC) efficiency (OTE)
components. For each operational point composition of the of 50%. The OTE calculation was programmed into the test
fuel blend is calculated and subsequently used as an input for bed DAQ and control system and the resulting value was
determination of thermodynamic properties of the displayed in real time. The research engine was not equipped
working substance. with any exhaust aftertreatment, and due to the lack of infor-
All emissions were measured in raw exhaust gas. Bottom mation about the practical back pressure levels of real engines,
part of Figure 2 displays the arrangement of exhaust manifold any aftertreatment back pressure was not considered in
and emission sampling. Gaseous emissions were measured by this study.
AVL AMA i60 with heated pre-filter. AMA i60 includes The combustion phasing sweeps controlled by the injec-
measurement of nitrogen oxides NOx using chemi-lumines- tion timing were carried out for diesel fueling for engine load
cence detector (CLD), total hydrocarbons (THC) via flame from 6 and 16 bar of mean indicated pressure (IMEP).
ionization detector (FID), and carbon monoxide (CO) and Figure 3 shows the optimum combustion phasing (CA50)
carbon dioxide (CO2) via non-dispersive infrared (NDIR) between 8 and 10 CA degrees after top dead center (TDC)
measurement technique. Content of oxygen was measured for loads up to 14 bar of IMEP. At IMEP of 16 bar the CA50
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 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE 5

 FIGURE 3   Indicated efficiency and maximum cylinder  FIGURE 4   Indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP),
pressure (Pcyl max) as a function of combustion phasing maximum cylinder pressure (Pcylmax), combustion phasing
(CA50) in a pure diesel operation at engine speed of 2000 rpm (CA50), maximum rate of pressure rise (RMAX), intake
and loads between 6 and 16 bar of indicated mean effective pressure (Pint) and intake and exhaust manifold pressure
pressure (IMEP). difference (Pexh -Pint) as a function of hydrogen energy share
for engine speed 2000 rpm.

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needs to be retarded, because the point lies right at the limit

of maximum cylinder pressure of 150 bar. From the sake of
simplicity the position of 50 percent mass fraction burned
in dual fuel mode was adjusted at 10 crank angle degrees
after TDC, very close to the optimum combustion phasing. © 2019 SAE International. All Rights Reserved.

There are only two deviations from this rule. At low loads,
due to very slow combustion, this level was not achievable
and the incomplete combustion became a factor that limited
the maximum achievable hydrogen energy share. It also
needs to be pointed out that the low compression ratio of
14:1 is not optimal for an extremely lean operation at low
loads of the compression ignition engine due to low autoigni-
tion temperature. The effect of intake air throttling was tested
in previous studies to enable charge enrichment and to
increase the combustion rate. Therefore, the intake pressure
was slightly lowered below the level of the naturally
aspirated mode.
At high load conditions the combustion phasing had to the same time the combustion phasing had to be retarded to
be retarded to not to exceed either of following limits of the avoid exceeding the RMAX limit. The maximum H2 share at
engine structure. The first one 150 bar of peak cylinder very high load was limited to avoid any abnormal combustion
pressure (Pcylmax) and limit of a maximum pressure rise rate at engine long time steady state operation. At 16 bar of IMEP
(RMAX) of 10 bars per crank angle degree. the limit is approximately 70%. In Appendix the record of the
Figure 4 and Figure 5 display the test strategy and impor- pressure traces in the cylinder and the intake manifold shows
tant control quantities and physical limits as a function of a back firing during the intake stroke at the H2 energy share
hydrogen energy share. The top left figure presents tested load of approximately 80%. This phenomenon occurred several
levels in a form of indicated mean effective pressure (IMEP). times at high load and high hydrogen shares, only single
From the knowledge acquired at previous tests the points with occurrence was captured by the high speed data acquisition
lower H2 shares were excluded due to poor combustion effi- (Figure 16). It has to be pointed out, that air-hydrogen mixture
ciency, given by the extremely lean homogeneous H2-air is formed in only one intake manifold branch (Figure 1). Local
mixture and lean ignitibility limit. Left limit points corre- air-to hydrogen ratio in this branch is lower than engine
spond to diesel fueling only. Right hand side shows the limits average. The points with these extreme H2 shares, showing
of the maximum hydrogen share. At low loads (4 and 6 bar of any occurrence of abnormal combustion were excluded from
IMEP) the limiting factor was an extremely slow and incom- the further analysis.
plete combustion of an extremely lean homogeneous mixture. Boost levels in intake (Pint) and exhaust (Pexh) manifold
Despite the advanced injection timing (SOI shown at Figure 5) were adjusted with respect to maintain overall efficiency of
the combustion phasing (CA50) became extremely retarded. fictitious turbocharger at 50% (72% compressor x 69%
The highest hydrogen shares were obtained at loads turbine - including TC mechanical efficiency). Resulting lines
between 8 and 14 bar of IMEP. In this region, the maximum are plotted at the bottom of the Figure 4.
H2 energy share almost reached 98%. Only limiting factor Figure 5 reveals the fueling rate strategy. At higher diesel
was a minimum injection quantity given by the common rail injection quantities, injection was split between a pilot
system. The maximum load level achieved in this study, (QDieselPilot) and a main injection (QDieselMain) event. As
limited by the engine structure limits was 16 bar of IMEP. At the diesel fuel quantity was substituted with increasing
this load level, the peak cylinder pressure reached its limit. At hydrogen quantity (QH2), at certain point the two diesel
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6 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

