National Federation of Professional Trainers

Endurance Training
Specialist Manual
A complete guide to aerobic and endurance sports training

3rd Edition © 2008

All rights reserved,

National Federation of Professional Trainers
&
Ron J. Clark

Written by:
Mark P. Kelly, PhD
Scott Skinner, RD
Ron J. Clark, President & CEO
NFPT - ENDURANCE TRAINING SPECIALIST
Recommended Reading – NFPT Personal Trainer Manual, as well as the Nutrition
& Resistance Training Specialty Manuals for the best possible holistic education
experience!
Section 1: General Health & Other
Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
General Exercise and the Aerobic
Prescription. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
What Exercise is Best. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Importance of Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
The Electrolytes Sodium & Potassium. . . . 8
Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load. . . . . . 9
Why Muscles Atrophy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Minor Injury Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Section 2: Basic Aerobics
Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Basic Aerobic Recommendations . . . . . . . 14
Body Fat Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Check Your Pulse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Rate of Perceived Exertion. . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Cardiac Responses to Eating and
Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Skeletal Muscle Structure &
Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Cardiac and Smooth Muscles. . . . . . . . . . 24
Different Energy Pathways. . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Section 3: Aerobic Exercise Prescription. . 28
The Aerobic Exercise Prescription . . . . . . 28
Safety First! . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
General Metabolic Considerations. . . . . . 29
The Metabolic Continuum. . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Aerobics & the General Fitness Client. . . 32
Aerobic Activity & Cellular Catalyst
Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Aerobics & the Endurance Athlete . . . . . 34
“Hitting the Wall”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Weight Training & Aerobic
Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Mitochondria Re-Education. . . . . . . . . . . 37
Section 4: Aerobics for Fat Loss. . . . . . . . 38
Aerobics for Fat Loss. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Low Level Activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Weight Training as a Fat Loss Tool . . . . . 39
Spot Reduction is Physiological
Impossibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Aerobics and Extramuscular Fat Loss? . . 41
Aerobics and Metabolism? . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Body Tissue Protein Requirements. . . . . . 43
Body Tissue Energy Production . . . . . . . . 44
Fat Begets Fat. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Fat, Friend or Foe?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Section 5: Cross Training and Athletic
Events. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Muscle Endurance & Athletic Events . . . 48
Athlete Pain Management. . . . . . . . . . . . .49
Training to Improve Muscle Endurance. . 49
Intro to Specificity Training. . . . . . . . . . . 50
Specificity Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Cross Training & Enhancing Sports
Skills for the Athlete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Functional Fitness Training. . . . . . . . . . . .52
Strength & Power. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Exercise Selection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Use of Variety in Programming. . . . . . . . . 54
Cardiovascular Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Flexibility Training. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Aerobics & Lower-Body Training . . . . . . 58
More on Flexibility, Stability, and
Core Strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Nutrition & Aerobic Athletes. . . . . . . . . . 59
Eating Around Aerobic & Incremental
Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Are Aerobics Bad for Big Guys?. . . . . . . . 62
Post Workout Force Feeding. . . . . . . . . . .63
Section 6: Aerobics and the Elderly. . . . . . 67
NFPT Charts & Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
GLOSSARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .71
“Par-Q & You” Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Preface &
Introduction
Candidates MUST Read Below
Welcome to one of the most unique
and valuable approaches to learning
advanced education in the area of endur-
ance training as it relates to health, fit-
ness, and sports. Be prepared for an
“inside out” approach to the study of
endurance training. Unlike most study &
reference manuals teaching to this sub-
ject, this manual is based around the
exact same independent research that has
earned the National Federation of
Professional Trainers (NFPT) its esteemed
position as an industry leader having cre-
dentialed thousands of certified fitness
professionals. For the purpose of com-
prehension NFPT research has been
translated and presented such that com-
plicated relative body function and scien-
tific terminology as they relate to endur-
ance training topics are better under-
stood. This policy is the hallmark and
tradition of the National Federation of
Professional Trainers.
Any number of books today can effec-
tively educate on the rudimentary
approach to aerobic training but none
offer the insight provided by the National
Federation of Professional Trainers. This
manual is beyond the scope of those
endurance training resources and is meant
to complement them in an effort to pro-
duce the best and most advanced endur-
ance training professional possible. The
candidate assessment for the credential
of NFPT “Endurance Training Specialist,”
will require you to have mastered the
understanding and possess experience in
the fundamental application of aerobic
training and a measurable degree of rela-
tive Knowledge, Skills and Abilities
(KSAs) on this topic. The assessment of
your comprehension of related education
for this credential may call upon addi-
tional existing KSAs in some areas of
aerobic exercise on the part of the candi-
date possibly not presented in this
manual.
All of these individual chapters focus
around diverse scenarios teaching to the
direct holistic interaction that exists
between the relative human anatomy &
biology, and the application of activity all
along the entire energy continuum.
Education on how the body functions,
adapts to, and provides energy for activ-
ity is paramount for the “Endurance
Training Specialist” and is the trademark
of the National Federation of Professional
Trainers. You will find the educational
approach unique and enlightening as
NFPT methodologies are discussed and
the sound scientific reasoning behind the
research is presented. Learn how NFPT
research findings impact issues ranging
from weight maintenance to extremely
advanced endurance sports performance.
 SECTION 1:

General Health and

Other Considerations

General Exercise and the Aerobic

Prescription
After spending countless hours in the gym lifting weights and doing
aerobics, how will you know when you’re physically fit? Many of your
clients will tell you they just want to get fit. Therefore, it is important to
know just what constitutes a general state of physical fitness.
Being physically fit means, “having the energy and strength to perform
daily activities vigorously and alertly, with energy left over to enjoy
leisure activities or to meet emergency demands.” Your heart, lungs,
and muscles should be strong. Your weight and body fat should be
within a desirable range. For women, fat should not exceed 25% of
their body weight. For men, fat should not exceed 18% of their body
weight.

