Chapter 2

The Periodic Table and the

Elements
 The Periodic Table and the Elements
• What is the periodic table ?
• What information is obtained from the table ?
• How can elemental properties be predicted base on the PT ?
Dmitri Mendeleev (1869)
In 1869 Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer (Germany)
published nearly identical classification schemes
for elements known to date. The periodic table is
base on the similarity of properties and reactivities
exhibited by certain elements. Later, Henri
Moseley ( England,1887-1915) established that
each elements has a unique atomic number, which
is how the current periodic table is organized.

http://www.chem.msu.su/eng/misc/mendeleev/welcome.html
 The Periodic Table
• A map of the building block of matter.
1 18
IA VIIIA

1 H
1 2
IIA
Periodic Table 13
IIIA
14
IVA
15
VA
16
VIA
17
VIIA
2
He
1.00797 4.0026
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 Li Be B C N O F Ne
6.939 9.0122 10.811 12.0112 14.0067 15.9994 18.9984 20.179
11 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
3 Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
22.9898 24.305 26.9815 28.086 30.9738 32.064 35.453 39.948
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
39.102 40.08 44.956 47.90 50.942 51.996 54.9380 55.847 58.9332 58.71 63.54 65.37 65.37 72.59 74.9216 78.96 79.909 83.80
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
85.47 87.62 88.905 91.22 92.906 95.94 [99] 101.07 102.905 106.4 107.870 112.40 114.82 118.69 121.75 127.60 126.904 131.30
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
132.905 137.34 138.91 178.49 180.948 183.85 186.2 190.2 192.2 195.09 196.967 200.59 204.37 207.19 208.980 [210] [210] [222]
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109
7 Fr Ra Ac Ku http://www.chemsoc.org/viselements/pages/periodic_table.html
[223] [226] [227] [260]
 Periodic Table Expanded View
•The way the periodic table usually seen is
a compress view, placing the Lanthanides
and actinides at the bottom of the stable.
•The Periodic Table can be arrange by subshells.
The s-block is Group IA and & IIA, the p-block is
Group IIIA - VIIIA. The d-block is the transition
metals, and the f-block are the Lanthanides and
Actinide metals
 Periodic Table: Metallic arrangement
• Layout of the Periodic Table: Metals vs. nonmetals

1 18
IA VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

4
Nonmetals
5 Metals
6

7
 Periodic Table: The three broad Classes
Main, Transition, Rare Earth
• Main (Representative), Transition metals, lanthanides and actinides (rare earth)
Reading the Periodic Table: Classification
• Nonmetals, Metals, Metalloids, Noble gases
 Across the Periodic Table
• Periods: Are arranged horizontally across the
periodic table (rows 1-7)
• These elements have the same number of valence shells.
1 18
IA VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

2nd Period
2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

6th Period
6

7
 Down the Periodic Table
•Family: Are arranged vertically down the periodic table (columns or
group, 1- 18 or 1-8 A,B)
•These elements have the same number electrons in the outer most shells, the valence shell.

1 18
IA VIIIA
2 Alkali Family: 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA
1 e- in the valence shell
2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

4
Halogen Family:
5 7 e- in the valence shell

7
 Infamous Families of the Periodic Table
• Notable families of the Periodic Table and some important members:
Alkali Halogen
Noble Gas
Alkaline Chalcogens
1
IA
(earth) 18
VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA
Transition Metals IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

7
 Important members - the Elements
• Individual members of selected Elements & their characteristics
1 18
IA VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1
H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
2
Li C N O F
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3
Na Mg IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl
4
K Ca Fe Cu Zn Br
5
Ag I
6

