Available online at www.sciencedirect.

com

Waste Management 28 (2008) 622–627

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Effect of organic residues addition on the technological

properties of clay bricks
Ismail Demir *

Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Technical Education, A.N.S. Campus, 03100 Afyonkarahisar, Turkey

Accepted 23 March 2007

Available online 23 May 2007

Abstract

The objective of this study is to investigate the utilization potential of several organic residues in clay bricks. Sawdust, tobacco res-
idues, and grass are widespread by-products of industrial and agricultural processes in Turkey. These residue materials have long cellu-
lose fibres. Sawdust and tobacco residues generally are used as fuel, and the grass is utilized for agricultural purposes. The insulation
capacity of brick increases with the increasing porosity of the clay body. Combustible, organic types of pore-forming additives are most
frequently used for this purpose. For this reason, increasing amounts of organic residues (0%, 2.5%, 5% and 10% in wt.) were mixed with
raw brick-clay. All samples were fired at 900 C. Effects on shaping, plasticity, density, and mechanical properties were investigated. The
organic residue additions were found to be effective for pore-forming in the clay body with the clay maintaining acceptable mechanical
properties. It was observed that the fibrous nature of the residues did not create extrusion problems. However, higher residue addition
required a higher water content to ensure the right plasticity. As a result, sawdust, tobacco residues, and grass can be utilized in an envi-
ronmentally safe way as organic pore-forming agents in brick-clay.
 2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Environmentally friendly material recycling and energy
saving are very important research fields today. On the
other hand, as a result of environmental regulations, the
demand for clay bricks with higher insulation ability is
increasing. The thermal conductivity is a decisive factor
for the heat-engineering concept of a thermally insulating
material.
One way to increase the insulation capacity of the brick
is to generate porosity in the clay body. Combustible,
organic types of pore-forming additives are most fre-
quently used for this purpose. Rimpel and Scmedders
(1996), determined the feasibility of the use of straw and
reed residues, generated during bleached kraft pulp pro-
duction, in clay brick production. Besides the composition
of the waste, the feasibility also depends on the clay body’s
*
Tel.: +90 272 2281311; fax: +90 272 2281235.
E-mail address: idemir@aku.edu.tr
porosity and structure. To first order, the clay body density
determines the thermal conductivity (Rimpel and Scmed-
ders, 1996).
The most frequently used pore formers in clay brick
manufacturing can be classified into two groups: organic
and inorganic. Sawdust, polystyrene, paper sludge, coal,
and coke are some examples of organic pore-forming mate-
rials. Perlite, diatomite, calcite, pumice, and vermiculite are
examples of inorganic (mineral) types of pore-forming
agents. Organic pore formers are generally cheaper than
inorganic ones and also have the advantage of ensuring a
heat contribution to the firing furnace. However, CO2
emission is the main drawback of the organic pore formers.
Inorganic pore formers have less environmental problems
but they may change the plasticity of the clay system neg-
atively and increase the amount of water needed to main-
tain acceptable plasticity (Schmidt-Reinholz, 1990; Krebs
and Mörtel, 1999; Junge, 2000, 2001). Organic product res-
idues are extensively used as a pore former in the brick
industry (Dondi et al., 1997).

