Roof structure gu de

2. Fundamentals of bu ld ng stat cs
2.1 External forces
2.2 Internal forces
2.3 Loads on the roof

2. Fundamentals of bu ld ng stat cs

When des gn ng and construct ng a roof t s self-ev dent that t should be robust enough to w thstand all the forces that act on t. The roof must be stable, must not
collapse or d stort. On the other hand, for econom cal reasons, the structure should not be overs zed. It should not be as strong as poss ble, but as strong as
necessary.

A bas c knowledge of bu ld ng stat cs enables the bu lder to develop a structurally correct system and to assess the appropr ate d mens ons of the structural
components.

2.1 External forces

2.1.1 Act ng forces

(Magn tude of forces on roofs see Chapter 2.3)

The loads that act on a roof structure come from d fferent sources. A d st nct on can be made between dead load and l ve load.
Dead load; L ve load

The dead load cons sts of the we ght of the structure and of the cover.

- Example of w nd load

L ve loads cons st of w nd load, n some cases show load and serv ce or repa r load. In l ghtwe ght roofs such as t les and sheets w nd s often the heav est load.
W nd can also have a suct on effect, caus ng the roof to l ft.
Snow load; Serv ce and repa r load; Free fall body; Stable body

Snow loads only occur n certa n reg ons, depend ng on the cl mate.

Serv ce (repa r) load s of l ttle relevance because t does not normally apply at the same t me as the max mum w nd or snow load.

c) Earthquakes

Forces result ng from earthquakes are n fact not add t onally-super mposed loads. Earthquakes cause a hor zontal or vert cal movement that results n dynam c
forces due to the dead load. For stat c calculat ons the earthquake load s taken nto account n the form of an add t onal fract on of the normal hor zontal load. Its
magn tude depends on the s gn f cance of the bu ld ng and on ts locat on (r sk zone).

2.1.2 React ng forces

Every force act ng on a body causes a correspond ng react ng force; otherw se the body would not be stable.

The sum of the forces act ng on a body n a state of equ l br um s always zero. For that reason for every force act ng on a body (act ng) there has to be a
correspond ng force (or sum of forces) act ng n the oppos te d rect on (react ng).

A vert cal act ng force (usually grav ty) causes a vert cal react ng force; a hor zontal one (usually w nd) causes a hor zontal react ng force.
Example: React ng forces at a rafter support po nt

Depend ng on the support system, an act ng force can e ther causes a react ng force d rectly n the oppos te d rect on or a pa r of react ng forces w th a resultant n
the oppos te d rect on.

Th s can best be llustrated by two d fferent des gns for rafter support:

Under normal load cond t ons (exclud ng w nd) the so-called "b rd’s mouth cut" support causes a d rect vert cal react ng force.
If the wall plate or r dge beam s slanted n l ne w th the roof slope, a pa r of react ng forces results, one vert cal to the rafter, the other one long tud nal to t. The
resultant of the two s vert cal. Th s support des gn requ res add t onal f x ng means and s n pract ce very d ff cult to mplement.

2.1.3 Load d str but on of external forces

In roof construct ons, the centre of the act ng force and the locat on of the bear ng (react on) po nts are usually not dent cal.

Centre of grav ty

In the case of a vert cal load only, the centre of the act ng force s dent cal w th the centre of grav ty. For the purpose of calculat ng the load d str but on over two
bear ng po nts t s conven ent to assume that the whole we ght acts through th s po nt.

Equal d str but on

In the case where the centre of the act ng force l es n the m ddle between the bear ng po nts, the load s d str buted equally over the bear ng po nts. Th s appl es to
most roof construct ons wh ch are symmetr cal w th an even load d str but on.

Unequal d str but on

In the case where the centre of the act ng force s located asymmetr cally, the bear ng po nt wh ch s closer rece ves a greater part of the load and the react ng
force s b gger. The d str but on of the load s n nverse proport on to the d stance between act ng and react ng forces. Th s appl es to asymmetr cal roofs and n
the case of uneven l ve loads, e.g. snow on one s de only.
Equal d str but on; Unequal d str but on

Cant lever

When the centre of the act ng force l es outs de the two bear ng po nts, an add t onal moment of force (torque) occurs. In order to keep the system n equ l br um
(stat c) the bear ng po nts rece ve an add t onal load.

The f gure oppos te shows that the bear ng po nt at the left s de rece ves an upl ft force (A), whereas the bear ng po nt n the m ddle rece ves the ent re load P plus
the force A n a downward d rect on, thus P + A.

