Maritime archaeology

Maritime archaeology (also known as marine archaeology) is a

discipline within archaeology as a whole that specifically studies
human interaction with the sea,[1] lakes and rivers through the study
of associated physical remains, be they vessels, shore-side facilities,
port-related structures, cargoes, human remains and submerged
landscapes.[2] A specialty within maritime archaeology is nautical
archaeology, which studies ship construction and use.[3]

As with archaeology as a whole, maritime archaeology can be

practised within the historical, industrial, or prehistoric periods.[4] An A maritime archaeologist with the
associated discipline, and again one that lies within archaeology itself, Lighthouse Archaeological Maritime
is underwater archaeology, which studies the past through any Program in St. Augustine, Florida,
submerged remains be they of maritime interest or not. An example recording the ship's bell discovered
from the prehistoric era would be the remains of submerged on the 18th century "Storm Wreck."
settlements or deposits now lying under water despite having been dry
land when sea levels were lower. The study of submerged aircraft lost
in lakes, rivers or in the sea is an example from the historical, industrial or modern era. Another example are
the remains of discovered and potential medieval bridges connecting the islands on the lake with the
mainland.[5] Many specialist sub-disciplines within the broader maritime and underwater archaeological
categories have emerged in recent years.[6]

Maritime archaeological sites often result from shipwrecks or sometimes seismic activity, and thus represent a
moment in time rather than a slow deposition of material accumulated over a period of years, as is the case
with port-related structures (such as piers, wharves, docks and jetties) where objects are lost or thrown off
structures over extended periods of time.[7] This fact has led to shipwrecks often being described in the media
and in popular accounts as 'time capsules'.

Archaeological material in the sea or in other underwater environments is typically subject to different factors
than artifacts on land. However, as with terrestrial archaeology, what survives to be investigated by modern
archaeologists can often be a tiny fraction of the material originally deposited. A feature of maritime
archaeology is that despite all the material that is lost, there are occasional rare examples of substantial survival,
from which a great deal can be learned, due to the difficulties often experienced in accessing the sites.

There are those in the archaeology community who see maritime archaeology as a separate discipline with its
own concerns (such as shipwrecks) and requiring the specialized skills of the underwater archaeologist. Others
value an integrated approach, stressing that nautical activity has economic and social links to communities on
land and that archaeology is archaeology no matter where the study is conducted. All that is required is the
mastering of skills specific to the environment in which the work occurs.

Contents
Integrating land and sea
Preservation of material underwater
Submerged sites
Pre-historic landscapes
 Historic sites
Coastal and foreshore
Ships and shipwrecks
Bronze Age
Maritime archaeology by region
Pacific Submerged bridge under Lake Murray, South Carolina in
Mediterranean area 160 ft (49 m) of fresh water seen on side-scan sonar
Australia imagery using a Humminbird 981c Side Imaging system

See also
Submerged historic and pre-historic sites
Coastal and foreshore archaeology
Ships and boats
References
External links

Integrating land and sea

Before the industrial era, travel by water was often easier than over land. As a result, marine channels,
navigable rivers and sea crossings formed the trade routes of historic and ancient civilisations. For example, the
Mediterranean Sea was known to the Romans as the inner sea because the Roman empire spread around its
coasts. The historic record as well as the remains of harbours, ships and cargoes, testify to the volume of trade
that crossed it. Later, nations with a strong maritime culture such as the United Kingdom, the Netherlands,
Denmark, Portugal and Spain were able to establish colonies on other continents. Wars were fought at sea over
the control of important resources. The material cultural remains that are discovered by maritime archaeologists
along former trade routes can be combined with historical documents and material cultural remains found on
land to understand the economic, social and political environment of the past. Of late maritime archaeologists
have been examining the submerged cultural remains of China, India, Korea and other Asian nations.

