Buffer Solutions

Definition:
A buffer solution is a chemical solution that resists change
to its pH or acidity.

Application:
Buffer solutions are used as a means of keeping pH at a
nearly constant value in a wide variety of chemical
applications.

Page 1
 Buffer Solutions
Buffer solutions may be of two types: acidic and basic.
• Acidic:
A solution of a weak acid and its salt. Acidic buffer solutions are
commonly made from a weak acid and one of its salts – often a
sodium salt.

Page 2
 Buffer Solutions
Buffer solutions may be of two types: acidic and basic.
• Basic:
A solution of a weak base and its salt. An alkaline buffer solution
has a pH greater than 7. A frequently used example is a mixture
of ammonia solution and ammonium chloride solution.

Page 3
 Buffer Solutions
For example the acidic buffer of ethanoic acid (weak acid) and its
sodium salt (strong salt) acts like this when and acid or a base is added
to the solution:

Page 4
 Periodicity: Atomic radius
The atomic radius is one-half the distance between the centers
of a homonuclear diatomic molecule.
 Periodicity: Atomic radius
Group Trends in Atomic Radii
Every atom in this family (group) has the same number of electrons in
the outer energy level. Each period in the periodic table represents
another added energy level. Therefore, as we move down the periodic
table, each successive period represents the addition of a larger energy
level, thus increasing the atomic radius.
 Periodicity: Atomic radius
Period Trends in Atomic Radii
In order to determine the trend for the periods, consider the number of
protons (nuclear charge), the number of energy levels, and the shielding
effect.
With an increase in nuclear charge, there is an increase in the pull
between the protons and the outer level, pulling the outer electrons
toward the nucleus.
The amount of shielding from the nucleus does not increase because the
number of core electrons remains the same.
The result is that the atomic size decreases going across the row.
 Periodicity: Atomic radius
Atomic Radii of Transition Elements
The general trend for atomic radii in the periodic table would look
similar to that illustrated in the diagram next page.
The elements with the smallest atomic radii are found in the upper
right; those with the largest atomic radii are found in the lower left.
A simplified explanation for the unusual electron configurations in
transition metals is that the d sub-level is particularly stable when it is
half-full (5 electrons) or completely full (10 electrons).
Since the 4s and 3d orbitals are close in energy, this added
stabilization is enough to change the location of one valence electron.
 Periodicity: Atomic radius
Summary
• Atomic size is the distance from the nucleus to the valence shell.
• Atomic size is difficult to measure because it has no definite
boundary.
• Atomic radius is a more definite and measurable way of defining
atomic size. It is half the distance from the center of one atom to the
center of another atom in a homonuclear diatomic molecule.
 Periodicity: Atomic radius
Summary
• There are three factors that help in the prediction of the trends in
the periodic table: number of protons in the nucleus, number of
energy levels, and the shielding effect.
• The atomic radii increase from top to the bottom in any group.
• The atomic radii decrease from left to right across a period.
• This trend is not as systematic for the transition metals because
other factors come into play.
Periodicity: Atomic radius
 Periodicity: Atomic radius
Example 1:
Which of the following is larger? Explain.
1. As or Sb
2. Ca or Be
3. polonium or sulfur
Solution:
1. Sb, because it is below As in Group 15.
2. Ca, because it is below Be in Group 2.
3. Polonium, because it is below sulfur in Group 16.
 Periodicity: Atomic radius
Further practice:
1. Which of the following would be smaller: indium or gallium?
2. Which of the following would be smaller: potassium or cesium?
3. Which of the following would be smaller: titanium or polonium?
4. Explain why iodine is larger than bromine.
5. What are three factors that affect atomic size?
6. Which of the following would have the largest atomic radius?
a. Si
b. C
c. Sn
d. Pb
 Periodicity: Atomic radius
7.Which of the following would have the smallest atomic radius?
1.1s2 2s2
2.1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1
3.1s2
4.1s1
8.Arrange the following in order of increasing atomic radius: Tl, B, Ga, Al, In.
9.Arrange the following in order of increasing atomic radius: Ga, Sn, C.
10.Which of the following would be larger: Rb or Sn?
11.Which of the following would be larger: Ca or As?
12.Describe the trend for the atomic size of elements in a row in the periodic table.
 Periodicity: Atomic radius
12.Describe the trend for the atomic size of elements in a row in the periodic table.
13.Which of the following would have the largest atomic radius?
1.Sr
2.Sn
3.Rb
4.In
14.Which of the following would have the smallest atomic radius?
1.K
2.Kr
3.Ga
4.Ge
15.Arrange the following in order of decreasing atomic radius: Ba, Tl, Se, Bi, Cs.
Periodicity: Ionization Potential
Periodicity: Ionization Potential
Periodicity: Ionization Potential
Periodicity: Ionization Potential
Periodicity: Ionization Potential
 Periodicity: Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is a measure of the energy released when an
electron is added to an atom to create a negatively charged ion.
• Electron affinity decreases down a group because the electrons are
placed in higher energy levels in higher valence shells.
This decreases the attraction of the nucleus on valence electrons
via shielding.
• Across a period from left to right, the electron affinity increases.
This is because from left to right in a period, while shielding
remains constant, the number of protons in the nucleus increases,
increasing the nuclear charge and the influence of the nucleus on
the outer electrons.
Periodicity: Electron Affinity
 Periodicity: Electron Affinity
Why second electron affinity value is positive?
Periodicity: Electron Affinity
Metallic Character:
It is the name given to the set of chemical properties associated with
elements that are metals.
These chemicals properties result from how readily metals lose their
electrons.
Metallic character includes the ability to be reduced and the ability to
displace hydrogen from dilute acids.
Metallic character and periodic table trends:
Metallic character decreases as you move across a period in the
periodic table from left to right.
This occurs as atoms more readily accept electrons to fill a valence
shell than lose them to remove the unfilled shell.
Metallic character increases as we move down the group.
This is because electrons become easier to lose as the atomic radius
increases, where there is less attraction between the nucleus and the
valence electrons because of the increased distance between them.
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q9
Q 10
Q 11
Q 12
Q 13
Q 14
Q 15
Q 16