 FIGURE 5   Diesel main (QDiesel Main) and pilot (QDiesel pilot)  FIGURE 6   Lambda in exhaust (top left), lambda in intake
injection quantity, hydrogen injection quantity (QH2), main (top right), combustion efficiency (bottom left) and indicated
injection start timing (SOIDiesel Main) and coefficient of variation efficiency (bottom right) as a function of hydrogen energy
of indicated mean effective pressure (COV IMEP) and exhaust share for engine speed 2000 rpm.
gas temperature (Texh) as a function of hydrogen energy share
for engine speed 2000 rpm.

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diesel combustion efficiency of 99.9%. Detailed power balance

analysis will be described later in separate subsection.
Figure 7 and Figure 8 display a results of exhaust gas
emission analysis. Specific (based on indicated power) emis-
sions of hydrogen H2, total hydrocarbons THC, nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and particle emissions (PN) are presented. The
peak of emissions of unburned hydrogen occur between 0 and
60% of hydrogen energy share region and correspond to the
mentioned extremely lean homogeneous mixture composi-
tion. The worst case is at low loads. At above 60 percent of
injections merged into a single (QDieselMain) event due to
hydrogen energy share the hydrogen emissions fall together
too short injector opening times. Minimum injector ener-
as the homogenous mixture lambda value drops. Unburned
gizing time for this setup was around 200 microseconds.
hydrocarbons for medium and high loads slightly rise with
Coefficient of variation of indicated mean effective pressure
hydrogen share.
(COV IMEP) increases proportionally with a H2 energy share
as pre-mixed (homogeneous mixture) combustion replaces
diffusion flames. The deviations of the trend in COV IMEP
on the right end (at the highest H2 energy share) are caused  FIGURE 7   Unburnt hydrogen (H2), hydrocarbon emissions
by the switch from the two diesel injections to the single one. (THC), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and number of particles (PN) as
Figure 6 explains already mentioned strategy of the air a function of hydrogen energy share for engine speed
excess ratio (lambda) adjustment. The two of the top figures 2000 rpm.
present an exhaust lambda evaluated from the Bretschneider
formula from [27] the exhaust gas composition and from the
C/H ratio of the surrogate fuel. The second, the lambda value
evaluated from the intake air and hydrogen flows (Lambda_
int). The later one describes the homogeneous mixture
strength, entering the cylinder and explains the reason for a
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poor combustion efficiency evaluated from the exhaust gas

composition. This complements the previous statement about
the selection of the tested H2 energy shares to only reasonable
levels above 60% resulting indicated efficiency of this shown
in the bottom right graph. Especially at low loads and low
hydrogen shares, the indicated efficiency follows mainly the
trend in combustion efficiency. At high loads and high
hydrogen share the combustion efficiency reaches values
between 98 (16bar of IMEP) and 99.5 (at 8 bar of IMEP) which
is better than that at low load but it still does not reach the