Preservation of material underwater

There are significant differences in the survival of archaeological
material depending on whether a site is wet or dry, on the nature of
the chemical environment, on the presence of biological organisms
and on the dynamic forces present. Thus rocky coastlines, especially
in shallow water, are typically inimical to the survival of artifacts,
which can be dispersed, smashed or ground by the effect of currents
and surf, possibly (but not always) leaving an artifact pattern but little
if any wreck structure.
The final phases of the salvage of
Saltwater is particularly inimical to iron artefacts including metal Mary Rose on October 11, 1982.
shipwrecks, and sea organisms will readily consume organic material
such as wooden shipwrecks. On the other hand, out of all the
thousands of potential archaeological sites destroyed or grossly eroded by such natural processes, occasionally
sites survive with exceptional preservation of a related collection of artifacts. An example of such a collection
is Mary Rose.[8] Survival in this instance is largely due to the remains being buried in sediment
Of the many examples where the sea bed provides an extremely hostile environment for submerged evidence
of history, one of the most notable, RMS Titanic, though a relatively young wreck and in deep water so
calcium-starved that concretion does not occur, appears strong and relatively intact, though indications are that
it has already incurred irreversible degradation of her steel and iron hull. As such degradation inevitably
continues, data will be forever lost, objects' context will be destroyed and the bulk of the wreck will over
centuries completely deteriorate on the floor of the Atlantic Ocean. Comparative evidence shows that all iron
and steel ships, especially those in a highly oxygenated environment, continue to degrade and will continue to
do so until only their engines and other machinery project much above the sea-floor.[9] Where it remains even
after the passage of time, the iron or steel hull is often fragile with no remaining metal within the layer of
concretion and corrosion products. USS Monitor, having been found in the 1970s, was subjected to a program
of attempted in situ preservation, for example, but deterioration of the vessel progressed at such a rate that the
rescue of her turret was undertaken lest nothing be saved from the wreck.

Some wrecks, lost to natural obstacles to navigation, are at risk of being smashed by subsequent wrecks sunk
by the same hazard, or are deliberately destroyed because they present a hazard to navigation. Even in deep
water, commercial activities such as pipe-laying operations and deep sea trawling can place a wreck at risk.
Such a wreck is the Mardi Gras shipwreck[10] sunk in the Gulf of Mexico in 4,000 feet (1,200 m) of water.
The shipwreck lay forgotten at the bottom of the sea until it was discovered in 2002 by an oilfield inspection
crew working for the Okeanos Gas Gathering Company (OGGC).[11] Large pipelines can crush sites and
render some of their remnants inaccessible as pipe is dropped from the ocean surface to the substrate thousands
of feet below. Trawl nets snag and tear superstructures and separate artifacts from their context.

The wrecks, and other archaeological sites that have been

preserved have generally survived because the dynamic
nature of the sea bed can result in artifacts becoming
rapidly buried in sediments. These sediments then
provide an anaerobic environment which protects from
further degradation. Wet environments, whether on land
in the form of peat bogs and wells, or underwater are
particularly important for the survival of organic material,
such as wood, leather, fabric and horn. Cold and absence
of light also aid survival of artifacts, because there is little
energy available for either organic activity or chemical
reactions. Salt water provides for greater organic activity The bow of Vasa, a Swedish warship that
than freshwater, and in particular, the shipworm, terredo foundered and sank on its maiden voyage in 1628.
navalis, lives only in salt water, so some of the best It was salvaged in 1961 and is now on permanent
preservation in the absence of sediments has been found display at the Vasa Museum in Stockholm.
in the cold, dark waters of the Great Lakes in North
America and in the (low salinity) Baltic Sea (where Vasa
was preserved).

While the land surface is continuously reused by societies, the sea bed was largely inaccessible until the advent
of submarines, scuba equipment and remotely operated underwater vehicles (ROVs) in the twentieth century.
Salvagers have operated in much earlier times, but much of the material was beyond the reach of anyone. Thus
Mary Rose was subject to salvage from the sixteenth century and later, but a very large amount of material,
buried in the sediments, remained to be found by maritime archaeologists of the twentieth century.