0956-053X/$ - see front matter  2007 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2007.03.019
 I. Demir / Waste Management 28 (2008) 622–627
Increased agricultural production and the development
of agro-based industries in many countries in the world
have brought about the production of large quantities of
agricultural wastes, most of which are not adequately man-
aged and utilized. Agricultural wastes have been used for
animal feed, fertilizer, and fuel for energy production,
but little work has been carried out to develop utilization
of these wastes in the production of building materials.
The need to conserve the traditional building materials that
are facing depletion has necessitated the search for alterna-
tive materials (Abdullah, 1977). Demir et al. (2005) studied
the use of kraft pulp residues in raw brick-clay and
observed that it is effective for pore formation in the clay
body while maintaining acceptable mechanical properties
for brick construction.
Tobacco is an annually harvested plant from the
aubergine family. Today, farming is done in large areas
of the world between parallel latitudes of 60 north and
40 south. Although it is not a food material, it has a very
large economic potential and is a valuable industrial
plant. Ninety percent of the world’s tobacco production
is the Nicotine Tobaccum type and Virginia, Burley,
and Oriental are the most common sorts. The leaves of
the tobacco plant are used for cigarette, cigar, and pipe
tobacco production. Tobacco production exceeded
300,000 ton in the years 1992 and 1993 and reached the
maximum level to date in Turkey. TEKEL (Turkish
Tobacco Enterprise) buried the over-produced tobacco
between the years 1990 and 1994. The destroyed amount
between these years is around 125,000 ton (TGPO, 2005).
During cigarette manufacturing, large quantities of
tobacco waste are produced annually and its disposal is
a serious ecological problem. Both TEKEL and the pri-
vate sector purchased tobacco leaf in the amount of
160,252 ton in 2003 and 112,158 ton in 2004 (TEKEL,
2005). The main compounds in tobacco ash are K2O
(11.4–52.7%) and CaO (18.1–54.3%). The other com-
pounds are MgO, Na2O, Fe2O3, P2O5, SO3, SiO2, and
Cl (Ipekoglu, 2006).
The chemical pulping process produces several residues,
including inorganic sludge (dregs and lime mud), wood,
straw or reed residues, sludge from effluent treatment (inor-
ganic material, fiber and biological sludge), and dust from
the boiler sand furnace. By-products and residues from
mechanical and chemi-mechanical pulping include wood,
straw and reed residues, fiber rejects, and excess sludge
from external biological wastewater treatment. Due to
the high organic contents and calorific values of these res-
idues, incineration is favoured (UNESCO, 2001). The main
chemical components of sawdust are carbon 60.8%, hydro-
gen 5.19%, oxygen 33.83%, and nitrogen 0.90% (Horisawa
et al., 1999). Dry wood is primarily composed of cellulose,
lignin, hemicelluloses, and minor amounts (5–10%) of
extraneous materials. Cellulose, the major component,
constitutes approximately 50% of the wood substance by
weight. Most of the cell wall cellulose is crystalline. Lignin
constitutes 23–33% of the wood substance in softwoods
623
and 16–25% in hardwoods. Although lignin occurs in wood
throughout the cell wall, it is concentrated toward the out-
side of the cells and between cells. Lignin is often called the
cementing agent that binds individual cells together. One
significant commercial use for lignin is in the formulation
of oil-well drilling muds. Lignin is also used in rubber com-
pounding and concrete mixes. The inorganic component of
extraneous material generally constitutes 0.2–1.0% of the
wood substance, although greater values are occasionally
reported. Calcium, potassium, and magnesium are the
most abundant elemental constituents. Trace amounts
(<100 ppm) of phosphorus, sodium, iron, silicon, manga-
nese, copper, zinc, and perhaps a few other elements are
usually present (Miller, 1999).
Ducman and Kopar (2001) carried out laboratory tests
on specimens made of brick clay with up to 30% volume
of sawdust and/or papermaking sludge as pore-forming
agents. Both of these agents reinforce the structure of the
ceramic body during drying and counteract cracking. A
highly porous ceramic structure is obtained after firing at
temperatures of up to 920 C. The water absorption, bulk
density, frost resistance, and compressive strength of the
fired specimens were determined.
The annual capacity of masonry brick production in
Turkey is over 7 billion pieces. The ratio of average capac-
ity usage is 75% (Kaya, 2006). If an economical pore-form-
ing agent can be found, it will provide large economic and
ecological benefits for both Turkey and the rest of the
world.
The main objective of this study is to investigate the
effects of the aforementioned types of organic residues on
the properties of fired and unfired building bricks.
2. Materials and method
2.1. Properties of brick raw material
The clay is taken from one of the local brick plants in
the Afyon region in Turkey. The chemical composition of
the brick clay is given in Table 1. The major elements are
Si, Al, Fe, and Ca, while Mg, Na, K, and S are present
in minor amounts. Qualitative determination of major
crystalline phases present in the clay was achieved by using
an X-ray diffractometer (Schimadzu XRD-6000, Cu Ka:
1.54060 A). The major crystalline phases found in brick
clay are calcite, chlorite, mica-illite, and quartz (Fig. 1).
The particle size distribution of the clay was analyzed by
laser diffraction (Master Sizer X 1.2b) and this distribution
is given in Fig. 2. The clay is composed of very tiny parti-
cles and there are few coarse particles bigger than 1 mm,
most of which were calcium carbonate (Fig. 2).
2.2. Sample preparation
In order to determine the extent of the pore-forming
effect of the three residues (sawdust, tobacco and grass),
several different amounts of residue (0%, 2.5%, 5%, and
624 I. Demir / Waste Management 28 (2008) 622–627

Table 1
Chemical composition of the clay (% wt.)
SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MgO CaO Na2O K2O SO3 L.O.I. Total
52.05 19.90 5.25 1.55 4.45 0.85 2.35 0.95 8.24 99.98

Fig. 3. Raw materials (grass, tobacco, sawdust and clay)and shaped

samples (unfired left, fired right).

