Differentiated Literacy Strategies for English

Language Learners, Grades K–6

Functional Literacy

Contributors: By: Gayle H. Gregory & Amy Burkman

Book Title: Differentiated Literacy Strategies for English Language Learners, Grades K–6
Chapter Title: "Functional Literacy"
Pub. Date: 2012
Access Date: September 3, 2019
Publishing Company: Corwin Press
City: Thousand Oaks
Print ISBN: 9781412996488
Online ISBN: 9781452275413
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452275413.n4
Print pages: 64-97
© 2012 Corwin Press All Rights Reserved.
This PDF has been generated from SAGE Knowledge. Please note that the pagination of the online
version will vary from the pagination of the print book.
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Functional Literacy
Reading is considered a basis for all learning, and students without functional literacy are at a significant dis-
advantage as learners. English language learners are especially at risk for being disadvantaged in learning
because much of their literacy foundation is in a different language. We must make sure that every student
develops functional literacy skills so that new students are able to adapt literacy skills from their home lan-
guage by making connections between new functional skills and already existing skills.

Literacy Strategies for Diverse Learners

English is one of the most difficult languages to learn. People learning English often find some idiosyncrasies
of the language particularly difficult, which makes learning this language challenging (see Figures 4.1 through
4.6 below). For some English learners, the very formation of the written letters can be challenging. Other diffi-
culties include negatives, prepositions, possibly relearning the alphabet in English, verb tenses, and sentence
structure.

Figure 4.1 Strategies for Encouraging Content-Area Reading?

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What can teachers do? Some teachers are lucky enough to have had special training, or even to hold degrees
and specific licenses, but the average teacher in the classroom needs a little box of strategies designed to
meet the needs of English learners. Figure 4.1 offers some tips and strategies that may help students in your
classroom feel more accepted and learn English more easily. It is very important that you not let students
practice errors in speaking or writing, but it is equally important to correct students privately and respectfully.
Public correction can be humiliating and can cause students to withdraw. Also remember to celebrate suc-
cess often. Students need to know that their efforts are recognized.

In addition to specialized strategies, some good teaching practices are of great benefit to all students, in-
cluding English language learners. Functional literacy skills must be nurtured and developed across diverse
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populations to create a strong basis for advanced literacy skills.

Functional Literacy Defined

We define functional literacy as having the ability to read, to write, to speak, and to listen. While the goal is to
teach students to read and write at basic levels by the end of Grade 3, it can take students learning English
3 to 5 years to acquire functional literacy skills. Using good practices and specific strategies can accelerate
English language skills, preventing second-language students from falling behind their peers.

Functional literacy gives all students confidence in their abilities as learners. The use of appropriate conven-
tions in reading and writing is necessary for students to learn the content and processes. Students who are
learning functional literacy skills in English for the first time must be supported adequately to ensure that this
confidence is formed early. The critical factors in functional literacy include the following:

• Oral language development: speaking and listening

• Phonological awareness: sounds and their differences
• Phonemic awareness: translating sounds of the symbols and learning the symbols
• Spelling and early writing: translating symbols and words, and writing to convey meaning
• Fluency: rate of reading and flow of sounds, without errors or interference
• Comprehension and meaning: constructing what the written words are about; main ideas; literal in-
formation: detailed notes from words, pictures, speech, and other sources; getting the gist of the pas-
sage or graphic
• Narrative and descriptive writings: telling a story, making comparisons and detailed descriptions, and
using other forms of creative writing

Fortunately, the skills progress naturally for those learning any language. The key to establishing these skills
is to link English literacy skills to any previously acquired literacy skills in other languages as early as possi-
ble. These connections can make the transition go more smoothly.

Oral Language Skills

English language learners must begin learning with the development of oral skills. While the development of
oral skills typically begins with social language, teachers should encourage students to communicate orally
with peers in the classroom setting. Traditionally, teachers are the “sage on the stage,” allowing students lim-
ited interactions while they provide endless information. This is not the most effective way for students to
develop language skills. Many educational researchers have found that students come to school with too few
words in their oral vocabulary (Diamond & Hopson, 1998; Healy, 1992; Levine, 1990). A lack of social inter-
action and an increase in televisions and computers has resulted in a deficit in vocabulary and oral skills.
Imagine what this means when what little language the student has is not in English. This double whammy
has created a new challenge for educators.

To build trust and develop positive relationships with classmates, students need the opportunity to chat, dis-
cuss, debate, and share their thoughts. Many of these activities can be informal, and teachers can easily as-
sess them through observation. The ability to express one's self is an important skill in learning to retain new
words and to determine meaning, as well as being used as a prewriting strategy Several classroom strate-
gies, including Think, Pair, Share (McTighe & Lyman, 1988), Round Table, Round Robin (Kagan, 1990), and
Inside-Outside Circle (Kagan) all facilitate dialogue, rehearsal, and oral language development. These strate-
gies are excellent for English language learners, students who are not verbal in class, and students who need
dialogue to clarify their thinking and develop complex language patterns.