General Health and Other Considerations

4
 To determine a level of physical fit-
ness, break up your fitness prescription
into 3 measurable parts: Endurance,
Strength and Flexibility. For our purposes
we will be discussing the endurance phase
of this general fitness prescription.
Endurance is defined as “the ability to
keep moving for long periods of time.”
There are 2 categories of endurance,
Cardiorespiratory and Muscular.
Cardiorespiratory
Endurance
Cardiorespiratory Endurance is the
prolonged ability of your heart and lungs
to supply muscles with nutrients and
oxygen. Aerobic exercise like biking, jog-
ging, and swimming enhance cardiore-
spiratory endurance, and performance
can be measured for speed, duration and
distance.
Building endurance promotes higher
energy levels. Aerobic exercise also burns
calories and fat to keep your weight
under control. A fit cardiorespiratory
system lowers the risk of death from
heart attacks, strokes, and pulmonary
disease.
Developing the Aerobic Phase
The following principles should be
applied when developing the aerobic
phase of a general fitness exercise pre-
scription to enhance cardiorespiratory
fitness:
1. Type of Activity. The activity must
use large muscle groups and must be
maintained for a period of time.
2. Intensity. The average conditioning
intensity for healthy adults is 60-
70% of their functional capacity,
referred to as maximum heart rate.
Monitoring a target heart rate
training zone during exercise is a
good way to measure intensity.
3. Duration. The duration of the
exercise will depend on the intensity
of the exercise. Usually activities of
General Health and Other Considerations
5
lower intensity, such as walking, can
last longer than a high intensity
exercise like running. Aerobic fitness
can also be accomplished by
alternating high and low-level
activities as in walking between brief
periods of jogging for 15 to 60
minutes of continuous or
discontinuous aerobic activity.
4. Frequency of Conditioning. The
aerobic activity must be performed
from 3 to 5 days a week.
5. Rate of Progression. In the first 6-8
weeks of exercise, significant
conditioning effects will occur. The
fitness professional will have to
adjust the intensity and duration of
the activity if progress is to continue.
Progression and the Aerobic Phase
There are 3 stages of progression in
the aerobic or endurance phase of the
exercise prescription:
1. The Initial Conditioning Stage.
During the first 4 to 6 weeks, low-
level activities of 10-15 minutes, at
60-70% of maximum heart rate, are
recommended for the average healthy
individual. You should also include
some stretching and light calisthenics,
such as abdominal work.
2. The Improvement Conditioning
Stage. Initially, there is a slight
increase in exercise intensity.
Thereafter, duration of the activity is
increased every 2 to 3 weeks. Older
and significantly de-conditioned
individuals may take longer to adapt
to increases in conditioning intensity
and duration.
3. The Maintenance Conditioning
Stage. Usually after 6 months of
aerobic training, the average
individual has achieved their goal of
general fitness and just wants to
maintain. Aerobic Maintenance
Conditioning can be accomplished in
as few as three 30 minute workouts
a week, training at 60-70% of
maximum heart rate.
Muscular
Endurance
The second type of endurance one
must develop to be physically fit is
Muscular Endurance. Muscular Endurance
is defined as the ability of your muscles
to perform contractions for long periods
of time. The number of curl ups one can
perform, for example, is a measure of
abdominal endurance.
Improving Muscular Endurance
Generally, the performance of high
repetition resistance exercises enhances
the endurance of the muscles involved.
The muscular endurance phase of a gen-
eral fitness exercise prescription may
include the performance of a circuit rou-
tine consisting of multiple exercises tar-
geting all of the major muscle groups and
involving the largest amount of muscle
tissue possible.
Post-Workout Stretching
After a high repetition muscle endur-
ance workout, it is most important to
stretch the just previously trained mus-
cles. Post-workout stretching is per-
formed for the purpose of possibly
improving between workout recovery
through increased relaxation and result-
ing enhanced blood flow. This improved
collateral circulation will provide for
greater waste removal, as well as healing
nutrient provision.
What Exercise
is Best
High rep resistance training is quite
possibly the healthiest form of exercise
you can prescribe to your clients with
general fitness goals. While aerobic work-
outs alone can lead to loss of valuable
body tissue and heavy resistance exercise
General Health and Other Considerations
6
alone can result in poor cardiorespiratory
efficiency, high rep resistance training is
the compromise that should be prescribed
where general fitness is concerned. This
type of exercise possesses all of the favor-
able attributes of aerobics and heavy
training. With the performance of resis-
tance exercise for general fitness there is
less risk of tissue loss as there is with aer-
obics when aerobics are performed alone
in the overall fitness program. The inclu-
sion of high repetition resistance exercise
along with aerobics will increase resting
metabolism. Overtraining aerobically in
the absence of resistance exercise may
result in lean weight loss. While varying
the rest periods between sets of high rep-
etitions, a favorable yet not optimal aero-
bic effect can be achieved. If cardiorespi-
ratory enhancement is to be achieved
however, resistance-based cardio effects
can not replace steady-state aerobic exer-
cise.
High rep resistance exercise will allow
a client more flexibility in dietary control
of fat deposits. This is due to the fact that
recovering muscle tissue will require a
greater amount of ingested calories. This
will leave fewer surplus calories for fat
deposit. Also, as explained elsewhere,
during recovery from energy exhaustive
resistance training, fats are used for ATP
production during glucose uptake, con-
version, and storage in the individual
muscle cells. This accounts for a great
deal of fat loss.
A twist not yet discussed relative to
high rep resistance exercise has recently
become evident. The cardiovascular
system subjected continuously to this
type of training tends to adapt by increas-
ing and extending capillaries and
improved circulation.
While blood flow is being interrupted
during a long-term continuous contrac-
tion there is a back pressure of fluid in
the vessels. When relaxation finally
occurs at the end of a set, there is an
immediate perfusion (rush) of blood into
the interstitial spaces. This rush of blood
causes microscopic damage to the epithe-
lial tissues in the muscles’ capillary beds.
The repair of this damage results in an
increased volume and extension of these
capillaries thereby allowing for greater
oxygen and nutrient transport.
Generally speaking, for our purposes
here, general fitness can best be achieved
through a combination of fast-paced
resistance exercise, and the performance
of low intensity, long duration, steady
state aerobic activity (70% of maximum
heart rate maintained for about 20-30
minutes per session, with sessions per-
formed no more often than 3-4 times per
week). If one were forced to choose
between fast paced resistance exercise
and low-level aerobics for general fitness,
fast paced resistance exercise should be
the exercise of choice. However, perform-
ing both is desirable.
Importance
of Water
An estimated 60% of total body
weight is water. Water helps to maintain
body temperature and allows for over
50% of all chemical reactions occurring
in the body. It is also responsible for the
movement of nutrients, digestion, absorp-
tion processes, circulation, and the excre-
tion of wastes.
Water also is a vital component in
synovial fluid (which is a joint lubricant),
and cerebrospinal fluid in the nervous
system. Water is in part responsible for
the transmission of light and sound in the
eyes and ears.
The body’s average daily loss of fluids
through excretion, respiration, chemical
reactions, and perspiration varies from
about 1 to 3 quarts. A high protein intake
calls for an even greater amount of
fluids.
General Health and Other Considerations
7
At 2% dehydration, the body’s work
capacity decreases by 12 to 15%. Also,
body temperature and heart rate increase
during periods of dehydration. The
body’s prevention mechanism is osmore-
cepter transmission to the brain stimulat-
ing a sensation of thirst prior to the
occurrence of dehydration.
The primary contributor to life threat-
ening dehydration occurs with vomiting
and diarrhea during illness, calling for
not only the replenishment of fluids but
also electrolytes and minerals. Conversely,
exercise induced fluid loss seldom requires
significant need for electrolyte replacement.
In any case, when the body is deprived
of fluids, it will pull water from any or all
reserves earlier mentioned in an effort to
maintain critical blood volume and a safe
body temperature. A prolonged low fluid
intake, high sodium ingestion, or exces-
sive prolonged use of diuretics such as
caffeine, alcohol, and others, can trigger
a variety of hormonal responses resulting
in the survival storage of surplus fluids.
By increasing fluid intake, this survival
fluid storage response will be effectively
reversed and a desirable loss of excess
water weight will occur.
Fluid imbalances contribute to a host
of metabolic disorders, and you can easily
reduce all of these potential health threats
simply by getting into the habit of drink-
ing more water, at least 8 to 10 glasses
daily.
Water can be absorbed from the small
intestine at a maximum rate of 8 to 10
ounces every 20 minutes, and should be
ingested during and after exercise (espe-
cially in hot, humid climates). Cold water
enters the small intestine faster, and is
therefore suggested.
In preparing for exercise when profuse
sweating is anticipated, simply weigh in
prior to and after, and then ingest 16
ounces of a sports drink per pound of
weight lost, at the above prescribed rate
(8 to 10 ounces every 20 minutes).
Never take in large amounts of sodium
during exercise. The temporary hyper-
tonic concentration of sodium in the
blood will result in an osmotic shift of
fluids out of the working muscles. This
causes severe cramping and increased
susceptibility to heat injuries (such
as heat stroke and heat exhaustion.)
However, if activity is very intense
and/or lasts longer than about 60 min-
utes a sports drink can be used that
is 6 to 8% sugar solution (over 10%
may interfere with fluid absorption),
and a sodium concentration of about
100 mgs/8 ozs of fluid. Sweat rates
vary and may increase the need for
fluid replacement. Also, it is advised to
drink between 16 and 24 ozs of fluids
within 30 minutes after event completion.
Also, stay away from any amino acid
supplement that is produced by a process
called hydrolysis. Some amino acids are
compromised and rendered useless, or
these supplements could include toxic by-
products formed during processing.
What makes
us thirsty?
Sodium, being the electrolyte respon-
sible for fluid retention, holds the key to
why we thirst. Throughout the day, active
or not, there is a gradual reduction in
blood fluids from chemical reactions. Of
course this occurs much more rapidly
during exercise than at rest, but never the
less it occurs constantly.
When fluids are lost and sodium
remains, there is a steady increase in the
concentrations of sodium in the blood.
When the concentration reaches a certain
level the thirst centers in the brain are
triggered to create the sensation of thirst.
Upon the ingestion of additional fluids,
the sodium concentration is diluted down
to acceptable levels shutting down the
thirst center in the brain.
General Health and Other Considerations
8
The Electrolytes
Sodium &
Potassium
In better understanding these electro-
lytes and their significance relating to the
subject matter, it is accurate to say that
Potassium is the electrolyte that pulls
fluids into the muscles while Sodium pulls
water out of the muscles. When sodium
is more concentrated outside the muscle
than the potassium is inside the muscle
water shifts out of the muscle (undesir-
able). This will cause cramping and heat
injuries. When sodium is less concen-
trated outside the muscle than the potas-
sium is inside the muscle water shifts into
the muscle (desirable). An ongoing chem-
ical reaction called the “sodium/potas-
sium pump” works continuously in an
effort to maintain a balance of these elec-
trolytes. In fact, 2/3 of all the energy
being used at rest is needed by this
“pump” to maintain this crucial water
balancing act. Moreover, be aware that
water is also brought into the muscles
along with carbohydrates (Insulin-carried
glucose), at a ratio of 3 to 1. This is a
contributing factor to muscle size increase
during carbohydrate loading.
There is no established dietary require-
ment for sodium but it is generally
observed that the usual intake far exceeds
the need. The average American ingests
6-18 grams of sodium chloride each day.
The National Research Council recom-
mends a daily sodium chloride intake of
1 gram per kilogram of water consumed.
An excess of sodium ingestion may cause
an increased amount of potassium to be
lost in the urine. A prolonged abnormally
high amount of sodium in the body will
result in fluid retention accompanied by
dizziness and swelling of areas such as
the legs and face. An intake of 14 to 28
grams of salt daily is considered exces-
sive. It should be known that diets con-
sisting of excessive amounts of salt con-
tribute to the increasing incidents of high
blood pressure. The simplest way to
reduce sodium intake is to eliminate the
use of table salt.
It is generally correct that blood con-
centrations of sodium, found in salt, is
directly related to the regulation of safe
body fluid levels as a part of the process
previously discussed. Another benefit to
the presence of sodium is the re-absorp-
tion of water (otherwise excreted) in the
kidneys.
While there are various neurotrans-
mitter and hormonal actions that play
vital roles in this delicate balancing act,
water intake and sodium level manipula-
tion are the only means by which to con-
sciously attempt to control fluid levels
(without physician assistance and/or the
use of prescription dose medication).
At first glance, the ingestion of large
amounts of sodium would appear to be a
must for any dehydrated condition,
regardless of its cause. This is simply not
the case, especially in regard to exercise
induced fluid loss. During exercise, espe-
cially in a warm environment, water loss
is attributed to perspiration, increased
water dissipation due to heat generated
during accelerated chemical reactions,
increased respiration, and lastly, water
losses from inside working muscles.
Significant amounts of sodium (3.0 to 5.0
grams) ingested less than 1 hour prior to
the performance of intense and/or pro-
longed activity in hot and humid climates,
should be avoided. The basis for this rec-
ommendation lies in the complete under-
standing of the above sodium concentra-
tion concept as touched upon below.
If the vascular system is maintaining a
certain concentration of sodium through-
out, and a great amount of sodium is
ingested in a single dose just prior to, or
during exercise, the vascular system will
immediately direct fluid to the localized
area where the sodium is now too con-
centrated (mostly in the gut) in order to
“dilute” this sodium down to the normal
General Health and Other Considerations
9
concentration levels. This is accomplished