While preservation in situ is not assured, material that has survived underwater and is then recovered to land is
typically in an unstable state and can only be preserved using highly specialised conservation processes. While
the wooden structure of Mary Rose and the individual artifacts have been undergoing conservation since their
recovery, Holland 1 provides an example of a relatively recent (metal) wreck for which extensive conservation
has been necessary to preserve the hull. While the hull remains intact, its machinery remains inoperable. The
engine of SS Xantho that was recovered in 1985 from a saline environment after over a century underwater is
presently considered somewhat anomalous, in that after two decades of treatment it can now be turned over by
hand.

A challenge for the modern archaeologist is to consider whether in-situ preservation, or recovery and
conservation on land is the preferable option; or to face the fact that preservation in any form, other than as an
archaeological record is not feasible. A site that has been discovered has typically been subjected to
disturbance of the very factors that caused its survival in the first place, for example, when a covering of
sediment has been removed by storms or the action of man. Active monitoring and deliberate protection may
mitigate further rapid destruction making in situ preservation an option, but long-term survival can never be
guaranteed. For very many sites, the costs are too great for either active measures to ensure in situ preservation
or to provide for satisfactory conservation on recovery. Even the cost of proper and complete archaeological
investigation may be too great to enable this to occur within a timescale that ensures that an archaeological
record is made before data is inevitably lost.

Submerged sites

Pre-historic landscapes

Maritime archaeology studies prehistorical objects and sites that are, because of changes in climate and
geology, now underwater.

Bodies of water, fresh and saline, have been important sources of food for people for as long as we have
existed. It should be no surprise that ancient villages were located at the water's edge. Since the last ice age sea
level has risen as much as 400 feet (120 m).

Therefore, a great deal of the record of human activity throughout the Ice Age is now to be found under water.

The flooding of the area now known as the Black Sea (when a land bridge, where the Bosporus is now,
collapsed under the pressure of rising water in the Mediterranean Sea) submerged a great deal of human
activity that had been gathered round what had been an enormous, fresh-water lake.

Significant cave art sites off the coast of western Europe such as the Grotto Cosquer can be reached only by
diving, because the cave entrances are underwater, though the upper portions of the caves themselves are not
flooded.

Historic sites

Throughout history, seismic events have at times caused submergence of human settlements. The remains of
such catastrophes exist all over the world, and sites such as Alexandria and Port Royal now form important
archaeological sites. As with shipwrecks, archaeological research can follow multiple themes, including
evidence of the final catastrophe, the structures and landscape before the catastrophe and the culture and
economy of which it formed a part. Unlike the wrecking of a ship, the destruction of a town by a seismic event
can take place over many years and there may be evidence for several phases of damage, sometimes with
rebuilding in between.

Coastal and foreshore

Not all maritime sites are underwater. There are many structures at the margin of land and water that provide
evidence of the human societies of the past. Some are deliberately created for access - such as bridges and
walkways. Other structures remain from exploitation of resources, such as dams and fish traps. Nautical
remains include early harbours and places where ships were built or repaired. At the end of their life, ships
were often beached. Valuable or easily accessed timber has often been salvaged leaving just a few frames and
bottom planking.

Archaeological sites can also be found on the foreshore today that would have been on dry land when they
were constructed. An example of such a site is Seahenge, a Bronze Age timber circle.

Ships and shipwrecks

The archaeology of shipwrecks can be divided into a three-tier
hierarchy, of which the first tier considers the wrecking process itself:
how does a ship break up, how does a ship sink to the bottom, and
how do the remains of the ship, cargo and the surrounding
environment evolve over time? The second tier studies the ship as a
machine, both in itself and in a military or economic system. The third
tier consists of the archaeology of maritime cultures, in which nautical
technology, naval warfare, trade and shipboard societies are studied.
Some consider this to be the most important tier. Ships and boats are
not necessarily wrecked: some are deliberately abandoned, scuttled or
beached. Many such abandoned vessels have been extensively
salvaged.