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 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE 7

 FIGURE 8   Carbon dioxide (left) and carbon monoxide  FIGURE 9   Comparison of crank angle based cylinder
(right) emissions as a function of hydrogen energy share for pressure (pCyl), normalized heat release rate (HRR) (top),
engine speed 2000 rpm. normalized heat release (HR) and cylinder charge gas constant
(R) (bottom) for diesel and maximum H2 share at 10 bar of
IMEP and 2000 rpm.

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The trend in NOx emissions is not uniform with the

increase in H2 energy share. For high loads (14 and 16 bar of
IMEP) a slight decrease can be observed. For medium IMEP
between 6 and 12 bar the NOx emissions slightly rise and for
the two cases with low loads (4 and 6 bar of IMEP) the NOx

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emissions fall, mainly because of the poor combustion effi-
ciency. Contemporary diesel engines use a combination of
combustion control, EGR, lean NOx trap (LNT, also called
NOx storage and reduction catalyst, NSRC), or selective cata-
lytic reduction (SCR) to reduce NOx emissions. In addition
to the failsafe option of regenerating LNT during diesel-only
operation, it appears that LNT regeneration can also be accom-
plished using hydrogen [28]. Likewise, using hydrogen as a
fuel should not hinder the classical urea-based SCR systems;
to the contrary, it has been reported that hydrogen can be used
as a reducing agent for SCR catalysts at relatively low
temperatures [29].
Emissions of particles fall as the content of carbon in the for multiple cycles until the model converges. The trapping
surrogate fuel drops with increased hydrogen share. Figure 8 ratio and residual gas fraction and other quantities, difficult
presents specific emissions of CO2 and CO. Both components to measure as a wall heat transfer, can be evaluated by this
fall almost proportionally with hydrogen energy share. procedure. The software evaluates the wall heat transfer and
Figure 9 displays a comparison of crank angle based structure temperatures in cylinder and in ports using a simpli-
cylinder pressure traces for pure diesel fueling (continuous fied finite element model. A Woschni formula for the heat
line) and for maximum hydrogen share (dotted line) for 10 transfer (HT) coefficient determination was used. The model
bar of IMEP and engine speed of 2000 rpm. The average cycle accounts for combustion efficiency that is calculated from
from a record of 200 consecutive cycles is presented. The diesel measured molar fractions of combustible components in
fueling shows steep HRR at the initial phase of combustion, exhaust gas. The model is equipped with sensors of relevant
while maximum H2 share causes higher maximum of HRR. physical quantities. The instantaneous values were integrated
At bottom graph in Figure 9 cylinder charge gas constant along the cycle. A difference between inlet and exhaust
traces are displayed. A molar contraction at hydrogen combus- enthalpy was determined from the instantaneous mass flow,
tion causes decrease of the cylinder charge gas constant. This temperature and gas thermal capacity. Also simplified blow-by
effect also reduces the pressure increment by combustion, model was implemented. All of the important model param-
even if the maximum HRR at high hydrogen share is higher eters were calibrated to measured data using a genetic algo-
than that at pure diesel fueling. rithm based optimizer. The model calibration procedures and
results were presented in [31]. The error in predicted IMEP
Power Balance for Pure Diesel and Maximum H2 and indicated efficiency in comparison to measured data stays
Share. A steady state three pressure analysis (TPA) [30] was below 3% in the worst case. Figure 10 shows a total fuel power
used for a detailed power balance analysis. A control volume balance for pure diesel operations and maximum H2 share
in this analysis was defined by a simplified model of the for three loads of 6, 12 and 16 bar of IMEP and engine speed
cylinder, intake and exhaust valves and ports. The model map of 2000 rpm. The main drop in indicated efficiency for H2
is displayed in Figure 17 in Appendix. For each measured case combustion compared to the diesel operation for all loads is
an average crank angle indexed traces of intake and exhaust partly caused by a drop in combustion efficiency. At the lowest
pressure traces were imposed into the model as boundary load an increase in exhaust enthalpy caused by slow combus-
conditions together with average gas temperature. The proce- tion also reduces the indicated efficiency. At medium and high
dure uses a measured cylinder pressure trace for a burn rate load the exhaust enthalpy for max H2 share drops compared
evaluation for each operating condition. The simulation runs to the pure diesel combustion. The cylinder wall heat transfer
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8 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