by drawing upon “reserve fluids”, in
most instances from the intramuscular
areas. This temporarily pulls desperately
needed water out of the working muscles,
and in extreme cases, the heart, leading
to severe dehydration, muscle cramping,
and in the case of the heart, this short-
term fluid loss could result in cardiac fail-
ure. For these reasons it is obvious that
“salt tablet” use, still practiced by some
coaching staffs on various levels of ath-
letics, should be discontinued. Sports
drinks can be used both during and after
the above sport activity especially with
prolonged profuse sweating.
Glycemic Index
and Glycemic Load
What Do They Mean for Your
Health?
It has been assumed that simple car-
bohydrates increased blood sugar rapidly
and that the complex, high fiber carbo-
hydrates had a slower impact on blood
sugar. Research into biochemistry and
food science has yielded the glycemic
index (GI) and the glycemic load (GL)
concepts, which are altering our under-
standing of how blood-sugar is affected
by carbohydrate consumption.
The GI is a number assigned to each
food telling how fast the carbohydrate
triggers a rise in blood glucose when con-
sumed on an empty stomach. Some car-
bohydrates are fast release and will there-
fore have a higher number on the GI. For
example, on a scale of 0 to 100, 100 rep-
resenting the most quickly absorbed,
table sugar or sucrose has a glycemic
value of 100. If a food has a low GI value
that means it is slow to release its sugars,
causing a slow rise in blood glucose and
a slower secretion of the hormone insulin
which is desirable.
GI basically tells you how fast a cer-
tain food turns into simple sugar in the
Below are grams of carbohydrates contained in a REASONABLE serving size
Food serving size GI
Apple 1 38
Banana 1 62
Orange 1 42
Pear 1 34
Carrots ½ cup 92
blood when consumed alone and on an
empty stomach. It does not tell you how
much carbohydrate is in a serving. To
understand how a food impacts the blood
sugar, both theses factors must be consid-
ered. That is where the glycemic load
comes in. The GL is the GI divided by
100 and multiplied by the available grams
of carbohydrates which are the (carbohy-
drates minus the fiber in grams per serv-
ing of the food.) Reading food labels will
give you the information needed to make
these calculations. The chart in this chap-
ter is for some common non-processed
foods that do not come with nutritional
content labels.
In order to do adequate calculations,
be aware of the high, medium, and low
values for GI and GL. A value of 70 or
more is high GI. Medium is 56 to 69 and
low is 55 or less. For GL high is 20,
medium is 11 to 19 and low is 10 or
under.
The fascinating thing about these fig-
ures is that some foods would not be con-
sidered good for you based on the GI
alone, but since the grams of carbohydrate
per serving are low, the GL value makes
these foods certainly worth eating. Many
foods can be high on the GI but low on
the GL (GL being a better determinant of
sugar release associated with foods).
Carrots, for example, if judged solely on
their GI would appear bad for blood sugar
balance, when in reality the low grams/
serving result in a very low GL.
This GI –vs- GL also speaks to the
need for attention paid to portion sizes in
General Health and Other Considerations
10
Grams GL
21 8
26.7 16.5
15.4 6.5
25 8.5
5.5 5.06
weight maintenance. Eating the right por-
tion sizes can make the ingestion of some
seemingly unhealthy foods acceptable
possibly resulting in a more palatable
diet. Moreover, combining low and high
GI foods compromises the meal’s overall
rate of absorption.
For more complete information
on GI –vs- GL, visit the website:
www.glycemicfoodlist.com.
Why Muscles
Atrophy
Atrophy as it applies to the reduction
of muscle tissue mass in the apparently
healthy individual is an adaptive process
that occurs as a result of diminished need
for strength and or strenuous activity
performance. Dependent upon the cause,
muscle atrophy can be localized and
effect a select muscle group(s), i.e. limb
immobilization during injury recovery,
cessation of regular strenuous resistance
activity for a particular muscle region,
etc. Or, it can occur generally throughout
the body affecting all musculature, i.e. in
the case of aging, following the complete
cessation of a regularly performed over-
all resistance exercise program, etc.
The 4 most common causes for muscle
atrophy among apparently healthy indi-
viduals are aging, injury recovery immo-
bility, cessation of resistance exercise,
and diminished resistance exercise inten-
sity. All of these conditions result in dif-
fering degrees and rates of atrophy.
Aging
Of the above 4 major causes, aging
results in the most gradual rate of atro-
phy, especially in the apparently healthy
individual performing life-long strenuous
activity. Various factors are involved in
aging and related muscle atrophy such as
diminished hormone synthesis, steady
decrease in strenuous activity, slowed
intercellular organelle function, etc.
Injury Recovery Immobility
The limited use of, or total interrup-
tion of activity of any musculature over a
prolonged period will result in dimin-
ished localized soft tissue mass. Generally,
under normal recovery conditions, and in
the absence of advanced age, illness or
disease, specific strenuous activity perfor-
mance will successfully result in restored
tissue mass. The longer the immobility,
the greater the tissues atrophy.
Cessation of Strenuous Exercise
The regular performance of strenuous
muscle activity (resistance exercise) gen-
erally results in the increased size of
involved muscle tissues (hypertrophy). It
would be appropriate to consider atro-
phy and hypertrophy as antagonistic pro-
cesses. Atrophy lending to the decrease in
lean tissue due to reduced strenuous
activity, with hypertrophy lending to
enlarged lean tissue due to increased
strenuous activity. The cessation of a reg-
ular strenuous resistance exercise pro-
gram will result in the atrophy of trained
muscle tissues. This adaptive atrophy
generally ceases once lean tissue mass has
diminished to the approximate size exist-
ing prior to the initial performance of the
strenuous resistance exercise program.
Diminished Resistance Exercise
Intensity
Reduced intensity of resistance exer-
cise will result in a decrease in the muscle
mass involved. This is because muscle
tissue is only maintained in sufficient
volume to comply with imposed strength
demands placed upon the body. When
General Health and Other Considerations
11
these demands are decreased, muscle
mass decreases. Atrophy is responsible
for the decrease in muscle mass experi-
enced by bodybuilders taking extended
layoffs from intense exercise, or while
“phase training” in a phase during which
imposed demands are less than maxi-
mum, and/or sets are performed in
slightly higher repetition ranges.
This adaptive atrophy generally ceases
once lean tissue mass has diminished to
the approximate mass required to comply
with currently imposed strength demands.
This type of atrophy is sometimes con-
fused with catabolism and cannibalism.
Catabolism is the stage of metabolism
whereby tissue is being broken down and
used for energy both during and after
ongoing strenuous activity, while atrophy
is attributed directly to the “shrinkage”
of intercellular organelles as well as sar-
coplasmic fluid reduction in the absence
of adequate strenuous activity perfor-
mance altogether. In addition, cannibal-
ism occurs during prolonged periods of
extreme caloric deprivation and contin-
ued strenuous activity performance. This
results in the muscle fiber actually having
to break down its own internal structural
tissue for survival needs. Cannibalism
therefore could be considered an extreme
case of continued catabolism. It is most
simply put that atrophy and catabolism/
cannibalism, as related to the apparently
healthy individual’s performance of resis-
tance exercise, are exact opposites. Atrophy
occurring as a result of under-training
with catabolism & cannibalism occurring
as a direct result of over training.
Minor Injury
Treatment
PRICE is the acronym for protection,
rest, ice, compression, and elevation.
When a body part such as a muscle,
tendon, ligament, or joint is injured, the
injured person should immediately take
steps to prevent the injury from worsen-
ing. PRICE is the recommended treat-
ment of choice after injury. Before the
concept of PRICE is expanded, a review
of what constitutes acute and chronic
injuries is essential.
An injury in the acute phase generally
has four signs or characteristics. These
characteristics are called the Cardinal
Signs and they are dolor, calor, rubor, and
turgor. Translated into English the signs
are pain, warmth, redness, and swelling.
Acute injuries develop the four signs over
a period of time, and if the injury is more
severe, the cardinal signs also become
more intense. As the injury heals the car-
dinal signs become less pronounced, and
a return to normal is experienced when
the cardinal signs disappear and function
is restored.
Common injuries during fitness activi-
ties are to muscles and ligaments. Both
types of injuries are classified on a three
point scale as grade one, two, or three. A
grade one muscle strain is a minor injury
that involves the tearing of a few muscle
fibers, slight pain, slight warmness of the
skin over the muscle, little or no notice-
able redness, and generally no swelling
can be felt. A more severe muscle strain is
rated as a grade two muscle strain. More
muscle fibers are torn, pain is more
severe, especially when stretching or con-
tacting the muscle. The skin over the
muscle is warm or hot to the touch, red-
ness is observed, and the muscle may feel
swollen. A very severe muscle strain is a
grade three strain that is characterized by
severe pain as a majority of muscle fibers
are torn, prolonged heating of the skin
over the muscle, prolonged redness, and
swelling. The contour of the muscle will
change as the muscle belly or the muscle-
tendon junction is torn, and muscle func-
tion is lost or severely impaired.
Ligament injuries or ligament sprains
have similar cardinal sign characteristics.
The more involved the ligament sprain,
the more pronounced are the cardinal
General Health and Other Considerations
12
signs. A grade three ligament sprain will
not usually have an obvious deformity
but function such as running, cutting, or
lifting will be impaired. The acute phase
of injury usually subsides within 24 to 72
hours but the better way of determining
if the injury is beyond the acute phase is
to monitor the cardinal signs. When the
signs have subsided the acute phase is
over.
Chronic injuries may develop quickly
from acute injuries or they may develop
subtly over time without the telltale pres-
ence of the cardinal signs. Chronic inju-
ries lack all four cardinal signs but pain
and loss of function may be present.
The personal trainer should be attuned
to injuries and be able to decide on a
course of action if a client is injured.
When the client complains of a pain, the
cardinal signs are slight, and function is
not lost the personal trainer can recom-
mend PRICE as the treatment of choice.
Examples are
Appropriate Here
Your client is performing hamstring
curls on a machine and despite your
warnings about not bending the knee
beyond 90 degrees; his improper tech-
nique causes pain in the lateral hamstring.
You assess the situation and determine he
has developed a grade one muscle strain.
First aid consists of protection and rest
by preventing him from working the
hamstring, icing the muscle for 15 min-
utes twice daily, wrapping the thigh with
an elastic bandage when he is not icing,
and as part of the rest component elevat-
ing the leg for a few minutes. If the pain
and swelling persist beyond 48 hours you
may consider referring the client to his or
her physician.
Another of your clients is determined
to improve pectoral muscle development
and has been over training on the pec-
deck. The client experiences sharp pain
and a tearing sensation in the right upper
chest. Quickly, the skin over the pectoral
muscle becomes warm and red, and there
is a slight bulge of the muscle near the
shoulder. You suspect either a grade two
or grade three strain. You quickly apply
ice to the area, offer some compression
with an elastic bandage, and protect the
muscle from further injury by helping the
client to his or her car and then to see the
client’s doctor. The injured client would
have a difficult time driving a car, for
instance. Since the injury is more severe a
strong recommendation on your part that
the client seek medical attention is appro-
priate. Hopefully, your client will be
referred to a physical therapist or an ath-
letic trainer once the extent of the injury
has been determined.
As part of a total fitness program you
place a client on a three time per week
running program. Unfortunately this par-
ticular client turns his ankle on a curb
near the club. He limps back to the club
complaining of ankle pain but you notice
that he is bearing weight on the foot and
his pain is not too severe. Your analysis
suggests a lateral ankle sprain with slight
swelling, redness, and warmth. Your
client is able to move the foot and ankle
well, and he is able to walk with a slight
limp. The client relates that he often turns
his ankle and that he has not had reha-
bilitation for this problem. PRICE is
appropriate for him as well as a recom-
mendation that he see his doctor or phys-
ical therapist for rehabilitation of the
ankle. Apparently, he is going to continue
to sprain the lateral ankle without reha-
bilitation.
How does PRICE work? Protection
prevents the muscle fibers or ligament
fibers from tearing further. Protection
also prevents excessive muscle contrac-
tions or stresses on ligaments by keeping
weight off of the body part so that the
General Health and Other Considerations
13
capillaries are not encouraged to bleed
into the injured tissues. Rest is essential
to allow the normal healing after an
injury to begin and progress toward a
normal state. Rest does not mean that the
client should abstain from exercise. Rest
means that the injured body part or tissue
is rested while the client can still be
encouraged to continue to exercise as
appropriate. Ice or cryotherapy, by cool-
ing the injured tissues, slows bleeding
into the injured tissues, prevents addi-
tional swelling, and reduces the pain of
injury. Don’t over-do it as icing for too
long a period of time can cause injury.
Recommend to your clients that they ice
between 15 and 30 minutes every two to
four hours. Ice is not necessary after
normal exercise, and it may not be neces-
sary during chronic injuries phases.
Regardless, ice usually does not hurt any-
thing if it is administered properly.
Compression is useful during the acute
phase of injury by increasing the pressure
inside the injured tissue thereby slowing
down bleeding and swelling. Gentle pres-
sure is usually sufficient. Remember, a
tourniquet is not being applied. The client
must be able to feel the body part, and
the limb must not turn blue indicating
insufficient blood circulation.
Compression can be kept on for 30
minutes or more in the form of elastic
bandages, which are useful compressive
devices. Elevation of the injured part is
useful by reducing the blood flow to the
limb thereby reducing the amount of
bleeding. Elevating the limb six to 12
inches above the heart is usually suffi-
cient.
Prevention of injury is your first line
of defense as a personal trainer. When
injuries happen, assess the cardinal signs,
assess function, and prescribe PRICE. If
the injury is severe, recommend that your
client see a physician.
 SECTION 2