Bronze Age

The earliest boats discovered date from the Bronze Age and are
constructed of hollowed out logs or sewn planks. Vessels have been
discovered where they have been preserved in sediments underwater Wreck of Russian submarine Akula
or in waterlogged land sites, such as the discovery of a canoe near St was found in 2014 near Hiiumaa,
Botolphs. (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_west/5282874.stm) Estonia.
Examples of sewn-plank boats include those found at North Ferriby
and the Dover Bronze Age Boat (http://www.archaeology.co.uk/ca/ti
meline/prehistory/dover/dover.htm) which is now displayed at Dover Museum[1] (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20060628183843/http://www.dover.gov.uk/museum/boat/). These may be an evolution from boats made of
sewn hides, but it is highly unlikely that hide boats could have survived.

Ships wrecked in the sea have probably not survived, although remains of cargo (particularly bronze material)
have been discovered, such as those at the Salcombe B site. A close collection of artefacts on the sea bed may
imply that artefacts were from a ship, even if there are no remains of the actual vessel.

Late Bronze Age ships, such as the Uluburun Shipwreck have been discovered in the Mediterranean,
constructed of edge joined planks. This shipbuilding technology continued through the classical period.

Maritime archaeology by region

Pacific
An example of maritime archaeology in the Pacific ocean, is the
discovery of the wreck of Two Brothers, discovered in 2008 by a
team of marine archaeologists working on an expedition for the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The
identity of the ship was not immediately known so it was called the
"Shark Island Whaler"; the ship's identification as Two Brothers was
announced by NOAA on February 11, 2011, the 188th anniversary of
her sinking.[12] The wreck is the first discovery of a wrecked
Nantucket whaling ship.[13][12] Try pot from a 19th century whaling
ship that wrecked on French Frigate
Shoals (Pacific Ocean)
Mediterranean area

In the Mediterranean area, maritime archaeologists have investigated

several ancient cultures. Notable early Iron Age shipwrecks include
two Phoenician ships of c. 750 BC that foundered off Gaza with
cargoes of wine in amphoras. The crew of the U.S. Navy deep
submergence research submarine NR-1 discovered the sites in 1997.
In 1999 a team led by Robert Ballard and Harvard University
archaeology Professor Lawrence Stager investigated the wrecks.

Extensive research has been carried out on the Mediterranean and

Divers explored a wreck site at Pearl
Aegean coastlines of Turkey. Complete excavations have been
and Hermes atoll
performed on several wrecks from the Classical, Hellenistic,
Byzantine, and Ottoman periods.

Maritime archaeological studies in Italy illuminate the naval and maritime activities of the Etruscans, Greek
colonists, and Romans. After the 2nd century BC, the Roman fleet ruled the Mediterranean and actively
suppressed piracy. During this Pax Romana, seaborne trade increased significantly throughout the region.
Though sailing was the safest, fastest, and most efficient method of transportation in the ancient world, some
fractional percentage of voyages ended in shipwreck. With the significantly increased sea traffic during the
Roman era came a corresponding increase in shipwrecks. These wrecks and their cargo remains offer glimpses
through time of the economy, culture, and politics of the ancient world. Particularly useful to archaeologists are
studies of amphoras, the ceramic shipping containers used in the Mediterranean region from the 15th century
BC through the Medieval period.

In addition to many discoveries in the sea, some wrecks have been examined in lakes. Most notable are
Caligula's pleasure barges in Lake Nemi, Italy. The Nemi ships and other shipwreck sites occasionally yield
objects of unique artistic value. For instance, the Antikythera wreck contained a staggering collection of
marble and bronze statues including the Antikythera Youth. Discovered in 1900 by Greek sponge divers, the
ship probably sank in the 1st century BC and may have been dispatched by the Roman general, Sulla, to carry
booty back to Rome. The sponge divers also recovered from the wreck the famous Antikythera mechanism,
believed to be an astronomical calculator. Further examples of fabulous works of art recovered from the sea
floor are the two "bronzi" found in Riace (Calabria), Italy. In the cases of Antikythera and Riace, however, the
artifacts were recovered without the direct participation of maritime archaeologists.