7
 Periodic Table
e- configuration from the periodic periodic table
(To be covered in future chapters)

1 18
IA VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 H IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA He
1s1 1s2
2 Li Be B •B
C N O F Ne
2s1 2s2 2p1 •2p2 1 3
2p 2p 2p4 2p5 2p6
Na Mg 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB Al Si P S Cl Ar
3s1 3s2 3p1 3p2 3p 3p4
3 3p5 3p6
4 K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Be Kr
4s1 4s2 3d1 3d2 3d3 4s13d5 3d5 3d6 3d7 3d8 4s13d10 3d10 4p1 4p2 4p3 4p4 4p5 4p6
5 Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Ni Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
5s1 5s2 4d1 4d2 4d3 5s14d5 4d5 4d6 4d7 4d8 5s14d10 4d 10
5p1 5p2 5p3 5p4 5p5 5p6
6 Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Ni Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
6s1 6s2 5d1 5d2 3 1 5 5 6
5d 6s 5d 5d 5d 5d 5d87
6s15d10 5d10 6p1 6p2 6p3 6p4 6p5 6p6
7 Fr Ra Ac Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt
7s1 7s2 6d1 6d2 6d3 7s16d5 6d5 6d6 6d7
 Periodic Table: electron behavior
• The periodic table can be classified by the behavior of their electrons

West (South) Mid-plains East (North)

METALS METALLOID NON-METALS
Alkali Noble gas
Alkaline Halogens
Transition Calcogens
These elements These elements These elements
tend to give up will give up e- or tend to accept
e - and form accept e- e - and form
1
CATIONS ANIONS 18
IA VIIIA
2 13 14 15 16 17
1 IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB VIIIB IB IIB

7
 Exercise 1
• A neutral atom, X has 15 electrons.
i) Write the electron configuration of the atom.
ii) Determine the period and group of the atom.
 Answer 1
i) 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3 / [Ne] 3s2 3p3
ii) X is in the period 3 and group 15 or VA
 Exercise 2
• Based on the atomic number Z, classify the
following elements which have the same
chemical properties.
a) 12
b) 7
c) 36
d) 4
e) 10
f) 15
•
 Answer 2
• a & d, b & f, c & e
 3. Trend in Ionization Potential
Ionization potential:
The energy required to remove the
valence electron from an atomic
specie. Largest toward NE corner of
PT since these atoms hold on to their
valence e- the tightest.
 4. Trend in Electron Affinity
Electron Affinity:
The energy release
when an electron is
added to an atom.
Most favorable
toward NE corner of
PT since these atoms
have a great affinity
for e-.
 Summary of Trend
• Periodic Table and Periodic Trends
• 1. Electron Configuration 3. Ionization Energy: Largest toward NE of PT
4. Electron Affinity: Most favorable NE of PT

2. Atomic Radius: Largest toward SW corner of PT

 Summary
• Periodic Table: Map of the Building block of matter
• Type: Metal, metalloid and Nonmetal
• Groupings: Representative or main, transition and
Lanthanide/Actanides
• Family: Elements in the same column have similar
chemical property because of similar valence electrons
• Alkali, Alkaline, chalcogens, halogens, noble gases
• Period: Elements in the same row have valence
electrons in the same shell.
 Exercise 3
•Write the electron configuration of the atom
and ion:
a) Na & Na+
b) Al & Al3+
c) F & F-
d) N & N3-
 Development of Periodic Table
•Elements in the same
group generally have
similar chemical
properties.
•Properties are not
identical, however.
 Development of Periodic Table

Dmitri Mendeleev and Lothar Meyer

independently came to the same conclusion about how
elements should be grouped.
 Development of Periodic Table

Mendeleev, for instance, in 1871 predicted germanium

(which he called eka-silicon) to have an atomic weight
between that of zinc and arsenic, but with chemical
properties similar to those of silicon.
Development of Periodic Table

Mendeleev’s prediction was on the money

But why? (Mendeleev had no clue).

 Periodic Trends
• In this chapter we’ll explain why
• We’ll then rationalize observed trends in
– Sizes of atoms and ions.
– Ionization energy.
– Electron affinity.
 Effective Nuclear Charge
•In a many-electron atom,
electrons are both attracted to
Na atom looks like this: the nucleus and repelled by
other electrons.
•The nuclear charge that an
electron “feels” depends on
both factors.
•It’s called Effective nuclear
charge.
•electrons in lower energy levels
“shield” outer electrons from
positive charge of nucleus.
 Effective Nuclear Charge
Na
The effective nuclear
charge, Zeff, is:
Zeff = Z − S
Where:
Z = atomic number
S = screening constant,
usually close to the number
of inner (n-1) electrons.
 Effective Nuclear Charge
•Example: Which element’s outer shell or “valence”
electrons is predicted to have the largest Effective
nuclear charge? Kr, Cl or O?
 Effective Nuclear Charge
•Example: Which element’s outer shell or “valence”
electrons is predicted to have the largest Effective
nuclear charge? Kr, Cl or O?