 FIGURE 10   Power balance for pure diesel and maximum  FIGURE 12   Measured maps of emission characteristics of
H2 share for selected cases at 2000 rpm and loads of 6, 12 and two fueling strategies
16 bar of IMEP.

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© 2019 SAE International. All Rights Reserved.

drops for the cases with maximum H2 share for the lowest
and the highest loads. For a medium load the cylinder wall
heat transfer does not show fuel dependency. Also the wall
heat transfer in intake and exhaust manifolds does not depend
on the fueling strategy. Blow-by losses increase at H2 max
share compared to pure diesel combustion at all loads. The
model shows that blow-by gas contains not negligible mass of
unburned hydrogen as a part of the homogeneous mixture.
The H2 content in a blow by gas therefore needs to be inves-
tigated in future studies.

Compilation of Dual-Fuel Engine Maps. Measurements, previous section. That way a side by side comparison of two
as described in previous section, were performed as well for fueling strategies is available.
engine speed of 1200 rpm and 3200 rpm. In the next step, two The top part in Figure 11 displays hydrogen energy share.
fueling strategies were selected from all measured data points. The green region represents points in which hydrogen energy
In Figure 11 and Figure 12 on the left side, the pure diesel share exceeds 94% being limited only by the minimum allow-
fueling, representing the state of the art reference. On the able injection quantity of a diesel fuel. At low loads, the
right, the points with maximum allowable hydrogen share hydrogen share was limited by the slow and incomplete
were selected from the systematical mapping described in the combustion. At 3200  rpm it was impossible to obtain
CA50=10° aTDC below 6 bar of IMEP at any level of hydrogen
 FIGURE 11   Measured maps of hydrogen energy share and share. The empty cells indicate the operating points, in which
indicated efficiency of two fueling strategies pure diesel operation has to be adopted.
At high load the hydrogen share was limited by the pre-
ignition and at high engine speed the limit had to be shifted
towards lower loads due to higher thermal load and higher
pre-ignition and backfiring tendency. Indicated efficiency of
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DF hydrogen engine is lower than that of the diesel engine in

all operating points.
Figure 12 confirms the trends in emissions as they were
described in previous section. Particularly, it is well visible
that emissions of CO2, CO and particles are significantly
reduced in dual fuel operation. The THC emissions in DF H2
mode are slightly higher than the diesel fuel one, still
remaining very low in absolute numbers. In general, emissions
of NOx from DF H2 engine are similar to that from the
diesel engine.
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 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE 9

TABLE 2  Simulated main vehicle specifications  FIGURE 14   Extrapolated 4 cylinder engine power map

Diesel engine DF H2 - diesel engine

Vehicle mass [kg] 1930 2110
Frontal area [m2] 3

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Gear number [1] 6

All Rights Reserved
Air drag coefficient [1] 0.38
Rolling resistance [1] 0.07
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 FIGURE 13   A concept of hydrogen storage in the van.

 FIGURE 15   Extrapolated 4 cylinder engine
performance maps
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© 2019 SAE International. All Rights Reserved.