Recent studies in the Sarno river (near Pompeii) show other interesting elements of ancient life. The Sarno
projects suggests that on the Tyrrhenian shore there were little towns with palafittes, similar to ancient Venice.
In the same area, the submerged town of Puteoli (Pozzuoli, close to Naples) contains the "portus Julius"
created by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa in 37 BC, later sunk due to bradyseism.
The sea floor elsewhere in the Mediterranean holds countless archaeological sites. In Israel, Herod the Great's
port at Caesarea Maritima has been extensively studied. Other finds are consistent with some passages of the
Bible (like the so-called Jesus boat, which appears to have been in use during the first century AD).

Australia

Maritime archaeology in Australia commenced in the 1970s with the advent of Jeremy Green due to concerns
expressed by academics and politicians with the rampant destruction of the Dutch and British East India ships
lost on the west coast. As Commonwealth legislation was enacted and enforced after 1976 and as States
enacted their own legislation the sub-discipline spread throughout Australia concentrating initially on
shipwrecks due to on-going funding by both the States and the Commonwealth under their shipwreck
legislation.[14] Studies now include as an element of underwater archaeology, as a whole, the study of
submerged indigenous sites. Nautical Archaeology, (the specialised study of boat and ship construction) is also
practised in the region. Often the sites or relics studied in Australia as in the rest of the world are not inundated.
The study of historic submerged aircraft, better known as a sub-discipline of aviation archaeology, underwater
aviation archaeology is also practised in the region. In some states maritime and underwater archaeology is
practised out of Museums and in others out of cultural heritage management units, and all practitioners operate
under the aegis of the Australasian Institute for Maritime Archaeology (AIMA).[15]

See also
Australasian Underwater Cultural Heritage Database
Maritime archaeology of East Africa
Nautical Archaeology Society
Maritime Archaeology Trust
Lighthouse Archaeological Maritime Program (LAMP)
RPM Nautical Foundation
Sea Research Society
Institute of Nautical Archaeology
UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage is an international
treaty, fighting the increasing looting and destruction of underwater cultural heritage. It
regulates heritage protection and facilitates State cooperation; it does, however, not regulate
ownership of cultural property.

Submerged historic and pre-historic sites

Bouldnor Cliff
Alexandria
Port Royal
Maritime Heritage Trail - Battle of Saipan
Port Julius [2] (http://www.ulixes.it/italiano/i_pg01.html?http://www.ulixes.it/english/e_pg02bfr16
_a.html) at Puteoli

Coastal and foreshore archaeology

Seahenge
Ships and boats
Antikythera c 80-50 BC, includes the astronomical computer, the Antikythera mechanism
Cape Gelidonya – Late Bronze Age shipwreck, c. 1200 BC
City of Adelaide (1864) – 19th century clipper, Scotland
North Ferriby – site of discovery of Bronze Age sewn plank boats dated by radiocarbon to
between 1890 BC to 1700 BC
Belle shipwreck – French explorer La Salle's ship, lost in 1686 off Texas
Batavia shipwreck – Dutch East Indies ship, lost in 1629 off Western Australia
Hunley – the first submarine to sink an enemy ship, lost off Charleston, South Carolina, in 1864
Half Moon (shipwreck) – A racing sailboat which sank in 1930 near Miami, Florida, United
States - and one of the sites in the Florida Maritime Heritage Trail (http://www.flheritage.com/arc
haeology/underwater/maritime/index.cfm)
Ma'agan Michael Ship – A 5th century BC boat discovered off the coast of Israel
Madrague de Giens c 75-60 BC, Roman merchantman sunk of the coast of La Madrague de
Giens, east of Toulon
Nineteenth century boat discovered at Leamington Wharf, Union Canal
SS Xantho – Iron-hulled steamship, lost in 1872 off Western Australia. Its historic engine was
raised in 1985 and can now be turned over by hand
Uluburun – Late Bronze Age shipwreck, 14th century BC
Condura Croatica – 11th century, port of Nin, Croatia
Queen Anne's Revenge – Blackbeard's flagship, 18th century frigate, Beaufort, NC.

