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INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
BACKGROUND:
 The word sociology comes from the Latin word socius – meaning “companion” and the
Greek word –logos – meaning knowledge.
 Father of Sociology (Islamic World): Ibn-e-Khaldun
 Ilm-ul-Umran 1376 A.D in his book “Kitab-ul-Abr”
 Father of Sociology (Western World): Auguste Marie Francois Xvaire Comte
 He coined the word “ Sociology” in 1838 in his book “Reorganization of Society”
 Sociology emerged as a separate discipline in the nineteenth century
 This was a time of great social upheaval due largely to the French and Industrial
Revolutions

THE ORIGINS OF SOCIOLOGY

Three major social changes during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries are important to
the development of sociology.
 The rise of a factory-based industrial economy.
 The emergence of great cities in Europe.
 Political changes, including a rising concern with individual liberty and rights.
The French Revolution symbolized this dramatic break with political and social tradition.
DEFINITIONS: It is the scientific study of human relationship and interaction as a member of
society or group or institution both individually and collectively and are connected to a larger
culture and social structure of society.
 The systematic study of the relationship between the individual and society and of the
consequences of different types of relationships.
 The scientific study of human behavior in society.
 A scientific way to think about society and its influence on humans and it includes the
study of social behavior and social change.
 It is the scientific study of human behavior in groups and of the social forces that
influence that behavior.
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 The scientific study of social institutions.

 Sociology is the scientific study of human society and social interactions.

SOCIOLOGY AS A DISCIPLINE

U.S.A= 1884 Degree Sociology

France= 1886
U.K=1904 Social & Cultural Anthropology
Hyderabad Dakkan=1920 Umraniat
Pakistan = 1954 (Punjab “Mashariyat”; 1960=Karachi)
Iran=Ilm-ul-Ijtamah
Kabul= Ijtamai Shanasai

SOCIOLOGY AND COMMON SENSE

Common sense assumptions are usually based on very limited observation.
Moreover, the premises on which common sense assumptions are seldom examined. Sociology
seeks to:
• use a broad range of carefully selected observations; and
• theoretically understand and explain those observations.
While sociological research might confirm common sense observation, its broader base and
theoretical rational provide a stronger basis for conclusions.

Sociological Findings Versus Common Sense

Some findings of sociology support commonsense understandings of social life, and others
contradict them. Can you tell the difference?
1. True/False More U.S. students are killed in school shootings now than ten or fifteen years
ago.
2. True/False The earnings of U.S. women have just about caught up with those of U.S. men.
3. True/False With life so rushed and more women working for wages, today’s parents spend
less time with their children than previous generations did.
4. True/False It is more dangerous to walk near topless bars than fast-food restaurants.
5. True/False Most rapists are mentally ill.
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6. True/False A large percentage of terrorists are mentally ill.

7. True/False Most people on welfare are lazy and looking for a handout. They could work if
they wanted to.
8. True/False Compared with women, men make more eye contact in face-to-face
conversations.
9. True/False Couples who lived together before marriage are usually more satisfied with their
marriage than couples who did not live together before marriage.
10. True/False Because bicyclists are more likely to wear helmets now than a few years ago,
their rate of head injuries has dropped.
Sociological Findings Versus Common Sense—Answers to the Sociology Quiz

1. More students were shot to death at U.S. schools in the early 1990s than now (National
School Safety Center).
2. Over the years, the wage gap has narrowed, but only slightly. On average, full-time working
women earn about 72 percent of what full-time working men earn. This low figure is actually an
improvement over earlier years.
3. Today’s parents actually spend more time with their children (Bianchi,).
4. The crime rate outside fast-food restaurants is considerably higher. The likely reason for this
is that dancing bars hire private security and parking lot attendants (Linz et al.).
5. Sociologists compared the psychological profiles of prisoners convicted of abuse and
prisoners convicted of other crimes. Their profiles were similar. Like robbery, abuse is a learned
behavior.
6. Extensive testing of Islamic terrorists shows that they actually tend to score more “normal”
on psychological tests than most “normal” people. As a group, they are in better mental health
than the rest of the population (Sageman).
7. Most people on welfare are children, elderly, sick, mentally or physically handicapped, or
young mothers with few skills. Less than 2 percent fit the stereotype of an able-bodied man.
8. Women make considerably more eye contact (Henley et al.).
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9. The opposite is true. Among other reasons, couples who cohabit before marriage are usually
less committed to one another—and a key to marital success is a strong commitment (Dush et
al; Osborne et al.).
10. Bicyclists today are more likely to wear helmets, but their rate of head injuries is higher.
Apparently, they take more risks because the helmets make them feel safer (Barnes).
(Unanticipated consequences of human action are studied by functionalists.