Vehicle Simulations
In this section the initial assessment of the impact of H2 DF
engine use in a real powertrain of the van will be outlined.
For this purpose the vehicle model was compiled in GT-Suite,
assuming vehicle parameters in Table 2. The effect of increased
vehicle mass due to heavy H2 cylinders was taken into account.
Weight factor (defined as the weight of hydrogen divided by
total tank system weight) of 5% has been adopted from [24].
Estimated water volume of H2 tanks is 160 l. For 700 bar fuel
pressure the storage capacity is 6.3 kg of H2. from the steady state engine maps (Figure 15) for each time
Feasibility study of the space claim required for 160 L step selecting the proper operational point.
hydrogen tanks relative to the total vehicle size is presented
in Figure 13. The van vehicle might adopt larger tanks for
extended vehicle range. Simulation Results
Simulation results in two driving cycles (NEDC and WLTC)
and two fueling strategies (diesel only vs. H2 maximum allow-
Extrapolation of Maps for a able energy share) are presented in Table 3. In both driving
Multicylinder Engine cycles use of high H2 energy share brings significant reduction
of cycle averaged CO2 emission.
Measured data were recalculated from indicated to effective
parameters, using the realistic estimate of friction losses
according to [25]. Map of engine effective power is presented TABLE 3  Results of vehicle simulations.
in Figure 14. In order to provide the input data to simulation Diesel Diesel H2 max H2 max
of driving cycle, the extrapolation were performed to increase NEDC WLTC NEDC WLTC
speed range. In this way four cylinder engine maps were diesel_g/km 46.2 47.1 19.3 15.4
designed. Data describing overall fuel consumption (in a form
H2_g/km 0.0 0.0 10.0 13.0
of brake efficiency) and CO2 emissions are introduced in
Figure 15. Total Energy [MJ] 21.9 46.5 22.3 51.0
The model uses so called quasi-steady approach to calcu- Cycle H2EnShare [%] 0.0 0.0 59.2 70.3
late longitudinal vehicle dynamics according to prescribed Cycle CO2 [g/km] 144.5 148.9 53.4 48.5
velocity profile and gear ratio. It includes all driving resis- CO2 reduction_% 0.0% 0.0% -63.0% -67.4%
tances. Fuel consumption and CO2 emission is interpolated © 2019 SAE International. All Rights Reserved.

© 2019 SAE International. All Rights Reserved.

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10 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
Using a density of H2 of 39 kg/m3 (at 700 bar and 298 K)
160L tanks (Figure 13) contain a total mass of 6.24 kg - of
which slightly less than 6 kg would be available based on the
injection pressures used. Vehicle range in this case accounts
for 462 km in WLTP conditions. Simultaneously a consump-
tion of diesel fuel of 7.11 kg (8.9 L) takes place.
Summary/Conclusions
Dual fuel, H2-diesel fuel, on a single cylinder engine experi-
mental results show:
•• Use of H2 energy share (up to 73% and up to 2000 rpm,
and up to 70% at 3200 rpm) is possible without abnormal
combustion up to 16 bar of IMEP.
•• For medium load up to 98% of H2 energy share
is applicable.
•• At low load the H2 energy share is limited by slow and
incomplete combustion of extremely lean H2/
air mixture.
•• Indicated efficiency of dual fuel engine is lower
compared to pure diesel fueling.
•• Emissions of all gaseous carbon components (CO and
CO2) are decreased proportionally with decrease of
carbon content in surrogate fuel.
•• Particle emissions are decreased as well.
•• High THC emissions occur at low engine load. At
medium and high loads the THC emissions are very low
for both fueling strategies.
•• NOx emissions for H2 DF engine remain approximately
the same as for the diesel engine.
•• All mentioned trends were observed within the whole
tested speed range.
Measured maps for two selected fueling strategies were
extrapolated for a driving cycle simulation of the van in two
test cycles. Up to 67 percent average cycle CO2 emissions
reduction was achieved for H2 DF engine compared to diesel
engine in WLTC. Vehicle range with a 700 bar tanks with
usable mass of 6 kg of hydrogen exceeds 460 km.
The two arguments for H2 addition to diesel are that (1)
a ‘low CO2 emission’ vehicle could be rapidly deployed, and
(2) they could generate a net reduction in CO2 emissions,
helping to meet CO2 targets more rapidly and at lower net
societal cost. The proposed fueling strategy can contribute to
smoothing the transient to carbon free economy, enabling
effective building of the hydrogen infrastructure.
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13. Santoso, W.B., Bakar, R.A., and Nur, A., “Combustion
Characteristics of Diesel-Hydrogen Dual Fuel Engine at Low
Load,” Energy Procedia 32:3-10, 2013.
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 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE 11