Basic Aerobic
Recommendations

Basic Aerobic Recommendations

As always, instruct your client to see his/her physician prior to starting
an exercise program or increasing the intensity of an existing program.
There are several “contraindications” you need to be familiar with.
Contraindications are early warning signs that may indicate an
underlying medical condition. They are: joint pain; dizziness; nausea;
rapid pulse; excessive sweating; extreme muscle soreness & cramping;
chest pain. If your client experiences any of these symptoms, stop
exercising and immediately see a qualified medical physician.

Basic Aerobic Recommendations

14
 The undisputed value of aerobic activ-
ity is to improve cardiorespiratory fitness
and or to enhance athletic aerobic perfor-
mance. When performing aerobics only
for cardiorespiratory benefits, you should
establish a target heart rate of about 70%
of your maximum. The following is a
simple calculation to use when making
this determination...(220 - age = maxi-
mum heart rate), (maximum heart rate x
.70 = target heart rate). For cardiorespi-
ratory enhancement, you need not exer-
cise more often than 3-4 times per week,
and your sessions need be no longer than
20-30 minutes. It would be appropriate
to include some sort of regular, total
body, resistance exercises while on any
aerobic program to prevent muscle loss.
Two Basic
Concepts for
Progressing Using
Aerobic Exercise
#1- The first is to increase the pace
over an unchanged distance. While ini-
tially traversing a constant distance, in a
constant time, your cardiac output will
eventually improve, resulting in a lower
exercise heart rate. When this occurs,
simply pick up the pace just enough to
bring your exercise heart rate up to where
it was when you first started the program.
Repeat this process each time the heart
rate lowers significantly while traversing
the same course. This will result in a
faster pace, a shorter exercise session,
and a maintained level of intensity. If an
increase of intensity is desired, possibly
for athletic purposes, simply increase the
target heart rate over the same course.
This type of progression is best applied if
you are concerned more about cardiore-
spiratory health, conditioning, athletics,
than simply fat loss and lean weight
maintenance.
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
15
#2- The second type of progression is
to increase the course distance, at an
unchanged pace. Once you have estab-
lished an initial pace, the exercise heart
rate no longer is a variable. Use a stop
watch to judge your pace or the subjec-
tive attention to contraindications. Even
more subjectively, if your aerobic client
can carry a conversation without having
to “catch their breath” they are likely not
to be overexerting themselves. In regard
to progression concerning fat loss goals,
re-evaluate and lengthen your client’s
course from time to time without chang-
ing the target heart rate. The simplest
way to do this is to traverse a course that
has a midway point. When you increase
your course distance, simply go beyond
your midway mark to a new turn around
point. Do not make adjustments to your
heart rate. This type of progression results
in greater fat loss, a longer aerobic ses-
sion, less muscle tissue loss, and no long-
term significant increase in cardiac output
(since pace is constant). However, general
cardiorespiratory health is maintained.
In this scenario you are not applying
overload. On another note, decreasing
the target heart rate will result in a more
significant use of fat energy and a lesser
dependence upon blood sugar. This
means that more fat loss will occur at
lower intensities and that increased dura-
tion (distance) would be the desired
method of progression.
Getting Started...
Choose an activity that best suits your
client’s goals and his/her present level of
conditioning. If your beginning client is
extremely overweight, even slightly at
risk, or is advanced in years, have him/
her avoid frequent, long duration, high
intensity, and high impact aerobics. If the
client has had joint problems in the past,
he/she should also consider low impact
alternative exercises. In any event, choose
an activity the client will enjoy, and will
stick with in the future. Remember, for
the general fitness enthusiast, it is the
consistency of exercise performance, not
the intensity that results in life-long fit-
ness.
Never wear “plastic suits” or “gar-
bage bags” during aerobic activity, espe-
cially in hot weather. This practice may
leave him/her so dehydrated as to risk
serious heat injuries (heat stroke & heat
exhaustion), or even death. Intentional
dehydration is never recommended for
the aerobic exercise participant and
should especially be avoided during the
performance of any strenuous aerobic
activity (dress cool).
Fat Loss
Remember, the body will burn the
same amount of calories while walking 1
mile, as it will while running 1 mile. And
interestingly enough, since the faster pace
burns more sugar, choosing to walk the
distance will result in the greatest number
of fat calories used.
There are misconceptions concerning
aerobic performance and increased
metabolism. It is true that anywhere from
65% to 90% of the total calories used
during aerobic activity come from fat
(depending upon individual aerobic con-
ditioning and the intensity of perfor-
mance). It is also true that the metabolic
rate will slow to normal shortly after the
completion of an aerobic session.
While the performance of short intense
aerobic activity certainly has cardiovas-
cular benefits that are discussed later,
aerobics for fat loss should be performed
at low intensity over longer periods.
The biggest problem associated with
all forms of aerobics is the probable loss
of muscle if performed in the absence of
appropriate resistance exercise. This
muscle loss will reduce the number of
calories the body needs, and if the par-
ticipant does not reduce his/her calorie
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
16
intake, the calories their now smaller
muscles used to need, will now be stored
as fat.
Body Fat Testing
The most neglected and objective tool
available for progress evaluation in ALL
fitness programs, besides a mirror, are
simple skin fold calipers. There are very
few fitness enthusiasts, aerobic as well as
anaerobic, who apply skin fold calipers
on a regular and frequent basis even to
include bodybuilders.
The real value of this testing has noth-
ing to do with its accuracy in determining
true body fat percentage; it has to do with
re-evaluation and progress monitoring.
As long as the tests are performed at the
same time of day, with the same device,
at the same anatomical sites, while fol-
lowing the same strict diet and training
program, changes in lean and fat weight
can objectively and accurately be moni-
tored. This will enable you to alter both
your client’s diet and training to arrive at
desired goals.
First of all, we need to identify a few
variables concerning body composition
testing.
1) Establish a consistent daily total
caloric intake.
After a prolonged period on this
diet, while maintaining a consistent
workout program, body composition
will begin to level off. This must be
accomplished in order for you to
establish a foundation from which to
make training and dietary changes
that can be evaluated objectively.
2) Always perform “self test” at the
same time of day.
There are metabolic processes and
chemical reactions that vary all
throughout the day and have a
significant effect on body
composition.
3) Fluid intake should be regulated.
If fluid intake just prior to the self-
test is greater in a previous test, the
most recent test will reflect an
inaccurate decrease in lean weight,
decrease in total weight, and increase
in body fat percentage.
4) Regulate and minimize diuretic &
sodium intake.
Varied intake of diuretics and sodium
will cause a slight but constant
fluctuation in composition tests since
these elements affect water retention,
thereby affecting lean weight.
5) By testing in the AM you will avoid
variables resulting from physical
work.
Never test after a workout or
strenuous activity. Water is lost from
both intra & extramuscular areas
during the performance of work.
This will reflect the same inaccuracies
as #3 above.
By complying with the above consid-
erations, you will be able to make changes
in supplementation, diet, and training,
while objectively evaluating your client’s
progress through regular body composi-
tion testing. Once body composition has
leveled off (1st variable) a determination
must be made as to the desired goal in
order to adjust the fitness prescription.
When you make this determination, you
are ready to ‘document’ training and
dietary changes. These changes should be
made intelligently and with considerable
thought. Always keep a record of the cli-
ent’s training, diet, and supplement pro-
gram for future re-evaluation purposes.
You may find, for example, that those
high-dollar supplements your client has
been taking aren’t causing the desired
effect.
Perform body composition testing on
a bi-weekly basis. If the aforementioned
variables are taken into account, and you
perform the body composition test prop-
erly each time, your adjustments will
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
17
result in an objective change in the body
composition. Continued bi-weekly test-
ing will indicate when your current pro-
gram is falling off in productivity i.e. lean
weight decrease, increase in body fat per-
centage, etc. It would at this point be
appropriate to once again evaluate and
implement changes i.e. increase/decrease
resistance exercise frequency/volume/
intensity, increase decrease aerobic exer-
cise frequency/duration/intensity, increase/
decrease total calories/proteins/carbohy-
drates, etc.
Where can you get your hands on skin
fold calipers? Contact a medical supply
company. The more serious your needs
are, the more money you should consider
investing. As a personal fitness trainer it
is vital you purchase a quality body com-
position measuring device. There are cur-
rently a growing number of different
types of devices available all claiming to
be the easiest or the most accurate. It is
the position of National Federation of
Professional Trainers that calipers have
been a trusted and widely used device
and clearly measures ONLY extramuscu-
lar fat while some devices measure both
intramuscular fluids and fats as well as
extramuscular fat. It is most important to
measure extramuscular fat for the pur-
poses of determining fluctuations in fat
deposits most commonly resulting from
changes in a diet or training program.
Also upon purchase, inquire as to the
specific formula to be used and anatomi-
cal sites to be measured. Caliper packag-
ing will include instructions concerning
the application of the device.
Check Your Pulse
People usually don’t pay attention to
either progression, or exercise intensity.
The three most important variables in
exercise of any kind are frequency, dura-
tion, and intensity. Frequency is how
often you exercise while duration is the
length of the workout. Frequency and
duration are objective aspects of exercise
but intensity measurement is a bit more
difficult. Most people prefer to judge
intensity by how hard they breathe, or
how much they sweat. Unfortunately,
both are of little value in judging true
aerobic intensity levels.
The only truly accurate way to deter-
mine aerobic exercise intensity is through
pulse measurement and a serious amount
of attention paid to contraindications. A
proper pulse level is a reflection of how
hard your heart is working. The heart
rate, in turn, determines oxygen uptake
level: The higher the heart rate, the
greater the oxygen uptake.
We know that to get cardiovascular
fitness from aerobics requires raising the
heart rate to a certain level and keeping it
there for 20-60 minutes depending on
client goals. In the 1950s, physiologists
found that increasing fitness requires
raising the heart rate to at least 65% of
maximum.
Maximum heart rate is determined
two ways: 1) By taking a laboratory stress
test, 2) By subtracting your age from the
figure 220. The latter method is a lot
cheaper. When you get the resulting
figure, you then multiply it by 0.65 and
0.85. This will give you figures that rep-
resent 65 and 85 percent of your maxi-
mum heart rate. According to physiolo-
gists, this is the target zone that repre-
sents the best level of intensity for aerobic
exercise.
Unless you pay attention to this target
zone rate, you are exercising blindly. You
may be training with too little, or too
much intensity if you ignore target heart
rate. As you become more fit, it will be
more difficult to get your heart rate
towards the higher end of the target zone
without dramatically increasing intensity.
This is a good sign. It means your stroke
volume, or amount of blood that your
heart pumps with each beat, is greater
requiring fewer BPMs to perform the
same amount of work. In short, your
heart is now stronger and more efficient
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
18
as a result of exercise. But how do you
monitor your heart rate while you’re
exercising?
Several methods can be used. You can
check your pulse at the carotid artery at
the sides of your neck, about the level of
your Adam’s apple. You should feel a
regular pulse at that spot. Depending on
carotid pulse measurement presents prob-
lems, though and may be the least desir-
able method to check exercise heart rate.
Putting pressure on the carotid artery
slows the heart rate almost instantly. This
can give you an inaccurate measurement.
Researchers at the University of Southern
Mississippi found that people who take
their pulse by way of the carotid artery
experience a heart drop of 3 to 12 beats
per minute, occurring within 10 seconds
of applied pressure. The effect can be
even worse for some people. The sudden
slowing of heart rate may lead to dizzi-
ness, fainting, or in a very worse-case sce-
nario—dangerous heart rhythm irregu-
larities (arrhythmias).
Another manual pulse-taking method
involves the wrist. Here you’re checking
the radial artery at the base of the wrist.
Use your index and middle fingers (not
the thumb—as it has its own artery), and
count the number of beats in 6 seconds
adding a zero. Another way is to count
the number of beats in 15 seconds and
multiply the result by 4. Both require
either a watch or a clock with a second
hand.
These manual techniques, while con-
venient, do present some problems. That
is, to get an accurate measurement, you
have to stop exercising. If you’re not an
expert at getting a quick measurement,
expect your pulse to start dropping rap-
idly; this alone will often produce an
inaccurate measurement.
Technology has brought forth an
answer to the problem of pulse measure-
ment during exercise. They’re called
“pulse monitors.”
 Pulse monitors vary in both their price
and accuracy. One kind, often coming
with high-tech stationary bikes as an
accessory, uses a photoelectric pulse
pickup. Their sensors are usually located
in the hand grips. There are also portable
devices that attach to the ear lobe or
finger. They work fine if you’re standing
still, but as soon as you start to move, the
pulse rate goes wild and have been found
to be off by as much as 50 beats per
minute. The problem is that these units
depend on the sensor “seeing” the throb-
bing pulse. But the pulse in peripheral
areas (such as fingertips or earlobes) is
not necessarily reflective of the actual
heart rate. There is a delay between the
pulse in these areas, and the heart rate
itself. This delay results from blood vessel
conditions, body temperature changes,
gravity, and even movement during exer-
cise.