•Cl: Zeff ≈ 17 - 10 = 7
•O: Zeff ≈ 8 - 2 = 6
•N: Zeff ≈ 7 - 2 = 5
•Ca: Zeff ≈ 20 - 18 = 2
 Valence electrons
Many chemical properties depend on the valence electrons.

Valence electrons: The outer electrons, that are involved in

bonding and most other chemical changes of elements.
Rules for defining valence electrons.
1. In outer most energy level (or levels)
2. For main group (representative) elements (elements in s
world or p world) electrons in filled d or f shells are not
valence electrons
3. For transition metals, electrons in full f shells are not valence
electrons.
 Valence electrons
Many chemical properties depend on the valence electrons.

Valence electrons: The outer electrons, that are involved in bonding and most other
chemical changes of elements.
Rules for defining valence electrons.
1. In outer most energy level (or levels)
2. For main group (representative) elements (elements in s world or p world)
electrons in filled d or f shells are not valence electrons
3. For transition metals, electrons in full f shells are not valence electrons.

Examples: (valence electrons in blue)

P: [Ne]3s23p3
As: [Ar] 4s23d104p3
I: [Kr]5s24d105p5
Ta: [Kr]6s24f145d3
Zn: [Ar]4s23d10
 Sizes of Atoms
The bonding
atomic radius is defined
as one-half of the
distance between
covalently bonded nuclei.
 Sizes of Atoms

inc n
rea ng
sin i
gE eas
ff c r
in

Bonding atomic radius tends to…

–…decrease from left to right across a row due to increasing Zeff.
–…increase from top to bottom of a column due to increasing value of n
Sizes of Ions
Ionic size depends
upon:
–Nuclear charge.
–Number of
electrons.
–Orbitals in which
electrons reside.
Sizes of Ions

•Cations are smaller

than their parent
atoms.
–The outermost
electron is removed
and repulsions are
reduced.
Sizes of Ions
•Anions are larger than
their parent atoms.
–Electrons are added
and repulsions are
increased.
 Sizes of Ions
•Ions increase in size as
you go down a column.
–Due to increasing value
of n.
 Sizes of Ions
•In an isoelectronic series, ions have the same
number of electrons.
•Ionic size decreases with an increasing nuclear
charge.
 atom/ion size examples
•Put the following in order of size, smallest to
largest:

•Na, Na+, Mg, Mg2+, Al, Al3+, S, S2-, Cl, Cl-

 Atom size examples
Al3+, Mg2+, Na+, Cl, S, Al, Mg, Na, Cl-, S2-
Start with atoms with no n=3 electrons, order isoelectronic by nuclear charge.
Next, neutral atoms highest Eff first
Last, anions, highest Eff first
Ambiguity: anions versus neutrals (is Cl- really larger than Na?)
Don’t worry about it.
 Ionization Energy
• Amount of energy required to remove an
electron from the ground state of a gaseous
atom or ion.
– First ionization energy is that energy required
to remove first electron.
– Second ionization energy is that energy
required to remove second electron, etc.
El -------> El+ + e-
Na -------> Na+ + e-
 Ionization Energy
•It requires more energy to remove each successive
electron.
•When all valence electrons have been removed, the
ionization energy takes a quantum leap.
Trends in First Ionization Energies
•going down a
column, less energy
to remove the first
electron.
–For atoms in the
same group, Zeff is
essentially the same,
but the valence
electrons are farther
from the nucleus.
 Trends in First Ionization Energies
•Generally, it gets harder
to remove an electron
going across.
–As you go from left to to
right, Zeff increases.
 Trends in First Ionization Energies
On a
smaller scale,
there are two
jags in each line.
Why?
 Trends in First Ionization Energies
•The first occurs between
Groups IIA and IIIA.
•Electron removed from p-
orbital rather than s-orbital
–Electron farther from
nucleus
–Small amount of repulsion
by s electrons.
 Trends in First Ionization Energies
•The second occurs
between Groups VA and
VIA.
–Electron removed comes
from doubly occupied
orbital.
–Repulsion from other
electron in orbital helps in
its removal.