References
1. Maritime History, Archaeology and Travel Research Project (http://www.edumaritime.org)
2. "MARITIME ARCHAEOLOGY" (http://www.credoreference.com/entry/estarch/maritime_archae
ology). Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Oxford: Elsevier Science & Technology, 2008. Retrieved
17 Jan 2013.
3. Muckelroy, K., "Maritime archaeology.", Cambridge University Press, 1978.
4. Renfrew, C., & Bahn, P., 1991, Archaeology, theories, methods and practice. Thames and
Hudson, NY.
5. Janowski, Lukasz; Kubacka, Maria; Pydyn, Andrzej; Popek, Mateusz; Gajewski, Lukasz (2021).
"From acoustics to underwater archaeology: Deep investigation of a shallow lake using high-
resolution hydroacoustics—The case of Lake Lednica, Poland" (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Farc
m.12663). Archaeometry. n/a (n/a). doi:10.1111/arcm.12663 (https://doi.org/10.1111%2Farcm.1
2663).
6. Delgado, J. P., (ed.). 1997. British Museum Encyclopaedia of Underwater and Maritime
Archaeology, British Museum Press, London
7. Withgott, Jay, Scott Brennan, J. 2007. Environment: the science behind the stories. 2nd ed.
Pearson Benjamin Cummings, San Francisco.
8. BBC Radio World Service Broadcast, "What Lies Beneath," first broadcast Friday 22 August
2008 (http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/documentaries/2008/08/080821_what_lies_beneath.s
html)
9. McCarthy, M., 2000, Iron and steamship archaeology : success and failure of the SS Xantho.
New York : Kluwer Academic/Plenum. ISBN 0-306-46365-2
10. "Mystery Mardi Gras Shipwreck" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150613054648/http://nautilusp
roductions.com/projects/mystery-mardi-gras-shipwreck-documentary). Nautilus Productions.
Archived from the original (http://nautilusproductions.com/projects/mystery-mardi-gras-shipwrec
k-documentary) on 2015-06-13. Retrieved 2015-04-15.
11. "Mardi Gras Shipwreck" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150516045935/http://uwf.edu/jkent/fpa
n_preCMS/mardigras/). uwf.edu. Archived from the original (http://uwf.edu/jkent/fpan_preCMS/
mardigras/) on 2015-05-16.
12. Kelly, Gleason; Raupp, Jason T. (2010). "Lost & Found: In Papahānaumokuākea Marine
National Monument: The Possible Wreck Site of the Nantucket Whaleship Two Brothers" (htt
p://issuu.com/novationmedia/docs/historicnantucketfall10). Historic Nantucket. 60 (3): 13–17.
ISSN 0439-2248 (https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0439-2248).
13. "Lost Whaling Shipwreck with Link to Melville's Moby-Dick Discovered in the Northwestern
Hawaiian Islands" (http://www.noaanews.noaa.gov/stories2011/20110211_pmnmshipwreck.ht
ml). National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 2011-02-11. Retrieved 2011-02-13.
14. Nash, M., (ed), 2007 Shipwreck Archaeology in Australia. University of Western Australia
Press.
15. Staniforth, M., & Nash, M., (eds.) Underwater Archaeology: Australian Approaches. Springer,
NY

External links
"Shipwrecks in the seas of Britain and Ireland" (http://www.shipwrecks.uk.com/). Shipwrecks
UK. UK resource, with access to information on more than 45,000 wrecks, mapped thematically
for a wide variety of search criteria
"Home" (https://mua.apps.uri.edu/MUA.htm). The Museum of Underwater Archaeology. (US)
"Research & Archaeology" (https://www.staugustinelighthouse.org/explore-learn/research-arch
aeology/). St Augustine Light House. (US)
"Australian Institute for Maritime Archaeology" (http://www.aima-underwater.org.au/). Home.
"Maritime Archaeology" (http://museum.wa.gov.au/research/research-areas/maritime-archaeolo
gy). Western Australian Museum.
"INA" (https://nauticalarch.org/). Institute of Nautical Archaeology. 28 April 2020. Affiliated with
Texas University
Parfitt, Keith (24 May 2007). "1300 BC - The Dover Bronze Age Boat" (https://www.archaeolog
y.co.uk/articles/specials/timeline/the-dover-bronze-age-boat.htm). Current Archaeology.

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