SOCIOLOGY AND SCIENCE

Science is “...a body of systematically arranged knowledge that shows the operation of general
laws.”
As a science, sociology employs the scientific method

FIELDS OF SOCIOLOGY
A sociologist is one who has earned advanced degrees or pursued other advanced studies in
sociology and is engaged in teaching, research or other professional work in the field of
sociology.
Sociology is subdivided into many specialized fields of which some of are:

Applied sociology Collective behaviour

Community Comparative sociology
Crime and delinquency Cultural sociology
Demography Deviant behaviour
Formal and complex organizations Human ecology
Industrial sociology Sociology of Education
Law and society Marriage and Family
Medical sociology Military sociology
Political sociology Sociology of Religion
Urban sociology Social psychology
Social control Rural sociology

CAREERS/SCOPE IN SOCIOLOGY
 As a Field of Knowledge
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 As a field of Profession
 Market research
 Advertising
 Government official (Civil Service Positions)
 Criminal justice
 Becoming a sociology professor
 Social Researcher/Administrator/ Management/Policy Maker (Research institutes/AKU,
AKRSP, NGORC, ALL NGOs)
 Sociologists are employed in small numbers by industry, trade, associations, labour
unions, foundations and in fairly large numbers by research organizations in wide
variety of positions very often in the administration and conduct of research.
 Newly emergent careers in many sorts of action programs have developed in recent
years like training programs, foreign aid programs and in Humanitarian Organizations
like UN.
JOB TITLES FOR SOCIOLOGY MAJORS
BUSINESS AND INDUSTRY
 ADVERTISING STAFFER BANKER COMPUTER ANALYST
 CONSUMER RELATIONS WORKER CONTROL ENGINEER
 DATA ENTRY MANAGER HUMAN RESOURCES MANAGER
 INSURANCE AGENT ISSUES MANAGER
 LABOR RELATIONS STAFFER MARKET ANALYST
 PRODUCTION MANAGER PROJECT MANAGER
 PUBLIC RELATIONS STAFFER PUBLISHING STAFFER
 QUALITY CONTROL MANAGER REAL ESTATE AGENT
 RECRUITER SALES REPRESENTATIVE/MANAGER
 TECHNICAL WRITER TELEMARKETER TRAINER
 TRAINING ASSISTANT