The same s tuat on can occur n cases of w de overhang ng roofs and other cant lever construct ons.

Moment of force (torque)

To calculate the magn tude of the add t onal forces caused by cant lever, t s useful to apply the concept of the moment of force. It s def ned as the d stance
between the turn ng po nt and the force mult pl ed by the force, the d stance be ng at r ght angles to the d rect onal l ne of force. If a system s n equ l br um, the
sum of all left-turn ng moments s equal to the sum of all r ght-turn ng moments. In the example n the f gure oppos te the cant lever above the force A s hence

a x A = b x P and A = \|f(b x P,a)

Cant lever; Moment of force (torque); W nd load

W nd load

W nd load acts perpend cular to the surface, usually as pressure on the w ndward s de and as suct on on the leeward s de. Its resultant s usually approx mately n
the d rect on of the w nd, that s, hor zontal.

The react ng forces caused by w nd load can be determ ned us ng the concept of moment of forces. The hor zontal (resultant) w nd load (W) creates an equal
react ng force at the bear ng po nt. Th s force mult pl ed by the d stance between the act ng and react ng forces g ves a moment (a x W). Th s moment s balanced
by a pa r of forces n a vert cal d rect on (B), creat ng a moment n the oppos te d rect on (b x B). The vert cal react ng force s therefore downward on one s de
and upward on the other s de (upl ft). Its magn tude s calculated as a x W = b x B, thus B = \|f(a x W,b)

In real ty the calculat on s more complex because w nd creates an uneven d str but on of pressure and suct on, and the resultant and ts d rect on are d ff cult to
determ ne.

Nevertheless, the theoret cal model clearly llustrates the need for anchor ng the structure.

Resultant react ng forces

To determ ne the resultant react ng forces all the d fferent forces that occur are added.
It s mportant to keep n m nd that all these forces have to be taken down to the foundat on. Walls and foundat ons must be des gned and bu lt accord ngly. (See
Chapter 4.2.1)

W nd load

Resultant react ng forces

Example

2.2 Internal forces

In bu ld ngs the po nt of appl cat on of the act ng force and react ng force are not dent cal. It s the funct on of the structure to transfer the act ng force. Th s
causes nternal forces w th n the structural elements.

Internal forces

2.2.1 Compress on, tens on, shear

Depend ng on the structural system, d fferent nternal forces can occur:

- compress ve stress
- tens le stress

- shear stress

Compress on

Compress ve stress occurs when the act ng force s d rected towards the structural member, as s the case n columns.

Tens on

Tens le stress occurs when the act ng force s d rected away from the structural member, as s the case n a str ng when a we ght s suspended. The str ng s
stretched.

Compress on; Tens on

Compress ve and tens le stress typ cally occur n the case of trusses. Shear

Shear

Shear stress occurs when the flow of forces tends to result n sl d ng as found n the case of the foot ng po nt of a truss.

Shear stress also occurs n a beam wh ch s stressed on bend ng. Th s can be understood f one compares a p le of planks w th a sol d beam of equal d mens ons.
The planks res st l ttle to the act ng force, bend strongly and may even break, whereas the beam only bends a l ttle. Th s s because the beam can absorb shear
stress, but the p le of planks cannot.

2.2.2 Bend ng moment

If a beam has to transfer a force from the po nt of appl cat on to the po nt of support t w ll be under a moment of force. It has to res st a bend ng moment of the
same magn tude.

Under the load of a bend ng moment the f bres on one s de of a beam are under tens on (stretched), whereas on the other s de they are compressed.

On the per phery of the beam the stress s greatest, whereas n the m ddle of the beam there s ne ther tens le nor compress ve stress. Th s s the so-called neutral
ax s.
Th s s why n the case of bend ng stress beams of sol d sect ons are less econom cal than beams w th a prof le wh ch s strong at the per phery and weaker near
the neutral ax s.

Econom cal prof le for stress on bend ng

Bend ng moment; Buckl ng

2.2.3 Buckl ng

A column under compress ve stress may be strong enough from the po nt of v ew of compress on, but t may collapse due to the effect of buckl ng.

Effect ve he ght

The danger of buckl ng ncreases w th the effect ve he ght. Th s s not dent cal w th the actual he ght of the column but depends on the structural system.

If the upper end of the column s not f xed but can move freely, the danger of buckl ng s greatest.
If both ends of the column are f xed, the danger of buckl ng s reduced.