There is a better heart monitor though
considerably more expensive than photo-
electric units, that mimics an electrocar-
diogram. This unit consists of a strap that
you wear on your chest, and a wrist
watch. The strap has two small electrodes
that directly detect the equivalent of the
“R” wave on an electrocardiogram
(ECG). This measurement is wirelessly
transmitted to the wristwatch, and shows
up as an LCD pulse display on the face of
the watch. This R wave represents the
actual contraction of the heart, or “sys-
tole” phase, and isn’t affected by body
movement, or gravity (theoretically, it
can be used upside down). Other studies
using chest-strap monitors confirm
Cooper’s findings. In one study, ten men
and four women either rode a stationary
bike, or ran on a treadmill while wearing
a chest-strap monitor. The heart rates
recorded on the monitors compared
favorably with rates recorded simultane-
ously on an ECG machine. They differed
by only five beats, an insignificant
amount. electronic bike display, such as those
Another study tested 13 different
kinds of heart monitors against an ECG,
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
19
and here, too, the chest-strap monitors
came out on top. This study noted that
the “material [of the heart monitor] is
strongly built and resistant to perspira-
tion.” Unlike these past studies, the most
recent examination of commercial heart
monitors tested them in the field. Young
children wearing chest-strap monitors
played freely, using both upper and lower
body movements. In this study all of the
monitors worked accurately, as compared
with the usual ECG machine.
Chest-strap models also include such
features as an alarm system that you can
program to your specific target zone rate,
offering one kind of alarm when the pulse
is too high, and another when it’s too
low. Some models allow you to interface
with a computer, thus letting you chart
how your heart rate fluctuated through-
out your workout. The computer can
convert the pulse measurements to calo-
ries burned, time spent in target zone,
and maximum oxygen intake.
There are a few problems however
with these newer, more sophisticated
heart rate monitors. Most of them are
not sweat proof. They are exercise devices
that you cannot sweat on. In an indepen-
dent study where device use during sweat-
ing was performed the device failed and
was returned for repair. The manufactur-
ing representative stated, “This unit does
not work for people who sweat exces-
sively.” Moreover, there is an ostensibly
sturdy chest strap/wrist watch model
available. This advanced model is rather
expensive at a per unit cost of approxi-
mately $300 and was said to be sweat
proof. After only a 3 month study even
this device failed due to non-sweat resis-
tance. During yet another limited inde-
pendent study electrical interference
occurred. These high-tech pulse monitors
were found not to function when wear-
ing a headset radio, or while using an
found on many popular exercise bikes.
However, it was found that when the user
moves at least 3 1/2 feet away from an
electric display bike, or from someone
wearing a radio headset the device once
again will function.
Whether or not you decide to pur-
chase a heart rate monitor, it’s important
to exercise in your target zone for maxi-
mum safety and conditioning.
Rating of Perceived
Exertion (RPE)
As is well known among fitness pro-
fessionals, desirable progressive adapta-
tion is facilitated only by the progressive
intensity and/or duration of activity.
Simply stated, in addressing the topic of
intensity progression, there are 3 options
available to the fitness trainer.
#1-The SAFE Option
Prescribe an initially conservative and
non-stressful intensity level for the sake
of safety in dealing with extremely over-
weight populations or those who are even
moderately de-conditioned. This
approach is most often used when intro-
ducing an extremely “de-conditioned”,
overweight, and/or novice client to exer-
cise. The true value in using this method
of intensity determination is in preparing
the extremely overweight client for future
general fitness exercise prescriptions. In
the case of the extremely overweight
client, diet should be emphasized and
exercise de-emphasized early on in the
fitness prescription. This should be com-
monly practiced as aggressive dieting and
moderate to intense exercise together, can
add up to trouble manifesting itself in the
form of a condition known as keto-aci-
dosis. This condition generally owes its
existence to the above combination of
both an aggressive diet and an aggressive
exercise program. Given the choice
between an aggressive diet or an aggres-
sive exercise program with regard to the
seriously overweight population, it is
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
20
generally safest to work first on the diet,
since exercise may threaten to bring
about contraindications. By reducing the
bodyweight significantly, prior to begin-
ning a moderately stressful exercise pro-
gram, joints, hard tissue, muscles, cardio-
respiratory system, will be spared those
stresses that are common among grossly
overweight individuals practicing a mod-
erate to intense exercise program. At best,
if an exercise program is prescribed, then
the exercise portion of the overweight
client’s fitness prescription should consist
of low impact, low intensity, and very
low-level activity. In the absence of con-
traindications, walking at a slow pace
over long duration on soft surfaces/tread-
mills is a good example of appropriate
beginning exercise for the above popula-
tions.
#2-The MEASURABLE Option
Prescribing exercise intensity using a
percentage of the client’s calculated max-
imum heart rate is generally the most
popular of all currently used methods of
intensity determination. In this case, the
trainer consults with the exercise partici-
pant. Then, after gathering as much rele-
vant information as possible, the trainer
makes a judgment and establishes the ini-
tial exercise heart rate recommendation.
As effective as this method is in anticipat-
ing a safe and appropriate level of start-
ing intensity, only the client knows the
true amount of effort he/she is applying
regardless of the dictated exercise heart
rate. Tolerance to various exercise heart
rates differs from individual to individ-
ual. For example, a target exercise heart
rate of 165 BPM may be more difficult
for one individual to tolerate than for
another, even when the two seem equally
conditioned and their calculations are
exactly the same. And, unless the client is
questioned extensively by the trainer
throughout the performance of an exer-
cise as to its difficulty, the trainer may
never know whether or not the program
is over exertive or less than optimal. The
performance of a submaximal pre-exer-
cise test is suggested (NFPT recognizes
and recommends the application of
ACSM’s submaximal pre-exercise test
protocol in these cases).
#3-The OPTIMAL Option
Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE)
option. Using RPE, in most cases, offers
the best way to maximize beginning client
progress, while at the same time paying
the utmost attention to contraindications
and signs of overexertion. The trainer
accomplishes this by repeatedly verbaliz-
ing contraindications and early warning
signs of overexertion to the client during
exercise performance. The client in turn
informs the trainer of how he/she feels at
that very instant, and whether or not any
of the verbalized undue stress is being
experienced. The trainer and client then
work together in adjusting the workload/
exercise intensity until the desired “opti-
mal” amount of tolerable exertion is
being practiced.
Rating of Perceived Exertion, for aer-
obic exercise, has long been practiced
and allows the participant to “govern”
his/her level of intensity by likening their
degree of discomfort to a visually pro-
vided RPE number scale. The client
reaches an initial tolerable level of effort
deemed appropriate by both the client
and trainer based on the client’s descrip-
tion of effort, and the trainer’s question-
ing regarding overexertion symptoms
and contraindications. An RPE Chart
assigns a number to different levels of
described effort. The trainer’s job is
simple. He/she can dictate a number on
the scale and require the client to perform
at the corresponding perceived exertion
(somewhat hard; hard; very hard; very,
very hard, etc.). Applied properly, using
RPE should allow de-conditioned clients
and their trainers the latitude to optimize
progress more effectively than by using
any other earlier described method of
determining initial intensity. Generally
speaking, the application of RPE could
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
21
be effectively used to optimize the rate of
client progress during ALL forms of exer-
cise, not just aerobics. It should be noted
that contraindications are exactly the
same regardless of the type of activity
being performed. So, memorize them and
verbalize them, even to the point of
annoyance. In the long run, your clients’
risks will diminish while their results
improve.
This practice of verbalizing contrain-
dications as a means of maximizing
results works especially well with begin-
ners who are at moderate risk. Imagine
using option #2 above, that does not
involve the verbalizing of contraindica-
tions, and in your best judgment you start
one of these “higher risk” clients out at
an intensity level of 60%, which is actu-
ally very low, and in most cases appropri-
ate. However, during the first workout,
even at this low-level of intensity, the
client deniably begins to experience a
contraindication(s) completely unknown
to you. While continuing at the prescribed
level of 60% intensity, the client can no
longer hide the symptoms and is now vis-
ibly experiencing extremely severe con-
traindications. This can all be avoided by
simply verbalizing contraindications.
Cardiac Response
to Eating and
Exercise
Do not eat within 2-3 hours prior to
prolonged and/or intense physical activ-
ity. There is a physiological change that
takes place relative to the cardiovascular
system upon ingestion of foods. This
change during digestion acts to redirect
blood flow from the muscles to diges-
tion.
Since the body’s total blood volume
desirably remains the same, the move-
ment of excess blood to any one part of
the body requires an enlargement (vaso-
dilatation) of the vessels in that specific
region, and a reduction (vasoconstric-
tion) in the size of the vessels in all other
regions. When you eat, there is a greater
need for blood in and around digestion
for the purpose of carrying nutrients to
the main vascular tree. When vessels
dilate around digestion, they constrict in
muscular areas. If you perform prolonged
and/or intense exercise during digestion,
the central nervous system will constrict
vessels around digestion and dilate in the
working muscles. This nervous input and
redirection of blood flow slows digestive
processes and the motility of the digest-
ing food in the gut. As a result you may
experience not only cramping but also
nausea, dizziness, and a general feeling of
fatigue.
Skeletal Muscle
Structure and
Function
The epimysium surrounds the entire
muscle group with a sheath of connec-
tive, fibrous, and elastic tissue. The sheath
of connective tissue surrounding a bundle
of muscles, or motor unit, is called the
perimysium, and the connective tissue
surrounding each muscle cell fiber is the
endomysium.
Muscle Fiber Types
There are three types of skeletal
muscle tissue fibers. They are the type
IIb (white fast twitch,) the type IIa (red
fast twitch,) and the type I (red slow
twitch fibers.) These different fibers have
differing cardiovascular “support sys-
tems.” Microscopic capillaries extend
throughout intramuscular areas sur-
rounding all of these muscle tissue fibers.
The white fast twitch muscle fibers have
very few capillaries and, because of the
absence of this nutrient rich blood sup-
ply, they cannot function for very long
periods, but are extremely strong. The
red fast twitch muscle fibers have a
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
22
greater number of capillaries and can
therefore outlast the white fast twitch
fibers, but are not nearly as strong. And
lastly, the red slow twitch muscle fibers
have a tremendous number of capillaries
allowing for long-term sustained activ-
ity, however, with very little strength.
The number and volume of mitochon-
drial and myofibrils are factors as well.
Motor Units
The white fast twitch muscle fibers,
red fast twitch muscle fibers, and red
slow twitch muscle fibers occur randomly
together in small bundles in genetically
predetermined proportions. These bun-
dles are called motor units and are named
after the type of fibers located in these
motor units. If a motor unit is made up
of white fast twitch tissue fibers that
motor unit is called a white fast twitch
motor unit. If a motor unit is made up of
red fast twitch tissue fibers, it is called a
red fast twitch motor unit. And, if a
motor unit is made up of red slow twitch
tissue fibers, it is called a red slow twitch
motor unit.
Motor Unit Function
Generally speaking, white fast twitch
motor units are responsible for speed and
strength, and a person who has a pre-
dominance of these white fast twitch
motor units would be best suited for
strength events. The red fast twitch motor
units are responsible for sustaining a load
over prolonged periods, and a person
with a predominance of these red fast
twitch fiber motor units would be best
suited for events requiring stamina such
as boxing, football, basketball, etc. The
red slow twitch motor unit is responsible
for producing energy over long periods,
and a person with a predominance of
these red slow twitch motor units, would
be best suited for endurance events.
Motor Unit Recruitment Methods
Immediate Recruitment - As a general
rule, only the minimum number of motor
units required to move a given weight,
will contract in performing work. Pick
up a very light object in your hand, bend
your arm at the elbow, and feel the con-
tracted bicep with your free hand. The
muscle will feel somewhat soft because
only the red slow twitch motor units are
contracting. The assistance of the remain-
ing motor units is not required.
If the resistance is slightly greater, the
red fast will assist the red slow twitch
motor units. Once again, for example,
pick up a heavier object and feel the con-
tracted bicep. It will feel harder than it
felt when lifting the lighter object because
more motor units are working.
If the resistance is greater yet, the
white fast twitch motor units will finally
assist in the work. This time, pick up a
very heavy object, and not only will your
bicep feel extremely hard, you will also
feel the strain against the resistance. In
this case, most if not all motor units in
the working muscle are involved.
The immediate involvement of vary-
ing numbers of motor units based upon
the amount of weight moved is one form
of motor unit “recruitment.”
Immediately providing extremely
heavy resistance will insure an earlier
“recruitment” of the white fast twitch
motor units, which we know to have the
greatest potential for growth. This also
tells us that performing light resistance
exercise will be of little value in optimiz-
ing growth. There is, however still some
growth stimulation of the red fast and
red slow twitch motor units in lighter
high repetition training. However, they
can experience only limited growth by
comparison, due to their tissues’ differing
composition, which will be discussed in
greater detail later.
Depleting Energy Recruitment
Another type of motor unit recruit-
ment occurs as a result of depleting
