Class 5

Hybridization

SO2- sp2
CO2-sp
Carbons: sp3, sp2, sp, sp2, sp, sp3 (see carbon is added with how many other atoms)

In 3rd Carbon, 2 orbitals are pure to form pi bonds. So the other two are hybridized, hence it is
sp.

Sir’s formula: sigma bond + lone pair

No need to worry about lone pairs for carbons as they don’t have any.

★ Explanation of hybridization.
★ Impedance of Hybridization
Give the example of methane. If hyb didn’t occur, the bond lengths of C-H would
be unequal, s orbitals of C would create a shorter bond length with H than the p.
But practically it is seen in experiments that all the 4 bonds of Methane share
equal length, shape and energy and they are equidistant from each other. This
proves that hybridization occurs.
Carbon has 6 orbitals.

Orbitals of the same orbit share the same energy level, this energy is de-generate
energy.

Covalent bond formation:

A covalent bond is formed when atomic orbitals overlap to produce a molecular orbital.

Bonding molecular orbital: If orbitals overlap properly.

Anti-bonding molecular orbital: If orbitals do not overlap and do not form bonds.

P orbital has two lobes, one + & one -. If two orbitals collide with the same sign, ++/ --
then it is bonding MO. But if +- occurs, that is antibonding.
[“Atomic orbitals come from treating electrons with the mathematics of waves, so orbitals
have phase signs, like waves.
● A positive sign means a positive displacement of the wave ("up") and a
negative sign means a negative displacement ("down")
● The positive and negative signs of the lobes are not referring to charge but
to the displacement of the electron wave ( up and down )]

★ Explain SP3 hybdrizitaion : (in carbon)

Let’s look at the example of carbon:
In sp3 hybridization, the 2s orbital is mixed with all three of the 2p orbitals to
give a set of four sp3 hybrid orbitals. The hybrid orbitals will each have the
same energy, shape and size.
 Each sp3 orbital is shaped like a deformed dumbbell with one lobe much
larger than the other. Each sp3 orbital will occupy a space as far apart from
each other as possible by pointing to the corners of a tetrahedron. the angle
between each of these lobes is 109.5.

MORE EXAMPLES OF SP3 hyb:

 ★ Explain SP2 hybdrizitaion:

The 2py is the remaining one.

(Who will be remaining? The overlapping will take place in the same plane.
Here it is the xz plane. So nothing will happen on Y-axis. Hence 2py remains
pure.)

The 2py orbital has the usual dumbbell shape. Each of the sp2 hybridized orbitals
has a deformed dumbbell shape similar to an sp3 hybridized orbital.

The hybridized orbitals and the 2py orbital occupy spaces as far apart from each
other as possible. The lobes of the 2py orbital occupy the space above and below
the plane of the x and z axes (Fig. 2a).

The three sp2 orbitals are all placed in the x–z plane pointing toward the corner of a
triangle (trigonal planar shape; Fig. 2b). The angle between each of these lobes is
120.
See how the overlapping occurs:
The σ bonding diagram for ethene is shown below:

If u r asked to draw the orbital diagram, add the pi orbitals to this.

Sp2 in Carbonyl groups:
Determine the hyb in O of a carbonyl grp, sigma bond =1, lone pair=2
so, 3 for sp2.
All the C here are sp2.

Like this molecule, if double and single bonds are alternated, like benzene as
well, those double bonds are called conjugated bonds. De-localization occurs in
such molecules.

★ Show the delocalization of electrons in conjugate

hydrocarbons.
★ Explain SP1 hybdrizitaion:
Read from the book.
 Class 6
Isomerism

Structural isomers have different connectivity. Stereoisomers have the same connectivity but
different orientation. Rotationals are the ones that revolve around the single bond and
form different structures at different times.
Chain Isomerism

★ Draw all the possible isomers of C5H12O

iso-propane doesn’t exist. So this is not n-propane. Just “propane”.

We don’t show C & H atoms in skeletal formula. But when

atoms other than C & H are present, they are shown. Here, this is Ethyl alcohol/ethanol.
Not propyl. The OH end doesn’t have a C, rather the OH is attached to the 2nd C.
 propan-2-ol

cyclopropane

Now, in order to find chain isomers, we can add branches if no branches are present in the
given molecule, starting from the

if we add a branch here and erase the first C,

the 1 degree alcohol will turn into a 2 deg. So add the branch in the beginning.
For metamerism we consider bi-functional groups that are ether and carbonyl.

Enol means double bond plus oH present. This conversion between keto & Enol compounds
are also known as keto-enol tautomerism.
 first the H gives away its electron to form double
bond & become H+, and O takes electron in double bond and becomes O-. Then the H+
combines with O-.

Stereo Isomerism
These are mainly of two types: geometric & optical

So the condition for geometric isomerism: either double bond or cyclic

compound.
 ★ Difference MP & BP between cis & trans.

Study Boiling point yourself. Sir said at 45:44-48:50 in class 7

 Class 7

I, ii & iii are physical properties of cis-trans.

But iv is chemical property.

★Explain the difference of chemical properties between cis & trans

with example.
See how the conversion takes place:

water over there goes away.

Till now, on both sides of the double bond we had the same groups, a b & a b. What
happens if they are different? What if have we have more than 2 groups, a, b
& c?
Rule 1 is for atoms. What if the groups are not atoms? Look at the sequence of the
atoms. On The RHHS of the first compound,CH3 is priority. (39:00-40:00)
now
Class 8
Optical Isomers

Optically active compounds rotate polarized light.

★ Write down the difference between d, l & D,L

that one on top of 2 is methyl group.
Now Learn the definitions of the two elements of symmetry. If any of these are present,
the compound will be optically inactive.

If we cut along this line, then it will also have a plane of symmetry.
If the line connecting two identical groups/atoms goes through the centre of the compound, that
is the centre of symmetry.

If the COOH alteres its position with H, Then

there won’t be any centre of symmetry as the joining line won’t go through the centre.
Enantiomers are complete mirror images, but diastereomers are partial mirror images. Here 1-4,
1-3, 2-4 & 2-3 are diastereomers.
What if there are multiple OH groups? Then consider the chiral carbon at the bottom. The most
oxidizing grp connected to C (containing O atom) will be at the top.
Class 9
Nucleophile, Electrophile, free radical.

Nucleophile
For the first trend positive inductive effect takes place. R pushes electrons towards to O.
H+ doesn’t give any. Carbon in Carbonyl grp pulls electron from O because that is
electron deficient.

So in protic solvent, I>Br>Cl>F

In organic solvent, F>Cl>Br>I (in this case due to electron affinity, F is tho most
nucleophilic).
According to Pauling scale, O has EN 3.5, f has 4.

★ Why is H3O positive but H2F is not?

 ★ Show electrophilic & nucleophilic centres for the given molecules.
(If multiple centres are possible like carboxylate, show them, wherever
there is double bond with O and multiple O atoms.)

Aspart from charges and ions, double bond & triple bonds can also act as nucleophiles.

Show the bromination process for these compounds as an example.

Free Radicals