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Think, Pair, Share

Teachers often suggest the Think, Pair, Share strategy to students when they are thinking about an answer
to a question or rehearsing their thinking about a topic or concept. A teacher will pose a question or idea and
will invite students to think about their own answers to the question or to develop an idea similar to that in
the question. Students then turn to a partner and discuss the ideas and questions. At that point they should
be ready to share with the larger group. When used with questions, this strategy creates the desired “wait
time” for students so that they are able to access information from long-term memory without feeling rushed
and pressured (Rowe, 1987). It takes approximately 3 to 5 seconds for someone to access information from
long-term memory to answer a question.

When doing this activity, pair a new language learner with a more advanced student with the same home lan-
guage whenever possible. Allow the students to discuss the question or idea in the home language and have
more advanced students respond orally. Allowing students to discuss concepts and ideas in the home lan-
guage creates the opportunity for students to stay current in the content while learning new language skills.
Allowing the student with advanced English-language skills to model oral proficiency creates a lower-risk en-
vironment for class participation. Other options are to pair students who are high-functioning readers and
writers with students who are learning new language skills, and to pair students based on English proficiency
skills. This allows for appropriate peer modeling of high-functioning literacy skills.

Round Table, Round Robin

As part of this strategy, each learner responds or writes in turn, which allows the teacher to monitor for par-
ticipation. Because all students are allowed to speak and share information, students can participate in active
listening as well as in accepting others' ideas. This is effective as a brainstorming technique; also effective
are rehearsing, sharing ideas, or giving feedback Again, you can allow a new language learner to respond in
the home language and allow the student peer to translate. This models appropriate oral skills while providing
students with the translation of what they have said. During this process, students are able to hear appropri-
ate translations to their content information while allowing the teacher to check for understanding.

Inside-Outside Circle
The Inside-Outside Circle strategy generates ideas, increases problem solving, and allows for the reviewing
of information (see Figure 4.2). To begin this activity, form two circles with the same number of students in
each. One circle is formed inside the other, and people in the two circles face each other (usually six or seven
in each circle is a good number). Inside-Outside Circles provide opportunities for dialogue, social interaction,
and physical movement. This technique also allows for students to be paired with partners at various levels of
literacy skill. The teacher must make sure that English language learners are allowed to pair with both same
home language peers and English-only peers to allow for appropriate peer modeling and translations as nec-
essary for the specific activity.

There are several techniques for using this particular strategy. People inside the circle can be asked to share
a response to a particular question with the student opposite them in the outer circle, and then students re-
verse roles. Another activity for the circle could be for each student to share an idea, suggestion, or critique
for his or her own writing, or as a review of the partner student's writing. Students create questions that can
be asked of their partners. This strategy is useful for developing vocabulary, practicing dialogue, and spelling
words. The most effective implementation is to have the outside circle rotate so that everyone has a new part-
ner, and then to pose the same questions.
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Figure 4.2 Inside-Outside Circle?

Students with emerging literacy skills may need to use these activities as social language exercises. Social
language exercises allow second-language learners to practice social literacy in a nonthreatening environ-
ment, and also allow for appropriate peer modeling of oral language. The Inside-Outside Circle represents
an organized and precise method of allowing for both content and social language practice sessions. This
method allows for content to be interspersed with oral skills and provides peer support for content-based ac-
tivities.

Phonological Awareness
Phonological awareness refers to auditory recognition of sounds and the ability to distinguish between them.
Many students can identify phonological skills prior to entering formal schooling due to informal exercises that
take place at home. We play games with preschoolers such as I Spy, and we read them books with famil-
iar patterns. Early activities to increase phonological awareness include matching letter sounds to beginning,
middle, and end of words. Teachers need to use creative ways of practicing phonological skills. Activities
should not be limited to paper and pencil learning, especially with students who have mastered phonological
awareness in another language.

Phonological awareness can be a particular challenge when English is not the student's first language. Letters
may look the same but have different sounds, or the alphabet may look completely different. Teachers should
pay particular attention to letter sounds that might be different from the home language. If you do not know,
ask! Parents, friends, and even technology can provide information relatively quickly.
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Phonemic Awareness
Good awareness is the process of translating sounds into syllables. Learning to recognize the symbols and
their combinations of words is a first step to reading and writing. Some stages of phonemic awareness include
rhymes, rhythms, symbols, and patterns. These stages are especially useful when working with students from
different language backgrounds. It is important to remember, however, that these activities should be pattern
based on age-appropriate materials, concepts, and ideas regardless of student skill level. Students who are
learning English in intermediate grades (Grades 3–6) need to learn phonemic awareness, but they can be
resistant if these skills are taught using primary materials.