energy. For example, during contractions
of a muscle group against light resistance,
each repetition steadily depletes the
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
23
working motor units of energy and other
motor units are called upon to assist the
fatigued motor units in the same order as
before.
First, the red fast twitch motor units
assist the already working slow twitch
motor units. Lastly then, as the red slow
and red fast twitch motor units are con-
tinuing to tire, the white fast twitch motor
units are called upon. By the time the
white fast twitch motor units start work-
ing, the entire muscle group is rapidly
exhausting. It is also quite probable that
by the time the white fast twitch motor
units are called upon, lactic acid and free
phosphate are accumulating, thus inhib-
iting further contraction. This type of
recruitment minimizes the involvement
and growth stimulation of the white fast
twitch motor units, which are known to
have the greatest potential for growth.
To experience this type of motor unit
recruitment, pick a relatively light weight
and begin to perform repetitions. As the
muscle becomes more and more fatigued,
you will begin to notice a burning sensa-
tion, and a slight pump. As the exercise
becomes more and more difficult, espe-
cially when performing a movement
involving a very large amount of muscle
tissue such as the squat, your heart rate
will become elevated and your breathing
labored. As the movement is becoming
more and more difficult with each repeti-
tion, there are more and more white fast
twitch motor units coming into play,
since the white fast twitch motor units
are reserved until last when the work is
more strenuous. When you finish the set,
after performing as many as 25 repeti-
tions, the white fast twitch motor units
may only have performed optimally for 2
to 3 of those last repetitions. This is
hardly enough to stimulate optimum
involvement.
Contractile Speed Recruitment
Yet another type of motor unit recruit-
ment is based on the speed of contrac-
tion. A maximum contraction against a
sub maximal resistance will in theory call
on the red and white “fast twitch” motor
units due to their faster contractile speeds.
This can be accomplished through com-
pensatory acceleration training, plyomet-
rics, or by performing Olympic style
weight lifting. Olympic style weight lift-
ing has been applied to athletes for years
by strength trainers. It is used more fre-
quently when training for specific events
requiring explosive types of movements
and without proper execution, can
increase the risk of injury. Therefore, the
frequency that this type of training is per-
formed should be controlled. It is the
NFPT’s position that the risk of injury far
outweighs the benefits to be gained from
Olympic lifting especially among non-
athletes or by athletes without the benefit
of professional and experienced instruc-
tion. Non load barring “plyometric”
(multi-directional) training is the suggested
option to enhancing power and speed.
Dispelling Common Myths
All the tissue fibers within a motor
unit will contract together because the
entire motor unit is stimulated to con-
tract by the same neuron, regardless of
the angle of resistance (innervations).
With this in mind, it is not significantly
important to perform a wide variety of
movements aimed at stimulating an adap-
tive effect from different angles. Altering
movements from time to time may how-
ever be mentally refreshing, reduce bore-
dom, and prevent injury.
Movements should be selected that
allow the target muscles to be stressed by
the heaviest amount of weight possible,
calling on the involvement of the greatest
number of motor units possible (desired
method of motor unit recruitment).
Extremely heavy compound movements
are said to have the greatest degree of
leverage, and should always be used in
preference to partial isolation movements.
It is important to once again realize
that strict isolation is an anatomical
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
24
impossibility since one muscle group
cannot function on its own. With this in
mind, there are always at least two muscle
groups involved in every movement.
All true muscle tissue fibers run the
entire length of the muscle group, from
its origin to its insertion, and receive
growth stimulation uniformly through-
out their entire length. With this in mind,
once again it is physiologically impossible
to shape a muscle. Muscle tissue struc-
ture and shape are strictly genetic.
Cardiac and
Smooth Muscles
Cardiac muscle refers to the heart
itself. Smooth muscles include digestive,
respiratory and vascular tissues. The
digestive and respiratory tissues provide
for the movement of nutrients and wastes
for their uptake and excretion respec-
tively, and will not be discussed in great
detail here. Vascular tissue, or blood ves-
sels, will be discussed in this chapter, and
function in a variety of ways in response
to exercise, adrenal hormone stimulation,
and sympathetic nervous system stimula-
tion.
Cardiac Muscle Function &
Resistance Exercise
The Cardiac Muscle is similar in many
ways to Skeletal Muscle. They are both
striated and house the same cellular com-
ponents in varying proportion. The heart
muscle will adapt to resistance exercise in
much the same way that skeletal muscles
do. If the heart is forced to pump against
an increased amount of resistance for
prolonged periods, such as is common in
resistance exercise, the cardiac tissue or
heart muscle, will most likely adapt by
increasing in size and strength.
Aerobic Exercise
On the other hand, in the case of aero-
bic activity, the heart’s contractile strength
is sufficient. However, the heart finds it
difficult to provide sufficient amounts of
oxygen to the working muscles. The heart
will most likely adapt by increasing the
actual volume of blood it can pump,
enabling it to accommodate the greater
volume of blood demanded by the work-
ing muscles. This is most generally
accomplished through a slight increase in
the size of the left ventricle in the heart.
Vascular Tissue Function
Exercise - During exercise, blood flow
is re-routed to the working muscles, and
away from the major organs and the rest
of the body. This allows for the increased
transport of nutrients and oxygen
required to sustain muscle activity. It is
quite interesting to note that resistance
exercise increases the strength, elasticity,
and permeability of the blood vessels.
Adrenal Hormone Stimulation
After eating, the blood vessels around
digestion are dilated for the purpose of
optimizing the transport of nutrients
from digestion into the main vascular
tree. Since the total blood volume tends
to remain the same, this dilation of ves-
sels around digestion calls for an equal
and opposite constriction of other vessels
not involved in the digestive process (to
be discussed in greater detail later in this
text).
Sympathetic Nervous System
Stimulation
When the nervous system perceives a
stressful situation, the way it reacts is by
accelerating the heart rate and constrict-
ing blood vessels in preparation for “fight
or flight”. This is accomplished through
the release of neurotransmitters.
Note that in all of the above cases of
vessel dilation and/or constriction for the
purpose of redistributing blood circula-
tion, the neurotransmitters responsible
are epinephrine and norepinephrine.
Blood Movement
It is the cardiovascular system’s respon-
sibility to provide nutrients and oxygen
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
25
to body tissues that sustain life. In con-
tinuing to discuss the functions of the
vascular system, it is valuable to track the
movement of blood from the heart to the
muscle tissue and back again. Blood,
which has already been oxygenated
through the pulmonary circulation, leaves
the heart via arteries, and then travels
through smaller arteries called arterioles,
and then on to the collateral circulation,
or arterial capillaries. The oxygen and
nutrient rich blood is then in the intra-
muscular areas. Dependent on the tissue’s
needs, the appropriate amount of oxygen
and nutrients are then mediated and/or
diffused through small, microscopic holes
in the capillaries, into the spaces between
the muscle tissues known as the intersti-
tial space. It is in this interstitial space
that nutrients and wastes as well as
oxygen and carbondioxide are exchanged.
It is important to note once again, that
the muscles then take up oxygen and
nutrients at a very gradual rate, even if
desperately needed. If they are working
muscles, they will demand more oxygen
and nutrients than muscles at rest. And,
if they are recovering from work, they
will also take up more oxygen and nutri-
ents than at rest, until they are fully
recovered.
The remainder of plasma fluid not
taken up by the muscles along with
wastes excreted from the muscle fibers
accumulates in this interstitial space.
These fluids and wastes are then siphoned
into lymphatic vessels. This oxygen and
nutrient deficient fluid is then transported
away from the muscles through venular
capillaries. From here, blood is returned
through the veins to various visceral
organs for nutrient enrichment and waste
processing, then on to the pulmonary cir-
culation to be oxygenated. This nutrient
rich and oxygenated blood is once again
delivered to the heart which completes
the basic blood movement cycle as it per-
tains to exercise and muscle tissue.
Fluid Movement
Aside from fluids in the visceral organs
and in the major cavities of the body,
there are three areas where fluids travel.
The plasma fluid, which is nothing more
than circulating blood, the interstitial
fluid, which is outside the vessel walls
and surrounds all muscle tissue fibers,
and intracellular fluid, found inside the
tissues themselves. These fluids are con-
stantly moving across separating mem-
branes through a process known as
osmosis.
Different Energy
Pathways
As a fitness professional, you need to
completely understand the basic princi-
ples and definitive applications of the
three major classifications of activity and
their relative energy pathways. The three
classifications of activity are low level
activity, aerobic activity, and anaerobic
activity.
In this chapter we will briefly define
the above classifications of activity and
explain the method of energy provision
unique to each.
Low Level Activity
Activity that does not significantly tax
the cardiorespiratory system, while rais-
ing the exercise heart rate to no more
than 50% of maximum (220 - age =
MaxHR)x 0.5.
Low level activity energy comes almost
exclusively from fat, but requires longer
exercise duration to equal the caloric
expenditures of aerobic exercise. For
example, walking a mile takes longer
than running a mile, but the caloric
expenditure upon completion will be
equal. Low level activity should be pas-
sive to perform, require little blood-sugar,
be non-taxing to body systems, and fre-
quently done for long periods with mini-
mal risk of overtraining and/or injury.
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
26
Where fat loss is the client goal and
available time to exercise is not a limita-
tion, low level activity is the method of
choice over aerobic activity. While aero-
bic activity does burn fat calories and
burns calories at a more efficient rate
than low level activity, there is still a sig-
nificant amount of glucose used. By com-
parison, this actually results in a lesser
amount of total fat used per unit of
energy expended during aerobic activity
than during low level activity. Low level
activity is a complement to any overall
fitness program, and is generally healthy
and safe for everyone.
Furthermore, the performance of low
level activity can and should be prescribed
exclusively, in place of aerobics, to a
beginning client who has been sedentary
and practicing poor eating habits for pro-
longed periods. Then, gradually increase
the intensity (pace) while decreasing the
frequency.
The above approach constitutes a cau-
tious method of initiating the aerobic
phase of a total fitness prescription for
the overweight client. Progression should
continue while ultimately striving towards
the recommended aerobic activity param-
eters discussed in the following section.
Using low level activity to initiate the
aerobic phase of the fitness prescription
is a judgment call that will minimize the
risk of complication and/or injury to a
client you feel to be predisposed. When
in doubt, minimize intensity. As a
reminder, it is an absolute must for you
to encourage and/or require a potential
client to undergo medical screening in
advance of acting upon any recommen-
dations you provide.
Aerobic Activity
Aerobic activity is defined by two
ways. First, any activity that rises the
resting heart rate to 70% of maximum
(220 - age = MHR). Secondly, any activ-
ity performed at this heart rate for a min-
imum of 20-30 minutes per session,
thereby achieving what is commonly
known as a ‘steady state’ of accelerated
metabolic function.
Activity must satisfy the two above
requirements in order to technically be
considered aerobic. It is under these con-
ditions that aerobic energy pathways
(fatty acids & oxygen) are functioning
optimally. It is suggested the above aero-
bic activity be performed 3-4 times per
week in order to maintain cardiorespira-
tory health and efficiency.
Unlike during low level activity, which
requires fatty acids and very little in the
way of oxygen, it takes time for aerobic
metabolism (oxygen and fatty acid use
for energy provision), to kick in. Initially
then, the aerobic activity participant is
calling upon liver glycogen, muscle gly-
cogen and blood sugar, with the gradu-
ally increasing assistance of oxygen, for
energy.
The commonly experienced “second
wind” occurs when the energy pathway
has in effect, progressed through the first
and second stages of energy provision,
anaerobic glycolysis (the use of sugar in
the absence of oxygen), and then meta-
bolic oxidation (the use of sugar in the
presence of oxygen), and then finally on
to aerobic metabolism (the use of oxygen
and fatty acids).
Anaerobic Activity
The energy pathway for resistance
exercise is clear. Muscle energy stores. In
its purest form, anaerobic activity
involves “0” oxygen and pure ATP.
Basic Aerobic Recommendations
27
However, there exists 3 steps that take
place based upon the duration of a muscle
contraction as it relates to energy produc-
tion and use. When a muscle contracts it
has an immediate supply of ATP to last it
for 3-5 seconds. Without the immediate
availability of ATP, which is the only
form of energy produced in the body, our
muscles would not be able to initiate any
movement whatsoever. When this ATP
begins to exhaust Creatine Phosphate
takes over for the next 20-25 seconds.
When the muscles supply of Creatine
Phosphate begins to exhaust, muscle gly-
cogen is converted into Pyruvate (muscle
glucose). It is at this stage when the mus-
cles are using “anaerobic glycolysis”
(pyruvate without oxygen), for energy
production. As relaxations occur, oxygen
and blood sugar can enter the muscle and
assist in energy production. In the pres-
ence of oxygen, with glucose still the
energy substrate being used, the energy
for longer intermittent contractions are
provided through “metabolic oxidation”
(glucose and oxygen). Seldom will resis-
tance exercises involve a substantial
supply of fatty acids as there is not
enough oxygen being provided to “ignite”
the fatty acids. While it seems like a
simple process as described, it is not. As
resistance is applied to muscle there is a
constant mixture of these substrates
working from the initial ATP, then
blended with Creatine Phosphate, then
blended with Pyruvate, and then on to
blood glucose and oxygen.
 SECTION 3