If add t onally the centre of the column s f xed, e.g. by brac ng or by a truss system, the danger of buckl ng s further reduced.

Influence of cross sect on

The type of cross-sect on has also an nfluence on buckl ng. For nstance, a p pe w th a large d ameter but a th n wall s by far stronger than a sol d pole made of
the same amount of mater al but w th a small d ameter.

Effect ve he ght; Sol d sect on - Hollow sect on

Appl cat on of force

In the case of buckl ng t s also mportant where a force s appl ed. The h ghest load can be borne when the force s appl ed centrally. The more eccentr cally the
force s appl ed, the less s the bear ng capac ty and the sooner a column buckles.
Centrally and ... eccentr cally appl ed force

Therefore, n des gn ng the deta ls of a structure, care should be taken that forces act as much as poss ble n the ax s of a structural member.

Wrong Correct

2.2.4 D str but on and magn tude of nternal forces

The d str but on and magn tude of nternal forces depends not only on the appl ed external load, but also on the geometry of the structural system.
Catenary system

An deal system w th m n mal nternal forces s the catenary shape. The geometry corresponds to a cha n wh ch s under a un formly-d str buted load and hangs
from ts ends. When hung, purely tens le stress but no bend ng occurs n the system. When turned ups de down, purely compress ve stress occurs.

The system s very useful for the construct on of arches and vaults when a mater al w th h gh compress ve strength but w th low or no tens le strength s used
(br ck, adobe etc.)

In the case of flat cover mater als such as clay t les and FCR/MCR, roof structure mater als and systems are used wh ch are su table for the construct on of even
surfaces and wh ch can also bear bend ng. Hence catenary systems are usually not appl ed.
Purely tens le stress, Purely compress ve stress; Beam

The most common structural element n roof construct on s the beam. As seen n chapter 2.2.2 t s stressed on bend ng. The d str but on of the bend ng moment
depends on the locat on of the support ng po nts.

In the case of the beam w th a support ng po nt at each end, the bend ng moment s greatest n the m ddle and zero at the support ng po nts. The magn tude of the
bend ng moment depends on the load and on the span. In th s case t s calculated us ng the formula \|f(q L2,8) .

The greater th s bend ng moment, the greater are the nternal tens le and compress ve stresses.

In the case of a beam w th three support ng po nts the max mum bend ng moment s smaller and s no longer exactly n the m ddle between two support ng po nts.
At the m ddle support ng po nt a negat ve bend ng moment occurs and on both s des near th s po nt the moment s zero. Th s s the best place for beams to be
jo nted, because ne ther tens le nor compress ve stress occurs here.

In the case of a cant lever beam the d str but on of the bend ng moment s analogous, but the ent re cant levered sect on has a negat ve moment.
Beam

A common s tuat on of a cant levered beam n roof construct on s the rafter w th an overhang.

For s z ng of a beam, the max mum bend ng moment s usually the ma n calculat on cr ter on.

Framed structures

Trussed and framework structures n the ma n cons st of a comb nat on of tens le and compress ve structural parts. The load wh ch these parts rece ve depends
largely on the geometr cal conf gurat on.

In the case of a rather flat roof, the compress ve and tens le stress n the system are by far greater than n the case of a steep roof.

The magn tude of the forces can eas ly be worked out w th the help of a tr angle w th s des parallel to the structural system.

The same concept also appl es n the case of suspend ng a we ght. The greater the d stance between the suspend ng po nts and the flatter the d rect on of the
tens le components, the greater s the nternal force.

The nternal forces that occur n a cant lever construct on can be determ ned n the same way. Here the mportance of the d rect on of the support ng strut becomes
obv ous.
If the strut s ncl ned, the result ng nternal forces are much smaller.

Framed structures

2.3 Loads on the roof

In order to bu ld a good, strong roof, t s necessary to take nto account the forces wh ch act on a roof. These forces are called loads and can be d v ded nto.

Dead loads and

L ve loads

(also see Chapter 2.1.1)

2.3.1 Dead loads

The we ght of the structure, the cover, the ce l ng, ce l ng fans etc. are called dead load.

Its magn tude depends on the s ze of the structural elements and the mater al they are made of, and on the k nd of cover and ce l ng. The dead load has to be
calculated from case to case.