Fig. 1. XRD patterns of the clay (Ca: calcite, Cl: chlorite, M: mica-illite,
Q: quartz). and drying shrinkage of the clay body samples, dependent
on the residue addition, were determined.
The samples were divided into two groups: one group
100 was fired at 900 C and the other group was left unfired.
Dried samples were fired in a laboratory-type electrically
80
heated furnace at a rate of 2 C/min up to 600 C and then
% Passing

60 at 4 C/min to 900 C. Samples were held at 900 C for

60 min. The samples were then naturally cooled to room
40
temperature in the furnace.
20 This firing rate was decided upon after preliminary test-
ing was performed by varying the heating rate at the early
0 stage of firing. This is the period in which the organic
0 20 40 60 80 100
Particle size μm
burn-out process occurs and it is very sensitive to the heat-
ing rate. Archimedes method was used to determine the
Fig. 2. Particle size of the clay. bulk density, water absorption, and apparent porosity.
For this purpose, shaped samples were dried at 105 C
to constant weight. The samples were weighed at dry state
10% in oven dry state) were chosen. Brick clay was passed (W1), then boiled in water for 5 h, cooled, and weighed a
through a drum-type crusher having a 1-mm opening. The second time in water (W2). The samples were weighed
mix proportions were prepared based on the dry weights of again at the saturated wet state in air (W3). The apparent
the ingredients. After weighing the ingredients, the organic porosity, bulk density, apparent density, and water
residues were placed in water for 48 h and then mixed with absorption of samples was calculated according to the fol-
the clay. In order to obtain comparable results, four differ- lowing equations:
ent series of samples were prepared for the tests, a separate
series for each percent residue addition. Series A is stan- ðW 3  W 1 Þ
%App: Porosity ¼  100 ð1Þ
dard brick clay (containing no residue) and series B, C, ðW 3  W 2 Þ
and D contain 2.5%, 5%, and 10% residue additions, W1
Bulk Den: ¼ ð2Þ
respectively. ðW 3  W 2 Þ
Solid brick clay samples were produced using pilot lab- W1
oratory procedures and equipment. Test specimens having App: Den: ¼ ð3Þ
ðW 1  W 2 Þ
75 · 40 mm cross sections and 100 mm lengths were pro-
ðW 3  W 1 Þ
duced with a laboratory-type extruder (Fig. 3). The shaped Water abs: ¼  100 ð4Þ
samples were dried in laboratory conditions (21 C, 60% W1
relative humidity) for 72 h and then dried to constant Also, the dry and total shrinkage, plasticity, and loss on
weight at 110 C in an oven. Changes in the plasticity ignition (LOS) was determined according to the equations:
 I. Demir / Waste Management 28 (2008) 622–627 625