Rhymes and Rhythms

Using rhymes and rhythms in the classroom to enhance literacy learning is a concept used by numerous
teachers. Young children spontaneously use rhyme and rhythm with words, play, learning, and while partici-
pating in task-oriented projects. Use of rhyming word families, nonsense words, and rhythms is a phonologi-
cal awareness skill and can be easily practiced. Activities using rhyming words and rhythms are excellent for
English language learners because the repetition increases retention and allows students to “play” with their
language. These activities are typically accepted in early childhood classrooms, but they also are useful in
older classrooms when working with students learning English. Again, we caution you to use age-appropriate
content while incorporating these activities into daily practice.

Symbols
An early indicator of emerging writing is students use scribbling and symbols to represent sounds and words.
This skill is universal across languages and will be seen regardless of how language develops. Reading
books through pictures, making connections on frequently seen signs, and creating symbols that represent
meaning are important skills in early literacy.

Patterns
Teachers need to saturate the learning environment with print and patterned phrasing. Children with limited
English-language skills can memorize words, especially when they are connected to the home language. The
use of repetition, pattern, rhymes, and words and predictable storylines help students master the concepts of
oral reading. If students are typically read to by parents and caregivers, they may believe that reading is done
only orally, so initial reading experiences need to take place orally.

Children develop phonological and phonemic awareness through environmental print. Family literacy activi-
ties should incorporate patterns that are easily recognized and naturally occurring in daily language. On the
other hand, students in print-deficient environments do not recognize patterns as early due to a lack of expo-
sure. Students from non-English-speaking families may have developed phonological and phonemic aware-
ness in another language. If so, these skills can easily be translated to the English environment. The key to
the success of transitioning skills from home language to English language skills comes with time. If students
from other language backgrounds do not develop phonemic awareness and phonological awareness, they do
not develop early patterns that connect letter and word sounds.

If students come from poverty or homes where English is not the home language, teachers may have to work
more vigorously with phonics instruction at different levels of recognition. It is not possible for teachers to build
on a foundation that does not exist. Therefore, differentiation may be necessary to create a strong foundation
of early literacy skills. There may be many causes outside of learning English that have negative impacts on
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the student's ability to learn.

Teachers need to be aware that children may have physical impairments, such as untreated ear infections
or other physiological issues, or might have attention deficits that prohibit them from attending class for long
periods. Because children tend not to persevere when learning is not a satisfying process, teachers may want
to use the eight multiple intelligences to help children develop phonemic awareness (see Figure 4.3).

Spelling and Early Writing

Spelling is a controversial subject among teachers. Countless books have been written about spelling and all
of the ins and outs of teaching this skill. However, some primitive practices related to teaching spelling that
are still used on a daily basis. Even though we know these practices are not effective and are actually busy
work, they are a common practice used by both new and experienced teachers. One example of such prac-
tices would be writing the words five times on Monday, using them in sentences on Tuesday, writing them in
syllables on Wednesday, personal choice of practice on Thursday, and taking a spelling test on Friday.

Figure 4.3 Using Multiple Intelligences to Develop Phonemic Awareness?

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When dealing with students learning English for the first time, teachers will need to use a variety of strategies
to teach spelling and early writing. Many English language learners have basic spelling skills in their home
language. The students will need assistance with the unique characteristics of the English language. Some
important strategies include daily writing and reading, breaking words into syllables, using a word wall, creat-
ing a spelling booklet with high-frequency words, using the dictionary, and using spelling rules and general-
izations.

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From Invented Spelling to Correct Spelling

Second-language students may struggle with spelling even if they are literate in their home language. This
difficulty could cause them to spell words in the same way similar words would be spelled in the home lan-
guage rather than using English spelling. While this is slightly different from invented spelling, the same risks
for creating permanent bad spelling habits are posed in this practice.

Invented spelling is often used to encourage writing even if students do not know how to spell the words. To
get past invented spelling habits, the teacher can ask students to write down initial consonants during read-
ing, and the teacher, volunteer, or a capable adult can write the full word. This models accuracy and imprints
the correct spelling of the word rather than the invented spelling.

It is discouraging for teachers and students to still see invented spelling after elementary school. Students
must be given strategies to move beyond this stage in early literacy. When teachers constantly expose stu-
dents to working with letters and building words, they allow students to become more familiar with patterns
and to feel more confident about spelling. When spelling errors are related to initial language, students need
to be made aware of the conflicting rules between the home language and English. Students learning English
as a second language need to be exposed to spelling rules, with particular attention paid to the similarities
and differences of these rules compared to their home language literacy. Remember, English is one of the
most difficult languages to master.

Building Words
The creativity of children is a useful tool when we teach them beginning written language skills. Allowing stu-
dents to play with language and create words and understanding independently allows for a transfer of knowl-
edge and a low-risk opportunity to explore current language understanding. Using movable letters to build
words reduces the pressure of making mistakes, especially with students learning the English alphabet and
language. Students are able to correct errors easily without permanent markings, erasing errors, or getting
work marked wrong. Words can also be introduced as whole words, as parts of words, or as individual let-
ters. Once word parts have been introduced, the words can be pieced together or taken apart and reassem-
bled into new words. Another strategy might be to have students use letters from magazines, newspapers,
or discarded books to assemble words or to find word patterns. Each activity is designed to allow students
to explore print. To help the process and reinforce spelling, the teacher also can tap into the eight multiple
intelligences (see Figure 4.4).