COMMUNITY AND SOCIAL SERVICES

 CASE MANAGER CASEWORKER/AIDE CHILD CARE WORKER

 CHILD DEVELOPMENT TECHNICIAN COMMUNITY AIDE
 COMMUNITY ORGANIZER ENVIRONMENTAL ORGANIZER

 FAMILY PLANNING WORKER
 GROUP HOME WORKER
 HOSPITAL ADMINISTRATOR
 MEDICAL RECORDS WORKER
 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION ASSISTANT
 PUBLIC HEALTH SUPERVISOR
 REHABILITATION PROGRAM WORKER
 RURAL HEALTH OUTREACH WORKER
GOVERNMENT
 AFFIRMATIVE ACTION WORKER
 FOREIGN SERVICE OFFICER
 INFORMATION OFFICER
 LEGISLATIVE AIDE
 PERSONNEL COORDINATOR
 SPECIAL AGENT
RESEARCH
 CENSUS RESEARCH ASSISTANT
 CRIMINOLOGY ASSISTANT
 DEMOGRAPHER ASSISTANT
 MARKET RESEARCHER
 STATISTICIAN
EDUCATION
 ADMISSIONS COUNSELOR
 ALUMNI RELATIONS WORKER
 EXTENSION SERVICE SPECIALIST
 STUDENT PERSONNEL WORKER
JUSTICE SYSTEM
 CORRECTIONAL COUNSELOR
 CORRECTIONS STAFFER
 JUVENILE COURT WORKER
 POLICE DEPARTMENT STAFF
 REHABILITATION COUNSELOR
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FUND RAISING ASSISTANT/DIRECTOR
HOMELESS/HOUSING WORKER
HOUSING COORDINATOR
CAREER COUNSELOR
PUBLIC ASSISTANCE WORKER
RECREATION WORKER
RESIDENT PLANNING AIDE
SUBSTANCE ABUSE COUNSELOR
EMPLOYEE SPECIALIST
HUMAN RIGHTS OFFICER
INTERNATIONAL WORKER
PEACE CORPS VOLUNTEER
PROGRAM SUPERVISOR
URBAN PLANNER
CONSUMER RESEARCHER
DATA ANALYST
INTERVIEWER
SOCIAL RESEARCH ASSISTANT
SURVEY RESEARCH TECHNICIAN
AFFIRMATIVE ACTION ASSISTANT
COLLEGE PLACEMENT WORKER
PUBLIC HEALTH EDUCATOR
TEACHER
CORRECTIONS OFFICER
CRIMINAL INVESTIGATOR
PAROLE OFFICER
POLICE OFFICER
SPECIAL AGENTSTATE TROOPE
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SOCIOLOGICAL IMAGINATION:
 The sociological imagination provides the ability to see our private experiences and
personal difficulties as entwined with the structural arrangements of our society and the
times in which we live.
 Understand social marginality, the state of being excluded from social activity as an
“outsider.” People at the margins of social life are aware of social patterns that others
rarely think about
 C. Wright Mills described sociological imagination as “An awareness of the relationship
between an individual and the wider society, and …the ability to view our society as an
outsider might, rather than relying only on our individual perspective, which is shaped
by our cultural biases”

THE SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES:

 The sociological perspective helps us to see general social patterns in the behavior of
particular individuals.
 It allows or forces us to look beyond the outer appearances of our social world and
discover new levels of reality
 It also encourages us to realize that society guides our thoughts and deeds — to see
the strange in the familiar
 Sociology also encourages us to see individuality in social context.
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THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES:
1. FUNCTIONALISM
 Functionalism sees society as a system of highly interrelated parts that work together
harmoniously
 The image that functionalists use to understand society is a living organism
 Each part of society works together for the benefit of the whole much like a living
organism
 Parts of a social system work together to maintain a balance
 Functions are actions that have positive consequences
 Dysfunctions are actions that have negative consequences
 Manifest functions are intended
 Latent functions are unintended
STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
The structural-functional theory is a framework for building theory that sees society as a
complex system whose parts work together to promote solidarity and stability.
- It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures (relatively stable patterns of social
behavior).
- Each social structure has social functions, or consequences, for the operation of society as a
whole.
- Key figures in the development of this paradigm include Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim,
Herbert Spencer, and Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton
 Robert Merton introduced three concepts related to social function:
Manifest functions, the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern latent
functions, largely unrecognized and unintended consequences and social dysfunctions,
undesirable consequences of a social pattern for the operation of society.
 The influence of this paradigm has declined in recent decades. It focuses on
stability, thereby ignoring inequalities of social class, race, and gender
2. CONFLICT THEORY
 Conflict theory is grounded in the work of Karl Marx
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 Society is understood to be made up of conflicting interest groups who vie for power
and privilege
 This dynamic results in continuous social change, which is the normal state of affairs
 Conflict theory focuses heavily on inequality and differential distribution of power and
wealth
 Society is held together by who has power at a moment in time
 Power allows some to dominate others
 Dominance leads to conflict
 Conflict and change are inevitable
 Conflict holds society together as new alliances are formed and others fail
3. THE INTERACTIONIST PERSPECTIVE
 Focuses on how individuals make sense of and interpret the world
 This perspective tends to focus on the “micro-order” of small groups