Lp  Ld develop in the moulded clay body which, consequently,

%Sd ¼  100 ð5Þ
Lp lead to weak mechanical properties. It was observed that
Lp  Lf increasing the residue addition to the clay body increases
%St ¼  100 ð6Þ the water content required to maintain the plasticity of
Lp
WdWf the clay-residue mixture. The capability of cellulose fiber
LOS ¼  100 ð7Þ to absorb water into its naturally existing water channel
Wd
is thought to be the main reason for the increase in water
WwWd
%Ps ¼  100 ð8Þ demand for plasticity (Demir et al., 2005; Demir, 2006).
Wd There were no problems observed in the extrusion and dry-
where Sd is the (%) drying shrinkage, Lp is the plastic ing processes. It was also observed that the fibrous nature
length (mm), Ld is the oven dry length (mm), St is the of the residues caused no difficulties during the mixing and
(%) total shrinkage, Lf is the fired length (mm), LOS is extrusion process. The unfired brick was investigated under
the (%) loss on ignition, Wd is the oven dry weight (g), a scanning electron microscope (SEM). The organic fibres
Wf is the fired weight (g), Ps is the (%) plasticity, and Ww were between 25 and 50 lm in diameter and were scattered
is the wet state weight of the sample. uniformly in the unfired body (Fig. 4).
Compressive strength was measured for both dry and Drying is the most important stage of the brick manufac-
fired samples according to TS EN 772-1 (2002). An appa- turing process. Small cracks may develop during drying,
ratus with a testing capacity of 25 kN load (with causing a failure during firing. The drying stress increases
0.1 MPa/s speed) was used in the testing procedure. as the shrinkage increases and the clay body is more suscep-
tible to cracking. However, the increase of drying shrinkage
3. Test results and discussion is comparably not as large as the change in plasticity. The
drying shrinkage of residue-containing samples is higher
At least 12 samples were used for each test and for all than that of samples manufactured from brick clay only.
categories. The averages are presented and discussed in this It was determined that increasing the residue in the clay
section. body increases the water content required to maintain the
plasticity of the clay–waste mixture (Table 2). However,
3.1. Effect on technological properties the hollow and absorbent nature of the organic fibres stabi-
lizes the drying behaviour of the clay body to some extent
After drying the samples, no defects were observed. despite the increase in water demand with the addition of
Cracks, bloating, and other noticeable defects were not organic fibres. The measured plasticity values of the (D)
observed after firing. The effect of the three different resi- and (C) series exceed the cited literature values (BIA,
dues on the technological properties of the clay body is 1986). The total shrinkage in all residue bearing mixtures
summarized in Table 2. An important parameter for the (measured at 900 C) increased with increasing ratios of
production of structural clay brick is plasticity. If the plas- waste (Table 2). As a result, there is a linear increase in
ticity is inadequate, extrusion failures and heterogeneities the drying and total shrinkage as the amount of waste mate-
rial in the mixture increases. The total shrinkages of the
Table 2 samples match the literature values of 2.5–10% (BIA, 1986).
Technological properties of the samples
There was no black core observed on the fracture section
Sample series of the residue-containing fired samples. This is an important
A (0%) B (2.5%) C (5%) D (10%) observation. The complete evolution of gases, indicating
Plasticity that the organic residues were burnt out due to combustion,
Sawdust 26 29 33 38.5
Tobacco residue 29.5 36.9 42
Grass 29.2 35.5 41.3
Drying shrinkage (Sd) %*
Sawdust 3.8 4.3 5.0 6.3
Tobacco residue 4.4 5.1 6.5
Grass 4.2 5.0 6.4
Total shrinkage (St) %*
Sawdust 4.1 4.9 5.8 7.4
Tobacco residue 5.0 5.9 7.5
Grass 4.9 5.8 7.4
LOS %
Sawdust 8.7 10.4 11.5 12.6
Tobacco residue 14.2 16.1 19.2
Grass 12.7 14.6 17.4
*
Literature values are 2–8% and 2.5–10% for Sd and St respectively
(BIA, 2004). Fig. 4. SEM image of organic residue fibres (tobacco) admixed with clay.
626 I. Demir / Waste Management 28 (2008) 622–627

is the main difficulty when organic wastes are added to the Table 3
clay body. As a result of firing the organic residue in the mix- Physical properties of fired bricks
ture, loss on ignition increased with increasing residue addi- Mechanical properties Sample series
tion (Table 2). It is shown from the DTA-TG analysis that A (0%) B (2.5%) C (5%) D (10%)
residues can be entirely burned off from the clay body at early Bulk density (g/cm3)
stages and in quite a wide range (200–600 C) (Fig. 5). The Sawdust 1.80 1.56 1.45 1.35
energy content of the wastes should be balanced against Tobacco residue 1.53 1.47 1.42
the increased energy demands of the drying process. The Grass 1.55 1.46 1.43
increased energy demands result from the increased amounts Apparent porosity (% vol.)
of water that are required for the formation of green bricks. Sawdust 30 33.4 37.5 42.2
Tobacco residue 33.2 36.4 41.3
Bulk density, water absorption, apparent density, and
Grass 33.6 36.7 41.8
apparent porosity data are shown in Table 3. An increase
in the amount of organic residues causes a reduction in Apparent density (g/cm3)
Sawdust 2.42 2.21 2.14 1.98
the bulk density. The main reason for such a trend is the
Tobacco residue 2.18 1.90 1.86
combustion of the organic residues during the sintering Grass 2.20 2.10 1.92
period. The bulk density drops in series A; further waste
Water absorption (% wt.)
additions (series C and D) cause only a slight further reduc- Sawdust 16.65 21.40 25.80 31.25
tion. Alternately, porosity and water absorption increase Tobacco residue 21.85 24.70 29.10
Grass 21.65 25.10 29.21