Fluency
Fluency in students learning English as a second language is often confused with oral language competency.
Because fluency is about activating our brains to remember words and retrieve them without effort, the sec-
ond-language learner is already at a disadvantage. When students struggle with fluency they avoid reading,
they will isolate themselves during activities that require oral reading, and they may repeat errors when prac-
ticing reading. Most elementary teachers are taught to build sight word fluency, but second-language learners
struggle with vocabulary taught in isolation (Drucker, 2003). English language learners should not learn sight
words in isolation; it is more beneficial to learn sight words in context.

Figure 4.4 Using Multiple Intelligences for Spelling?

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Another common error in fluency exercises is focusing on instructional-level reading activities. We typically
avoid frustration-level reading, but to build fluency students must use materials at an independent or easy lev-
el. Instructional-level materials are great for teaching phonics, but rapid fluency building should be practiced
at an easier level.

Acquisition of Fluency for Diverse Learners

Oral reading increases fluency rapidly, but traditional round-robin methods of reading do not work well for
many second-language students. A minimum of four rereadings are required for a student who speaks Eng-
lish and that has no disability to achieve comprehension. According to Armbruster, Lehr, and Osborn (2001),
more repetitions are necessary for students learning English or students with learning disabilities. These rep-
etitions must be oral because silent reading of repeated errors does more harm than good. Direct instruction
is essential to building fluency; teachers need to take special care when choosing materials and strategies to
increase the success of English language learners.

Choosing Curriculum Materials that Promote Fluency

When working with English language learners, be careful to use books that are topically inappropriate. Inde-
pendent or easy-level readers should be age appropriate in topic. No child in older grade levels wants to read
a first-grade book. Books need to be interesting, a variety of fiction and nonfiction, and selected by the stu-
dent as much as possible. Books also need to be selected based on students' prior knowledge. Materials that
are culturally relevant and specific to the experiences of the students provide a stronger connection between
the students and the concepts involved in reading.

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According to the Center on Teaching and Learning at the University of Oregon, the following should be looked
for in materials used to build fluency (University of Oregon, n.d.):

• Are passages within the learner's decoding range of 95% accuracy or higher?
• Is there an explicit strategy for teaching students to transition from accuracy to fluency?
• Is there daily opportunity for fluency building?
• Is there overlap in words, and are words appearing multiple times in the text?
• Are target rates identified?

Gunning (1998) supports these criteria and also suggests the following:

• Students should be able to read 85 words per minute before moving on to the next challenge.
• If students read 85 words per minute with two or fewer errors, the material is too easy.
• If it takes the student more than 2 minutes to read a 50- to 100-word passage with more than five
errors, the material is too difficult. (p. 202)

The California Department of Education's Criteria for Language Arts Materials Adoption (2008) gives us an
interesting list that clearly supports fluency and instruction for English language learners. The selected mate-
rials must provide support for teachers and students to achieve the following:

• Materials must include materials at beginning, early intermediate, intermediate, and early advanced
levels of English language proficiency at appropriate grade levels.
• Students must have a minimum of 30 minutes of additional instructional materials daily.
• Schools must have a teacher edition and student materials that are designed to reinforce and extend
the regular classroom or basic program.
• Schools must have materials that help teachers teach English learners to master the English Lan-
guage Arts content standards so learners can read, write, comprehend, and speak English at the
proficient level for academic schoolwork.
• Schools must have support materials that provide additional explicit linguistic instruction in areas of
difficulty for students, including
• survival vocabulary and language, including but not limited to language for obtaining neces-
sities, making requests, and understanding instructions (essentials for newcomers who have
just started to learn English);
• language skills that are transferable from students' primary language to English, as well as
nontransferable skills;
• acquisition of academic vocabulary; and
• phonological, morphological, syntactical, and semantic structures of English grammar. (p.
294)

These required English Language Arts instructional materials are specifically designed daily lessons for
teachers to preteach concepts and for teachers to help students to develop background knowledge, build
academic vocabulary, and develop critical technical skills. It is essential for students who are simultaneously
learning English and reading and language arts content to have additional time for instruction and practice so
that they can master grade-level content standards (California Department of Education, 2008, p. 293).