In the case of FCR/MCR, the values for average hous ng-type bu ld ngs are:

Purl ns, rafters, battens 15

kg/m2

FCR t les (at a 30o slope) 27

kg/m2

FCR sem -sheets (at a 30o slope) 39

kg/m2

W th ncreas ng slope, the we ght of the cover per m2 ( n the hor zontal) ncreases.

2.3.2 L ve load

The load wh ch s mposed on the roof s called the l ve load. It cons sts of w nd load, repa r load, and n certa n cases snow load etc.
W nd load

The most dangerous load n most locat ons s the w nd load. Strong w nds or storms can cause great damage to a roof f t s not well made and securely f xed to
the bu ld ng.

In des gn ng a structure, l ve load factors other than w nd can usually be gnored because they hardly occur at the same t me as the max mum w nd load. However,
th s does not apply for snow load.

Informat on on w nd may be obta ned from meteorolog cal stat ons, local nhab tants and bu lders. Local bu ld ng codes, f ava lable, should be followed.

W nd forces act perpend cularly to the surface, e ther as pressure or as suct on. Usually the max mum w nd pressure s lower than the max mum w nd suct on, the
latter result ng n cons derable upl ft forces, part cularly on low-p tched roofs.

It should be noted that the suct on forces are much h gher at roof overhangs, r dges, eaves, verges and other protrud ng edges and corners. These must be
counteracted by f x ng the roof structure and cover ng f rmly n these areas. Moreover, f a bu ld ng has large open ngs, or n the case of an open shed, the w nd
forces are further ncreased.

The magn tude of the w nd load var es greatly, depend ng on the w nd d rect on and ts turbulence, on the shape and or entat on of the bu ld ng.

In general a max mum w nd speed of 150 km/h s taken nto account wh ch s equ valent to a storm capable of uproot ng trees. Th s results n suct on forces on the
roof of up to 70 kg/m2. In the case of bu ld ngs wh ch are open on one s de, the suct on can be double th s f gure.

On eaves, verges and r dges the suct on can reach up to 160 kg/m2.

The w nd can also create pressure of up to about 30 kg/m2 on the roof.

Repa r load

Many l ghtwe ght roof covers (e.g. FCR/MCR) are not cons dered su table to walk on and therefore loads caused by people are generally not taken nto account.
However, dur ng construct on and ma ntenance, workers may cl mb onto the roof. Th s s ma nly of relevance for the s z ng of battens. For the safety of the
workers a s ngle batten has to be able to bear the we ght of a man, say 80 kg.

Snow load

Depend ng on cl mat c cond t ons snow can fall on the roof. Informat on on snowfalls may be obta ned from meteorolog cal stat ons, local nhab tants and
bu lders. Local bu ld ng codes, f ava lable, should be followed.

1 cm of snow generally exerts a pressure of 3 kg/m2.

2.3.3 Resultant load

In the des gn and construct on of a roof, the resultant l ve and dead loads - that s, the worst poss ble comb nat on of these forces - are to be taken nto account.

Load for structures

In the des gn of the structure, usually the dead load plus w nd pressure (plus snow load) are relevant. In certa n cases the dead load plus serv ce load may be
relevant. A comb nat on of dead load, serv ce load and w nd pressure s not necessary, because max mum w nd pressure and serv ce load hardly occur at the same
t me.

For FCR/MCR the recommended load factors are:

Max mum dead 55

load kg/m2

W nd pressure 30
kg/m2
 Total 85
kg/m2

or

Dead 55 kg/m2
load

S ngle 80 kg
load

wh chever creates the greater bend ng moment.

Load for anchor ng the structure

To des gn the requ red anchor ng aga nst upl ft, the max mum w nd suct on s to be cons dered.

For FCR/MCR the recommended load factors for closed bu ld ngs are:

W nd suct on 70
kg/m2

M n mum dead - 40
load kg/m 2

Total 30
kg/m2
In the case of open bu ld ngs the suct on force s much b gger.

Load for anchor ng the cover

When f x ng the cover, the w nd suct on also has to be cons dered.

In the case of closed bu ld ngs, the recommended load factors n the m ddle of an FCR/MCR roof area are:

W nd suct on 70 kg/m2

We ght of the - 20
cover kg/m 2

Total 50 kg/m2

On eaves, verges and r dges a h gher w nd suct on occurs. In th s case, for FCR/MCR the recommended load factors are:

W nd suct on 160
kg/m2

We ght of the - 20
cover kg/m 2

Total 140
kg/m2

1 kg/m2 = 0.01 kN/m2