The Aerobic
Exercise Prescription

The Aerobic Exercise Prescription

All exercise prescriptions for your apparently healthy clientele with
general fitness as their goal should include some proportion of both
resistance exercise and aerobic exercise. How much of each form of
exercise is entirely dependent on your client’s current condition and his
or her fitness-related goals. Your recommendations must be precise and
objective to assure consistent progression toward those goals whether
your client is interested in competitive athletics, fat reduction, or general
fitness. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the fitness administrator
with a system of objective measure allowing for the proper aerobic
training recommendations as they apply to your apparently healthy
clients ranging from a world-class athlete to a previously sedentary
individual.

The Aerobic Exercise Prescription

28
Safety First
It is of the utmost importance that
each of your prospective clients be appro-
priately screened for any major health
concern prior to beginning an exercise
program regardless of the type of activity
which will be performed. No big surprise
here, but it is necessary to reiterate this
point to protect both your client and
yourself from any unforeseen maladies. If
you miss a small risk factor in one of your
clients, you risk that client’s life and your
livelihood.
Always recommend your clients
undergo a rigorous physical examination
prior to initiating any new physical activ-
ity. If your client demonstrates any car-
diovascular risk factors or is over 35
years of age and has been previously inac-
tive, require it, and be sure the physical
exam includes an exercise electrocardio-
gram.
General Metabolic
Considerations The Metabolic
There are three general categories of
body types each with an associated type
Continuum
of metabolism: endomorphic, ectomor-
phic, and mesomorphic. For our pur-
poses, the endomorph struggles to lose
weight, and fewer calories should gener-
ally be recommended. The ectomorph
struggles to gain weight and may need
additional calories to do so. The meso-
morph category generally reflects the
average metabolic classification. The
General Dietary Advice Chart, as pre-
sented elsewhere, applies more to the
mesomorphic individual.
In determining a client’s metabolic
category, compare client-eating habits to
client appearance. For example, the client
who consumes a large number of calories
and still appears extremely thin is ecto-
The Aerobic Exercise Prescription
29
morphic and should be treated as such.
The client consuming few calories and
who appears extremely thin should be
approached as an average healthy indi-
vidual in regard to the use of the General
Dietary Advice Chart. Conversely, the
client who consumes few calories and
appears extremely heavy, is quite likely
endomorphic and should be treated as
such. The client consuming a large
number of calories and who appears
extremely heavy should be approached
as a mesomorph in regard to the use of
the General Dietary Advice Chart.
It is suggested to assign a 500 calorie
per day adjustment. Keep in mind this is
purely speculative as there are varying
degrees to these categories. You will need
to make the daily caloric adjustment
decision on a case-by-case basis. Moni-
toring body composition will allow you
to make future adjustments quite accu-
rately.
Glycogen is converted to glucose and
used for energy during average to high
intensity aerobic exercise, just as it is for
resistance exercise, the bulk of it simply
coming from a different place; the liver
and blood. The liver stores, with the right
pre-workout meal, can provide anywhere
from about 300 to 400 calories of glyco-
gen for conversion to glucose and gradual
release into the bloodstream during aero-
bic exercise.
Through the body’s use of oxygen,
liver glycogen (muscle glycogen during
intense segments), along with fatty acids
from the liver, circulating blood, and adi-
pose tissue, the muscle energy needs
during aerobic activity are met.
The contribution of the primary sub-
strates (sources) of that energy, however,
may differ significantly depending on the
effort necessary to meet the imposed
demands of that activity. The higher the
intensity (greater effort) of an activity,
the more the body will depend on stored
carbohydrate sources for energy. The
lower the intensity (lesser effort) of an
activity, the more the body depends on
greater percentages of stored fat sources
for energy. (Realize that at any given
time, energy is being provided from both
primary energy sources and proteins, but
for the sake of argument, just concern
yourself with the primary energy
sources.)
When you begin any activity over and
above resting metabolism, the energy
required to perform that activity will first
be supplied by anaerobic (carbohydrate)
metabolism, as it takes several minutes to
mobilize fat in sufficient quantities to
sustain an activity. As activity is contin-
ued, the body “catches up” as oxygen
uptake increases to allow greater utiliza-
tion of oxidized carbohydrate and fat for
energy assuming activity is performed for
a sufficient amount of time. It is when
this oxygen need is met that the aerobic
athlete or fitness enthusiasts experience
their “second wind”.
This transition from an anaerobically
dominated metabolism to an aerobically
dominated metabolism is dependent on
two major factors, intensity and duration
of the activity. Obviously, if an exercise
requires near maximal effort, such as
weight training, which cannot be sus-
tained for long periods of time, your
exercise metabolism will remain primar-
ily dependent on carbohydrate sources
without a need for a significantly
increased oxygen uptake to perform the
activity (anaerobic). Performing an activ-
ity that is of lower intensity such as a fast
walk or a slow jog, maintained for long
periods of time allows for the increase in
oxygen uptake and release of fat stores
necessary to utilize oxidized carbohy-
The Aerobic Exercise Prescription
30
drate and fat as the primary energy
sources (aerobic).
Monitoring Aerobic Exercise
Intensity
Based on the above explanation, eval-
uating and controlling aerobic exercise
intensity is of the utmost importance to
assure progress toward a desired goal.
While there are many methods by which
a personal trainer can estimate functional
capacity and aerobic exercise intensity
(discussed earlier), the least expensive
and easiest method for both trainer and
client to use is simply to monitor heart
rate.
At submaximal workloads there is a
linear relationship between heart rate and
oxygen uptake that is the standard mea-
sure of functional capacity. Therefore, as
aerobic exercise intensity increases, heart
rate increases in direct proportion making
it the ideal method of monitoring aerobic
intensity.
Depending on your source, aerobic
exercise intensity for the typical symp-
tom-free fitness client will fall in the range
of 65% to 85% of his or her functional
capacity with recommendations going as
low as 40% of functional capacity for
those clients with apparent risk factors or
those in an extremely de-conditioned
state (with approval to exercise from
their physician).
Probably the most common method
to calculate exercise heart rate, in
expounding upon earlier discussion, is to
use the Karvonen formula which states
that the exercise heart rate should be at
least the sum of the resting heart rate
(RestHR) plus a percentage of the differ-
ence between the age predicted maximum
(MaxHR) and resting heart rates
(RestHR). The calculation looks like this
for a client exercising at 60% intensity:
ExHR =
RestHR + 0.60 (MaxHR -RestHR);
MaxHR = 220 - age (in years)
 Obviously, as your client’s aerobic
conditioning improves; his or her exer-
cise heart rate will change accordingly.
However, there are situations in which
the calculated estimations exceed a cli-
ent’s ability to perform without excessive
discomfort due to poor conditioning or
non-apparent risk factors. When this sit-
uation occurs, it is helpful to utilize a tool
called a Rating of Perceived Exertion
Scale (RPE) as discussed earlier. These
scales contain both numeric and verbal
categorizations with which the client can
associate the difficulty of the activity,
thus translating the perception of his
effort to you, the trainer in measurable
terms (numbered scale). You can then
make the appropriate adjustments in aer-
obic exercise intensity based on conveyed
difficulty on the part of the participant.
In fact, the trainer could choose to have
the client use the “Borg Scale” to arrive
at a desired intensity of effort and then
take the client’s pulse at that level of exer-
tion. This heart rate could then become
the client’s initial target heart rate. The
most commonly used method of rating
perceived exertion is to use the following
Borg Scale:
Borg Scale Category-Ratio
Scale
6 0 Nothing at all
7 Very, very light 0.5 Very, very weak
8 1 Very weak
9 Very light 2 Weak
10 3 Moderate
11 Fairly light 4 Somewhat strong
12 5 Strong
13 Somewhat hard 6
14 7 Very strong
15 Hard 8 comfortably which explains a wide begin-
16 9 ning intensity range (50-70%) to account
17 Very hard 10 Very, Very strong
18 Maximal
19 Very, very hard
20
The Aerobic Exercise Prescription
31
Aerobic Prescription
With the preceding information in
mind, the aerobic prescription then
becomes a matter of manipulating your
variables of frequency, intensity, dura-
tion, and type of exercise. The following
examples are provided to help you do
just that.
Aerobics & the Fat Reduction Client
Your primary concern with a fat
reduction client is just that, reducing fat.
Due to periods of prolonged inactivity,
this type of client typically has very inef-
ficient fat mobilization and utilization
mechanisms. Unfortunately, when it
comes time to be active, they are very
efficient at using carbohydrates for
energy, which does very little for reduc-
ing their fat stores. Therefore, it is of the
utmost importance that you design your
client’s aerobic exercise prescription to
emphasize fat metabolism while at the
same time de-emphasize the influence of
carbohydrate metabolism. Let your resis-
tance exercise prescription do that.
Knowing that any activity rising rap-
idly over and above resting metabolism
will be initiated via carbohydrate metab-
olism, the intensity of choice for your
beginning aerobic prescription will be
low...VERY LOW when for fat loss. If
you monitor heart rate, what you should