Choosing Instructional Strategies that Promote Fluency

Fluency cannot be taught through word recognition, vocabulary instruction, and comprehension lessons.
When instruction is coupled with frequent, appropriately leveled reading, fluency will increase. Teaching and
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learning strategies that focus on fluency are an essential part of the elementary teacher's toolkit; this is es-
pecially true of those strategies that are specific to English language learners. The following proven methods
promote the acquisition of fluency in English language learner students:

• Modeling (Allington, 1983; Huss, 1995)

• Repeated readings (Dowhower, 1989; Drucker, 2003; Pang, 2010):
• whole group activity
• independent practice after guided practice
• shared readings
• Paired oral reading (Drucker, 2003; Zutell & Rasinki, 1991)
• Oral Recitation Lesson (ORL) that uses comprehension clues to prompt fluency such as sequences,
pictures, and predictions (Richards, 2000)
• Choral reading (Drucker, 2003; Miccinati, 1985)
• Natural language pattern, using materials with repeated language patterns such as rhymes, repeat-
ing refrains, repeated sentence patterns, predictable text (Hoffman & Isaacs, 1991)
• Readers' theatre, where students perform a play, poem, or story of some type (Martinez, Roser, &
Srecker, 1999)
• Series books to motivate students who like following a story or genre (Mackey, 1990)
• Nonfiction thematic materials (Drucker, 2003; Snow et al., 1998)
• Audio-assisted reading. Students follow and then read along with an audio recording of the text with-
out background noise or music (Armbruster et al., 2001; Drucker, 2003)
• Language experience approach (Drucker, 2003)
• Total physical response (Drucker, 2003; Holmes, Rutledge, & Gauthier, 2009)
• Word/concept sorts and interactive word walls (Holmes et al., 2009).
• Dual-language concept books. Books are written in home language and English (Holmes et al. 2009)

Silent Reading Fluency

There is a difference between oral reading fluency and silent reading fluency. With English language learners,
silent reading fluency is often better than oral fluency due to oral language development as a second-lan-
guage learner. Whereas silent reading fluency is the goal of reading instruction, English language learners
need to have an opportunity to hear language while “observing its corresponding phonological representation”
in order to develop reading fluency (Drucker, 2003, p. 24).

Flexible Grouping Strategies for Functional Literacy

TAPS
TAPS is a useful term for grouping strategies (Gregory & Kuzmich, 2005a):

Total group. There may be information and new skills that need to be shared or demonstrated to the
T
whole class.
A Alone. Sometimes students need to practice by working alone, as they will on standardized tests.
p Partner. Partnering gives students a narrow audience with whom to share ideas, discuss new informa-

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tion, or process learning.

Small groups. There are many ways of forming small groups. Groups of three or four students may be
S constructed for a variety of purposes. Any group larger than three or four has the potential for some
students to drift off task.

Here are several types of groups that can be used with TAPS that are appropriate for students that are English
language learners:

• Ability. Homogeneous based on need, language specific, level of English proficiency

• Heterogeneous. Pairing students with “skilled” readers who are not English language learners
(Drucker, 2003), cooperative group learning, pairing students with peers who have the same home
language but different skill levels
• Random. Grouping quickly with no attention to language needs
• Structured. Based on students' profile or needs, pairing students with same home language or similar
cultural experiences, or with other English language learners from different languages, complemen-
tary personalities
• Interests. Responding to choices and tasks that connect with students' cultural similarities or similar
interests

Figure 4.5 suggests a variety of reading and writing strategies for each of the four types of groups. For a bal-
anced literacy program and for maximum learning, all four types of groups should be used in a combination
of whole group, individual, partner, and small-group activities.

Total Group: Reading Aloud

A total group read aloud allows for students to experience the English language in a nonthreatening environ-
ment, and also provides

Figure 4.5 TAPS Strategies for Reading, Writing, Speaking, and Listening?

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accurate modeling. This strategy promotes active listening, increases comprehension, and allows for intro-
duction of new vocabulary. For students who are learning English, oral comprehension develops first, allowing
this strategy to create a bridge from oral to written language. Read-aloud activities also help English language
learners develop receptive and expressive language while addressing and promoting vocabulary develop-
ment in early language acquisition (Pang, 2010). Teachers introduce vocabulary, summarize readings, and
allow students to repeat the vocabulary taught in each activity. This activity is relatively inexpensive and re-
quires little training.

Total Group: Shared Reading

Regie Routman (1991) defines shared reading as any rewarding reading situation where the learner see texts
and observes a more experienced person reading with fluency and expression. Often the experienced reader
is the classroom teacher or librarian who is using shared reading as an informal or social activity where stu-
dents can interact with the story, such as using poems, songs, or chants. Shared reading is especially useful
for English language learners who use patterns, rhymes, and sight words. “Shared reading provides English
language learners with an opportunity to hear language while observing its corresponding phonological rep-
resentation” (Drucker, 2003, p. 24).

Guided Reading
Guided reading may be done as a whole-group or small-group strategy. This activity allows for explicit in-
struction of strategies designed to help students decode and comprehend text. By setting a clear purpose for
reading, the teacher models for students the appropriate way to decide the purpose of the text and supports
students in learning to read at the literal, inferential, and evaluative levels. The process of guided reading is

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relatively simple:

1. The teacher selects an unfamiliar text (at or slightly above the students' instructional read-
ing level).
2. The teacher introduces the purpose of the text and orients the students by
a. discussing and questioning to activate prior knowledge,
b. making predictions based on the title, and
c. sharing objective and purposes behind reading the text.
3. The teacher introduces vocabulary. This step is especially important to English language
learners.
4. The teacher divides the reading passage into chunks (i.e., smaller passages).
5. The students read silently and orally.
6. The teacher guides and questions throughout the reading to check for comprehension
and to refocus the students on the purpose of the text.