with increasing residue addition. Only the residue-free sam-

ples (control series) were found to fulfil the specification of
<18% water absorption by weight (ASTM C, 1986). Those
samples with organic additives exceed this limit.
In relation to mechanical properties, the Turkish Stan-
dard mandates a minimum compressive strength of 8 MPa
and a bulk density between 1200–1400 kg/m3 for burnt clay
solid bricks (TS EN 771-1, 2005) and 1 MPa for unfired clay
bricks (TS 2514, 1977). The compressive strength of the fired
and unfired samples depends on the porosity content, being
decreased in the bricks containing organic wastes (Table 4).
However, the compressive strength of all series is higher
than the standard strength of the building brick values (TS
EN 771-1, 2005). Residue additions clearly increased the
dry strength of the clay body compared to the control series
(Table 4). The dry strength progressively increases as the
waste amount grows. Organic residue additions contain
not only cellulose but also other components. An increase
in the dry strength is found to be very useful in preventing
handling problems of the clay-brick.

Table 4
Compressive strength of fired and unfired samples
Compressive strength (MPa) Sample series
A (0%) B (2.5%) C (5%) D (10%)
Fired samplesa
Sawdust 15.5 13.60 11.35 9.85
Tobacco residue 11.55 9.65 8.15
Grass 12.35 10.25 8.60
Unfired samplesb
Sawdust 2.6 3.35 4.40 5.10
Tobacco residue 3.10 4.15 4.75
Grass 3.40 4.25 5.15
a
Turkish Standard code for burnt clay solid bricks are 8 MPa minimum
for a bulk density of 1200–1400 kg/m3 and 10 MPa for a bulk density
Fig. 5. DTA-TG curves of the residue additive materials (a: sawdust, b: 1400–1600 kg/m3 (TS EN 771-1, 2005).
b
tobacco and c: grass). The minimum strength of unfired clay bricks is 1 MPa (TS 2514, 1977).
 I. Demir / Waste Management 28 (2008) 622–627
In addition to the pore-forming property, the fibre
strengthening effect of the organic residues to the dry state
of clay body is found to be very useful. Other organic
(polystyrene, saw dust, kraft pulp, coal tailings, etc.) or
mineral (calcite, fly ash, diatomite, perlite, pumice, vermic-
ulite, etc.) pore-formers generally have the tendency to
reduce the dry strength. The reuse of the organic residues
in the brick production process may provide an economical
building brick for rural regions and help to protect the
environment.
4. Conclusions
Based on the experimental investigations reported in this
paper, the following conclusions can be drawn:
1. Adding organic residues to the clay body increases the
required water content for extrusion (apparent
plasticity).
2. The fibrous nature of residues did not create problems
during shaping when used up to 10% wt. No extrusion
failures were observed.
3. Drying shrinkage of the clay body is strongly increased
in addition to the expected stabilization effect of cellu-
lose fibres, mostly due to the very high water content.
A residue addition of 10% wt. is found to be unsuitable
because of the excessive drying shrinkage.
4. Despite drying shrinkage being strongly increased, the
organic residue additions considerably increased the
dry strength of the clay samples. This strength increase
is useful for reducing scraps due to handling problems
of unfired bricks.
5. The compressive strength of the fired samples is
decreased by the addition of residues. Nevertheless, the
values are still higher than required by Turkish
standards.
6. The organic residues are easily burnt out from the clay
body during firing. There were neither black cores nor
bloating after firing.
7. Organic residues can be effectively used for pore-form-
ing for up to 5% residue addition by weight; further
addition is not very effective for decreasing the bulk den-
sity of the clay body. The residues increased the open
porosity and decreased the bulk density; this effect
may improve the thermal insulation properties and
lower dead load in buildings.
8. The organic residues can be used as a type of pore-form-
ing additive in the clay body without any damaging
effect on the other brick manufacturing parameters.
627
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