SYMBOLIC INTERACTION
● The symbolic-interaction paradigm is a framework for building theory that sees society as the
product of the everyday interactions of individuals.
The structural-functional and the social-conflict paradigms share a macro-level orientation,
meaning that they focus on broad social structures that shape society as a whole. In contrast,
symbolic-interactionism has a micro-level orientation; it focuses on patterns of social
interaction in specific settings.
Key figures in the development of this paradigm include
George Herbert Mead, Erving Goffman, George Homans, Peter Blau
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COMPARISON OF THREE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Sociology & Other Social Sciences

o Different social sciences deals with the different aspects of social life of man. Accordingly
History, Anthropology, Psychology, Economics & Political Science, these social sciences are
interrelated.
o It is essentials for the student of sociology to know in what respect his subject differs from
other social sciences and what ways it is related to them. Some social thinkers say that
sociology is the basic and sole social science and others are its divisions.
o It is essential for us to know the interrelations between sociology and history, economics,
anthropology, political science, psychology.
ANTHROPOLOGY
o The word anthropology derived from two Greeks words, ‘Anthropos’-meaning man and
logs mean study.
o “Thus anthropology is the study of man”.
o “ The science of man and his works and behavior”
o . In number of universities anthropology and sociology are administratively organized into
one department.
Difference between Sociology & Anthropology
o Sociology is the study of modern civilized and complex societies.
o Sociologist study the institutions marriage, family or processes such as change, social
mobility.
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o Sociologist studies small as well as large societies.

o Sociology makes use of observation, interview, social survey, questionnaires and other
method of techniques in its investigations.
o Anthropology concerns with un civilized or primitive and non literate societies.
o Anthropologist study human primitive cultures.
o Anthropologist usually concentrates on small societies.
o Anthropologist directly goes and lives in the communities they study. They make use of
direct observations and interviews.
Sociology & History
o History is the reconstruction of man’s past. It is study of the experience of mankind. It is a
record of the human past.
o Historians are interested in what happened at a particular time in the past.
o Historians are only concentrate only on the past.
History: History is a study of past, which people have already lived. Data for historian come in
the form of records form museums, libraries and personal collection of people.
o Sociology as science of society on the other hand is interested in the present. It studies
various stages of human life.
o Sociology has thus to depend upon the history for its materials. e.g.
o If he wants to study of marriage and family he must study their historical development
also. Similarly he wants to know the impact of Islamic culture on the Hindu culture
Difference between Sociology & History
o Sociology is interested in the study of present with all their complexity.
o Sociology is relatively young social science. It has very short history of its own.
o Sociology is an analytical science.
o Sociology is generalizing science.
o History deals with the past events of man. It is silent regarding the present
o History is an age-old social science. It has a long story of 2000 years or even more.
o History is descriptive science.
o History is an individualizing science.
Political Science
o Political science deals with political activities of man.
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o Political science has its own topics such as origin, evolution and functions of state, the
forms of Government, types of constitutions, administration law, legislation, elections,
voting, political movements.
o Political science is concerned with state. There are some common topics of interest for
both sociologist and political scientists. Such as war, mass movements, government
control, public opinion, propaganda, leadership, elections, voting.
o Further many social problems are also deep political problems (clashes of Muslims and
Christians, Hindus and Muslims, Asian and Europeans.
Difference between Sociology & Political Science
o Sociology is a science of society.
o Sociology studies all kind of societies organized as well as un organized.
o Sociology has a wider scope.
o Sociology studies man as fundamentally a social animal.
o The approach of sociology is sociological. It follows its own methods in addition to the
scientific methods in its investigations.
o Finally sociology is quite young. It is not even two centuries old.
o political science is a science of state and government.
o Political science studies only the politically organized societies.
o Political science has narrower field.
o Political science studies man as a political animal.
o Political science is a special social science because it concentrates only on the human
relationships which are political in character.
o Political science is an older science comparatively. It has centuries of history.
Difference between Sociology & Psychology
o Psychology is the study of individual behavior and mental processes- what occurs in the
mind.
o Sociology studies society and social groups.
o Sociology analysis social processes.
o Sociology studies society form sociological point of view.
o Psychology studies behavior of individual in society. Its focus of interest is individual and
not the society as such.
o Psychology concerned with behavior of individuals.
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o Psychology studies the individual’s behavior form the view point of psychological factors
involved.
Economics
o Economics deals with the economic activities of man.
o “economics studies the aspects of production, distribution and exchange and consumption
in society”.
o It studies the structure and function of economic organization like banks, factories,
market, business, firms, corporations, transport.
Difference between two social sciences
o Sociology studies all kind of social relationships, Sociology is general social science.,
Sociology is a science of recent emergence.
o Economics deals with only those social relationships which are economic in character.
o Economics is a special science, Economics has attained an advanced degree of maturity.