These steps are performed with all groups of students during the guided reading process, no matter the read-
ing needs. However, some specific additions to the above process are especially useful when working with
English language learners:

• When introducing the text, model language patterns or unconventional language.

• Read the first section for or with the students to establish text or language patterns that might assist
the students in making predictions.
• Provide specific focus for each chunk of readings assigned (e.g., say, “read pages 9 and 10 to find
out how the kite was made”).
• Use a wide variety of texts, paying close attention to specific types of language that might be difficult
for English language learners, such as tense, modal verbs, subject-noun agreement, sentence struc-
ture, and so on.

To be most effective, teachers should vary the levels of questioning throughout the readings. The Question
Starter Sheet (Figure 4.6) provides

Figure 4.6 Question Starters for Guided Reading?

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examples of appropriately leveled questions. It might be helpful to photocopy the question starters to use as
prompts.

Alone: Independent Reading

When English language learners are first assigned independent reading activities it is important that the stu-
dents have had the opportunity to practice reading the material in a large or small group setting. This allows
for students to learn unfamiliar terms or words before practicing them independently. If a student is unfamiliar
with a word and he or she guessed the words incorrectly during independent reading, the student will prac-
tice the word incorrectly. Practicing the words incorrectly causes the student to have to relearn the word once
the teacher recognizes the error. Reteaching words takes away from time that could be spent learning new
vocabulary.

Students should be allowed to choose independent reading materials and to read outside of the classroom
setting. Individual choice enhances the students' interest in and connection to the readings. Teachers need
to introduce students to new materials or various types of writings in students' particular interests to provide
them with choice in selections. However, students may choose to reread favorites or to stay within one partic-
ular type of book for independent reading activities. Teachers should visit with students frequently regarding
independent reading activities.

Some teachers require minimum reading time or ask that students keep a reading log to monitor independent
reading. Reading logs, often similar to reflective journals, are especially useful and can provide the teacher
with the opportunity to suggest prompts or request specific pieces of information. For English language learn-
ers, reading logs are important to help guide them toward independent comprehension.

When students are responding to independent reading activities, several products provide English language
learners the opportunity to show the level of comprehension no matter their independent language levels:

• Create a poster or advertisement.

• Make a diorama.
• Create a radio advertisement or television commercial.
• Write a letter to a friend about the book.
• Design a short skit.
• Write a poem to create interest in the book.
• Create a postcard with a scene from the book on one side and a message on the other.
• Create a webpage for the book.
• Create a picture book based on the book.
• Make a movie about the book.
• Write a summary of the book in the home language.
• Keep a journal while reading the book.

Journal writings can be especially useful when English language learners are provided specific prompts to
follow or questions to answer when reading independently. Suggested prompts follow:

• Why did you pick this book?

• How did you find it?
• Did you like the book? What did you like best or least?
• Does the book discuss something you have done or seen before?
• Would you read another book by this author?
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• Have you read any other books like this or about the same topic?
• Was the title a good one? Why or why not?
• What was the most interesting part of the book?

Partners: Paired or Buddy Reading

Students who are learning English for the first time in a classroom setting need constant modeling and feed-
back during literacy instruction. The use of paired reading allows for students to have peer models and to
observe appropriate language and fluency. The use of peer models reduces stress and anxiety related to
reading in school when a student has limited English proficiency. When peers are modeling intonations and
appropriate fluency, the student learning English can repeat that behavior and receive feedback without the
stress related to teacher correction in a large group. At the same time, the teacher can monitor and correct
as needed in a small-group or one-on-one setting by using simple observational techniques.

Paired reading can be done with a variety of pairing techniques. Students can be paired based on similar
language backgrounds with one more advanced student or with students at different grade levels with similar
language backgrounds. Students also can be paired with peers who have English as the first language or
are simply advanced readers. Teacher monitoring can ensure that all students are comfortable in each paired
situation.

Homogeneous vs. Heterogeneous Reading Groups

Homogeneous grouping is a popular method of creating reading groups based on the concept that all stu-
dents start in the same place and, therefore, are easier to teach. Unfortunately, studies show that students
perform worse when grouped homogeneously. However, although research has shown that homogeneous
grouping for reading groups does not benefit all students, there are some benefits to using homogeneous
groupings for students learning English for the first time in a classroom.