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Investigation on Performance and Emission Characteristics
Contact Information
of Dual Fuel DI Diesel Engine with Hydrogen Fuel,” SAE Jiri Vavra
Technical Paper 2009-26-0032, 2009, doi:10.4271/2009-26- e-mail: jiri.vavra@fs.cvut.cz
0032. phone +420 224 359 703
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of Dual-Fuel Operation, Using Diesel and Gaseous Fuels, on Faculty of Mechanical Engineering
Emissions and Performance,” SAE Technical Paper 2012-01- Technicka 4, 16607 Prague, Czech Republic
0869, 2012, doi:10.4271/2012-01-0869.
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of Hydrogen as a Supplemental Fuel with Diesel and Acknowledgments
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This research has been realized using the support of EU
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Regional Development Fund in OP R&D for Innovations (OP
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“Controlling the Injector Tip Temperature in a Diesel Dual Czech Republic, project # CZ.1.05/2.1.00/03.0125 Acquisition
Fuel Engine,” SAE Technical Paper 2012-01-0826, 2012, of Technology for Vehicle Center of Sustainable Mobility and
doi:10.4271/2012-01-0826. under the support of The Ministry of Education, Youth and
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and Performance of Diesel-Natural Gas Dual-Fuel Engine of Vehicle Centre of Sustainable Mobility. This support is
Operated with Stoichiometric Mixture,” Fuel 208:722- gratefully acknowledged.
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aTDC - after top dead center
cvut.cz/softlib/2017/INTEQ_MultiFuel.zip, CTU
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“Technical Assessment of Compressed Hydrogen Storage bTDC - before top dead center
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CA - crank angle
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25. Macek, J., Fuente, D., and Emrich, M., “A Simple Physical
progress of 50% burnt fuel
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2011-01-0610, 2011, doi:10.4271/2011-01-0610. CI - compression ignition
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12 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

HVO - hydrotreated vegetable oil Pint - intake pressure

IS - indicated specific PM - particle matter
ICE - internal combustion engine PN - particle number
IMEP - Indicated mean effective pressure QDiesel, QH2 - diesel/hydrogen injection quantity
lambda - air excess ratio RMAX - maximum rate of pressure rise
NDIR - non dispersive infra red SI - spark ignition/ignited
NEDC - new European driving cycle SN - smoke number
NOX - nitrogen oxides SOI - start of injection
OTE - overall turbocharger efficiency TC - turbocharger
Pcylmax - maximum cylinder pressure TDC - top dead center
PF - port fuel THC - total hydrocarbons
Pe - effective power WLTP - World light duty test procedure
Pexh - exhaust pressure

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 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE 13

Appendix
Back firing into intake manifold at high load and high H2 share.
The Figure 16 shows cylinder and intake manifold pressure records at the measured point with the engine speed of 2000
rpm, 16 bar of IMEP and H2 energy share of 80%. By the cycle 161 the traces show “normal” combustion. For cycle 162, during
the intake stroke and during the hydrogen injection event, the sudden pressure peak can be observed both in the cylinder and
in the intake manifold. It is hypothesized, that a possible source might be a hot spot (from the exhaust valves) ignition of the
fresh charge. Larger portion of hydrogen in the charge is burned in the intake manifold. The cylinder pressure trace of the cycle
162 indicates a combustion of the small diesel quantity only. This behavior can be observed for the rest of the consecutive cycles.
Then the operator cut both fuels.

 FIGURE 16   Left: A waterfall diagrams of the cylinder and intake manifold pressure traces recorded with the occurrence of
backfire. Right: Cylinder pressure traces of the three consecutives engine cycles (161, 162 and 163) with back firing during intake
stroke. Operating conditions: engine speed of 2000 rpm, engine load of 16 bar of IMEP and hydrogen energy share of 79.5%.
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14 A DUAL FUEL HYDROGEN - DIESEL COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

Three pressure analysis (TPA) for engine power balance assessment

 FIGURE 17   A layout of the simplified single cylinder model in GT Suite.

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