versus:
 Electron Affinity
Energy change accompanying addition of
electron to gaseous atom:

Cl + e− → Cl−
 Trends in Electron Affinity

In general, electron affinity becomes more

exothermic as you go from left to right across a row.
Properties of Metals, Nonmetals,
and Metalloids
 Metals versus Nonmetals

Differences between metals and nonmetals

tend to revolve around these properties.
 Metals versus Nonmetals
•Metals tend to form cations.
•Nonmetals tend to form anions.
The common elemental ions

Note ions in s and p world all result from filling or empyting

a subshell.
What about the transition metals? What’s going on there?
Metals
Tend to be
lustrous, malleable,
ductile, and good
conductors of heat and
electricity.
 Metals
•Compounds formed
between metals and
nonmetals tend to be
ionic.
•Metal oxides tend to be
basic.
Nonmetals
•Dull, brittle substances
that are poor conductors
of heat and electricity.
•Tend to gain electrons
in reactions with metals
to acquire noble gas
configuration.
 Nonmetals
•Substances containing
only nonmetals are
molecular compounds.
•Most nonmetal oxides
are acidic.
Metalloids
•Have some
characteristics of metals,
some of nonmetals.
•For instance, silicon
looks shiny, but is brittle
and fairly poor conductor.
Group Trends
 Alkali Metals
•Soft, metallic solids.
•Name comes from
Arabic word for ashes.
 Alkali Metals
•Found only as compounds in nature.
•Have low densities and melting points.
•Also have low ionization energies.
 Alkali Metals

Their reactions with water are famously exothermic.

 Alkali Metals
•Alkali metals (except Li) react with oxygen to form
peroxides.
•K, Rb, and Cs also form superoxides:
K + O2 → KO2
•Produce bright colors when placed in flame.
 Alkaline Earth Metals

•Have higher densities and melting points than alkali

metals.
•Have low ionization energies, but not as low as
alkali metals.
 Alkaline Earth Metals
•Be does not react with
water, Mg reacts only
with steam, but others
react readily with water.
•Reactivity tends to
increase as go down
group.
 Group 6A

•Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals.

•Tellurium is a metalloid.
•The radioactive polonium is a metal.
Oxygen
•Two allotropes:
–O2
–O3, ozone
•Three anions:
–O2−, oxide
–O22−, peroxide
–O21−, superoxide
•Tends to take electrons from
other elements (oxidation)
 Sulfur

•Weaker oxidizing agent

than oxygen.
•Most stable allotrope is
S8, a ringed molecule.
 Group VIIA: Halogens

•Prototypical nonmetals
•Name comes from the Greek halos and gennao:
“salt formers”
Group VIIA: Halogens
•Large, negative electron
affinities
–Therefore, tend to oxidize other
elements easily
•React directly with metals to
form metal halides
•Chlorine added to water
supplies to serve as disinfectant
 Group VIIIA: Noble Gases

•Astronomical ionization energies

•Positive electron affinities
–Therefore, relatively unreactive
•Monatomic gases
 Group VIIIA: Noble Gases
•Xe forms three compounds:
–XeF2
–XeF4 (at right)
–XeF6
•Kr forms only one stable
compound:
–KrF2
•The unstable HArF was
synthesized in 2000.
 Electronegativity
• ability of atom to attract electrons in bond

• noble gases tend not to form bonds, so don’t

have electronegativity values

• Unit = Pauling
• Fluorine: most electronegative element
= 4.0 Paulings
 Decreased Ionization Energy (easier to remove an electron)

Increased Electron Shielding

Decreased
Increasing Atomic Radius

Increasing number of energy levels

Electronegativity
Increased Electronegativity

Decreasing Atomic Radius

Increased Ionization Energy (harder to remove an electron)