Students who are learning English often struggle with the same language challenges when learning to read.
English has many irregular sound-letter correspondences, or deep orthographic structures, whereas other
languages have mainly regular sound-letter correspondences, or shallow orthographic structure. This shallow
orthographic structure can interfere with the phonological decoding of text, causing English language learners
from a variety of backgrounds to struggle (Drucker, 2003). To best meet the needs of students moving from
shallow orthographic languages to English, the teacher should select texts that most closely match the cultur-
al schemas and language patterns most familiar to the students. To do this efficiently, students may need to
be grouped homogeneously from time to time. However, the majority of instruction should be given in hetero-
geneous groupings.

Small Heterogeneous Groups: Literature or Information Circles

The focus of literature circles is to combine literacy skills and strategies in a supportive social atmosphere of
a nonthreatening peer group. The very nature of literature circles provides opportunities for ELL students to
practice and refine their language and literacy skills as they analyze, reflect upon, and negotiate the views
and ideas of their peers and those presented by the authors they are reading (Farris, Nelson, & L'Allier, 2007).

To best meet the needs of the English language learner, teachers must model the process, structure the as-

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signment and roles, and provide extension activities at the conclusion of the group activity.

Students in the literature circle should take on specific roles. These roles can be assigned by the teacher or
self-selected:

• Discussion manager. This person is responsible for guiding the discussion, for ensuring the group
stays on topic, and for making sure questions are discussed thoroughly.
• Vocabulary manager. The vocabulary manager looks for new or unfamiliar vocabulary words, pro-
vides the meaning or an illustration of the meaning, points out spelling, and reviews the vocabulary.
• Illustrator. This person chooses an event in the story to illustrate, creates the illustration, and presents
it to the group.
• Connector/reflector. This group member tries to connect the readings to other readings or personal
experiences.
• Wordsworth. The wordsworth looks for metaphors, similes, alliterations, or other language indicating
mood or feelings to help the readers understand abstract thoughts or feelings.

It is crucial that English language learners have the opportunity to experience time within each role, although
they may not elect to play each role independently. These groups can be altered to fit into other content areas,
and roles can be adjusted as needed.

Small Heterogeneous Groups: Round-Robin Reading

This strategy is particularly useful for English language learners in developing skills in listening, speaking,
and reading in English. Each group should be made up of approximately four students of various levels. Each
student will assume a group role:

• Person 1 is the reader and reads as much as he or she can aloud.

• Person 2 is the questioner and creates questions about what has been read.
• Person 3 is the answerer and answers the question that has been posed.
• Person 4 is the recorder and records the questions and answers and checks for any information or
word meanings that are needed by the group.

Students take turns at each role (see Figure 4.7).

Interactive Reading: Total Physical Response and Interactive Word Activities

Total Physical Response activities help English language learners understand vocabulary or concepts through
physical demonstration (Drucker, 2003; Herrel & Jordan, 2004; Holmes et al., 2009). Teachers select words
or concepts that can be acted out or physically demonstrated. A list is created on a board or index cards, and
concepts are randomly selected. As the teacher introduces each term, concept, or command, she models it
for the students and requires them to demonstrate. Each time she provides the word in written or oral form,
she models it until students are able to demonstrate it independently.

Similarly, interactive word activities, such as word-concept sorts, interactive word walls, and picture-sentence
matching, allow students to physically manipulate connections between words and concepts to draw conclu-
sions. These visual representations of connections allow students to retain the information more clearly. Stu-
dents can also keep these activities for future reference.

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Graphic Organizers for Critical Thinking

Graphic organizers make content information and critical thinking processes more accessible to second-lan-
guage students. These organizers allow for a visual representation of information and allow students to ac-
cess information later. To accommodate for different levels of language acquisition, teachers may choose to
complete different areas of the organizers for or with the students during the reading process. We provide
four different organizers that could be used for the critical thinking process (see Figures 4.8 through 4.11).

Figure 4.7 Round-Robin Reading?

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Figure 4.8 Delving Into the Details?

Figure 4.9 Story Analysis?

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Figure 4.10 Problems and Solutions?

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Figure 4.11 Building Blocks of a Story?

Organizers for Key Vocabulary, Connections, and Questions

Graphic organizers are important for students to be able to organize new knowledge and concepts. With

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English language learners, vocabulary is a substantial struggle. The use of graphic organizers to identify key
vocabulary, to organize definitions, and to create connections increases student retention. Three useful vo-
cabulary organizers are Frayer Models, Definition Circles, and Vocabulary Graphic Organizers. Figures 4.12,
4.13, and 4.14 provide templates for these organizers.

Student Reflections after Reading: Using Text Messages for Learning

Student reflections after reading are important to ensure that students are processing and comprehending
activities taking place in the classroom.

Figure 4.12 Vocabulary Graphic Organizer

Figure 4.13 Definition Circles

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Figure 4.14 Frayer Model

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Prompts can be used to create journal entries, students can write tickets out in order to leave class, or stu-
dents can create text messages for the teacher and classmates. When students create texts, they are re-
quired to summarize information into short, specific thoughts. Texting allows for students to use invented
spelling and is a fun way to synthesize thought. Texting works best with intermediate grade levels (Grades
3–6).

Forms of Writing: Narrative and Descriptive

Narrative and descriptive writing are natural progressions of early literacy. English language learners can
make connections to prior experiences and can align writing skills with the reading of narrative texts. Com-
munication skills must include written language as well as oral language, and students need to be able to
identify what type of writing is necessary for a specific purpose. In this section of the chapter we will focus on
narrative and descriptive writing and then discuss expository and persuasive writing in Chapter 5 when we
discuss content literacy.

To become good writers all students need the following:

• Regular times set aside each day to write

• A choice of topics important to the writer
• A response to the writing (from teacher, peer, or self-reflection)
• Good mechanics and conventions
• Access to vocabulary through reading and access to written materials
• A genuine purpose for writing
• A risk-free, safe environment

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Narrative Writing
Narrative writing is simply telling a story. English language learners need to have opportunities to use this writ-
ing style early. Stories can be based on fact or imagination, and can be poems, short stories, novels, plays,
and songs. This is the perfect opportunity for English language learners to capitalize on their unique cultural
experiences or prior backgrounds with schools outside the United States. Writing these stories can provide
exposure to and create appreciation for the different experiences of all students.

Narrative writing includes the students' ability to accomplish the following:

• Create a plot and theme

• Develop characters and settings
• Sequence events and actions
• Define a problem or dilemma
• Create a solution and conclusion

Any of the organizers shown in earlier figures can be used as an organizer for student authors writing a nar-
rative.

Descriptive Writing
Descriptive writing allows for students to practice using vivid language to create visual images. In descriptive
writing, students describe people, places, and things with carefully selected vocabulary designed to draw a
picture for the reader. Students can increase the use of descriptive vocabulary in the following ways:

• Create a “snapshot” of an event or scene.

• Describe out loud before writing.
• Use adjectives, adverbs, and descriptive phrases appropriately.
• Identify descriptive language in the works of other authors.

Who? What? When? Where? How? Why?

To help students extend and enrich their use of colorful language and imagery, you may want to try a strategy
that uses the 5 W's and how; who, what, when, where, why, and how are excellent questions for extending
language. Take the following sentence:

Michael played.

As the student applies each prompt, the sentence becomes more vivid and descriptive:

• Who? My son Michael played.

• Where? My son Michael played in the park.
• What? My son Michael played in the park on a swing.
• How? My son Michael played happily in the park on a swing.
• Why? Because it was Saturday, my son Michael played happily in the park on a swing.

Total Group Writing: Language Experience Approach

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The Language Experience Approach to writing allows students to tell the story of an experience they have
had, with the teacher acting as a scribe. While the teacher is writing the words, the students are able to see
what their thoughts—the words—look like. Later, the teacher provides a copy on a large sheet of chart paper
for the students to copy. If the experience is a shared experience, such as a field trip or holiday, all students
can add pieces to the story and they will all be able to make the connection from oral words to written words.
This allows for students to draw connections between written and oral language and provides a connection
between life experiences and literacy.

Alone: Independent Writing

Independent writing allows students to develop the habit of processing language into informational ideas and
personal points of view. With practice, writing becomes more fluent and enjoyable. Students who are learning
English as a second language need to be provided with independent writing tasks that are nonthreatening
and that encourage them to take risks. Whenever possible, students should be able to complete the process
of writing with support and without penalty for common errors. This powerful tool aids in metacognition and
communication of thoughts and feelings.

Pairs: Peer Editing

Although students may write independently, peer help can assist them in correcting their work. Peer editing
gives students' nonthreatening feedback and allows students to practice skills that are useful in their own writ-
ing: checking for errors, assessing quality of ideas, and evaluating use of vocabulary and conventions. Peer
editing is beneficial to the student writer and peer editor.

Pairs: Shared Writing

This is a process of writing where two writers work together to create a written product. This pair can be
teacher-student, parent-student, or student-student. Ideally, this group has one person who is a more expert
writer who can act as coach while the other is a novice. The pair discusses ideas and vocabulary and writes
together. This strategy is very supportive of the English language learner who has good ideas but struggles
to put them on paper. This lowers the stress of independent writing and appeals to interpersonal learners.

A Balanced Literacy Program for Functional Literacy

Speaking and Listening

Speaking and listening are embedded into functional literacy at all levels. Students who are learning English
in the classroom develop speaking and listening skills early and must use these skills as a platform for reading
and writing. By incorporating speaking and listening into each activity, the learning process is strengthened
and accelerated. The California Department of Education (2008) suggests a minimum of 30 additional min-
utes for literacy instruction for English language learners in kindergarten through eighth grade, for a total of 3
hours daily of instruction in elementary grades. Speaking and listening activities must be included in this time.
(See Figure 4.15 for a balanced literacy program for a two-hour block.)

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Figure 4.15 A Balanced Literacy Program for a Two-Hour Block?

http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781452275413.n4

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