see happen is a slow, progressive increase
over a period of several minutes until
your client’s exercise heart rate reaches
the target heart rate calculated using the
Karvonen formula earlier discussed. You
should also observe a progressive increase
in your client’s respiration, but not to the
point where they are unable to speak
for individual client differences in age,
cardiorespiratory function, and aerobic
conditioning. Obviously, as your client’s
cardiorespiratory function improves, and
goals are taken into consideration, exer-
cise intensity may be progressed as toler-
ated and/or as desired.
With some practice, your client should
be able to effectively utilize the RPE scale
to assist you in monitoring his or her aer-
obic exercise intensity and reduce the
necessity of taking frequent heart rate
measures. In the case of fat reduction,
your client will want to remain at an RPE
of 11, fairly light, plus or minus one level
to assure not to exceed the capacity of
the body to provide sufficient fat for
energy.
While typical recommendations for
aerobic activity range in duration from
15 to 60 minutes per session, the dura-
tion of your exercise sessions for the fat
reduction client should fall towards the
latter and even longer if the exercise
intensity is maintained at the lower end
of the prescribed heart rate intensity
range. This recommendation is also
appropriate for strength athletes wishing
to safely drop fat weight, and the elderly
interested in fat reduction and the mod-
erate cardiorespiratory benefits associ-
ated with this type of activity.
An additional advantage to the lower
exercise intensity in this situation is that
it can be performed much more fre-
quently than more intense aerobic activ-
ity, which is directed primarily at improv-
ing cardiorespiratory conditioning. In
fact, at such low intensities, this type of
exercise can be performed on a daily basis
assuming your client is not on a below
BMR caloric intake.
Recommended types of exercise for
such low-levels of activity fall along the
lines of walking, cycling, stationary bike
riding, and mini trampoline bouncing.
The intensity levels of these forms of
exercise are easy to control, can be pro-
gressed without difficulty, and do not
require development of new skills.
The Aerobic Exercise Prescription
32
As a review for the Fat Reduction
Client:
1) Low intensity (50 to 70% depending
on fitness level)
2) High frequency (fat reduction clients
can exercise more often)
3) Long duration (up to 1 hour or more
at very low intensity levels)
4) Choose types of exercise that can be
performed at low intensity, for long
periods of time that require minimal
coordination, and are rhythmic in
nature.
Aerobics & the
General Fitness
Client
Many of your clients may already be
involved in some sort of fitness program
and come to you looking for guidance
and direction in further improving their
fitness levels, or perhaps they have pro-
gressed from their introductory or fat
reduction stages to a point where they
may want to develop a higher level of fit-
ness. In this case, the general categories
of intensity, duration, frequency, and type
of exercise will remain but will be modi-
fied to fulfill your clients’ fitness goals.
Whereas in the previous example,
exercise intensity remained low to de-
emphasize anaerobic systems, the intensi-
ties prescribed to improve the uptake and
utilization of oxygen and thus aerobic
performance will inevitably stress these
anaerobic systems to some degree. This is
due to the fact that the energy require-
ment of the exercise performed must
exceed the cardiorespiratory system’s
current ability to supply energy aerobi-
cally in order for the desired adaptation
to a higher level of aerobic fitness to
occur. The difference in total energy
expended and the aerobic energy sup-
plied by the cardiorespiratory system is
then supplied by carbohydrate based
anaerobic systems.
Exercise intensities for a client inter-
ested in improving his or her fitness level
will stay within the range of 70 to 85%
of functional capacity (max heart rate).
As in the previous example, intensity will
be adjusted according to the client’s cur-
rent fitness level as well as his or her tol-
erance based on the RPE scale. Ratings of
perceived exertion for a client wishing to
improve his or her fitness level range
from 13, somewhat hard, to 17, very
hard. Again, adjustments should be made
to accommodate each client’s current fit-
ness level.
Ever-increasing exercise intensities
dictate a necessary decrease in the fre-
quency of aerobic training. For your gen-
eral fitness client, aerobic exercise may
be performed between 3 and 5 times per
week. The higher the intensity of the
exercise sessions, the fewer total sessions
per week to allow adequate recovery
between bouts. This will prevent “burn-
out” due to overtraining, and reduce the
likelihood of injuries.
An inverse relationship also exists
between the duration of an exercise ses-
sion and its intensity. Because of the stress
applied to both anaerobic and aerobic
systems during higher intensity training
sessions, it becomes more difficult to
maintain the appropriate exercise inten-
sity due to the progressive depletion of
carbohydrate sources supplying the nec-
essary energy to challenge current fitness
levels. Depending on current fitness levels
and applied exercise intensity, this level
of exercise may also be too uncomfort-
able to continue for extended periods of
time. Typical aerobic training session pre-
scriptions for your general fitness clients
will last from 20 to 30 minutes (not
including warm-up).
It should be noted that although a
progressive increase in aerobic exercise
intensity is beneficial, an eventual “burn-
ing sensation” in localized working mus-
cles is associated with localized lactic acid
build up and should be avoided as this is
The Aerobic Exercise Prescription
33
a clear indicator that anaerobic systems
are being overemphasized and exercise
intensity is too high. This issue is dis-
cussed elsewhere in this text. It is worth
mentioning that contractile inhibiting
lactic acid is ultimately converted back
into energy by the liver after entering the
bloodstream.
The general fitness exercise prescrip-
tion does provide for greater variety in
your client’s training. Aerobic activity in
this case may be more directed toward a
sports-related activity such as running,
roller-blading, cross-country skiing, and
biking, or exercise can be performed on
any number of pieces of aerobic equip-
ment such as treadmills, ski machines,
stair climbers, rowing machines, etc. This
variety plays an important role in client
compliance, as it will make this higher
intensity of exercise more enjoyable.
As a review for the General
Fitness Client:
1) Moderate to high aerobic intensity
(70 to 85%)
2) Moderate frequency of aerobic
exercise (3 to 5 times per week)
3) Moderate duration of aerobic
exercise (average 20-30 minutes per
session)
4) Chose any variety of sport or
exercise activities that are continuous
in nature.
Aerobic Activity & Cellular
Catalyst Function
Aerobics performed at greater than
70% of maximum heart rate, and/or, of a
duration longer than about 60 minutes,
accelerates catalyst (enzyme) function in
the muscle cells. There is then a protein
catalyst depletion. Available cellular
amino acids which ordinarily are spared
for protein synthesis (building tissue),
will then be used to produce more cata-
lysts. If the cellular amino acids cannot
keep up with the continued demand for
catalysts, structural and contractile pro-
teins, actin and myosin, will be catabo-
lized and converted to cellular catalysts.
Since catalysts provide for survival func-
tions, their maintenance and repletion
takes precedence even over the mainte-
nance of muscle tissue. It is important to
note that the greater the intensity of aero-
bic exercise, the greater the cellular cata-
lysts depletion and the greater the risk
of muscle lost through this resulting
cannibalism.
Aerobics & the
Endurance Athlete
The endurance athlete presents a very
special case for personal trainers. Chances
are these athletes have already endured
the rigorous workouts necessary to
achieve an extremely high level of fitness.
Their purpose in coming to you is to
improve their specific endurance event
performance. Essentially, your coopera-
tive goal when working with such an ath-
lete is to maximize their ability to utilize
oxygen (maximal oxygen uptake) and
maximize their ability to perform at that
maximum level for a longer period of
time.
This type of training not only stresses
the aerobic energy systems to their maxi-
mum but also requires a major contribu-
tion from the anaerobic energy systems
as well. However, great care must be
taken to control this anaerobic contribu-
tion as it can inhibit performance by
shutting down muscle function with high
levels of contractile inhibiting lactic acid,
just as easily as it can enhance perfor-
mance by extending the athlete’s ability
to perform at near maximum levels for
extended periods. While this may seem to
be a complex issue, a trainer may objec-
tively monitor this situation using the
same objective measures used in the pre-
vious examples.
To make these improvements in per-
formance it is important to note that it is
not always necessary to train at maximal
intensity to place sufficient stress on the
aerobic and anaerobic systems for the
purpose of increasing maximal oxygen
The Aerobic Exercise Prescription
34
uptake. Research indicates that maximal
oxygen uptake is reached at 80% of a
maximal performance speed for a given
training distance, which is as productive
as an athlete’s performance at 95% of
their maximum heart rate. Therefore,
two simple calculations will provide you
with sufficient information to prescribe
appropriate training intensities based on
either training heart rate or time for that
particular training distance. The follow-
ing will provide you with examples.
Suzy Swimmer can swim 200 meters
in 120 seconds. To calculate the training
interval, which she will use for that
distance, divide the time by 80% as
follows:
120 seconds / 0.80 = 150 seconds
Joe runner is a one-mile run specialist.
He is performing repeated half-mile runs.
During his best-timed half mile run he
had a maximum heart rate of 200 beats
per minute. To calculate Joe’s desired
training heart rate, multiply the maxi-
mum heart rate by 95% as follows:
200 BPM x 0.95 = 190 BPM
Keep in mind that exercises at these
intensities will improve maximal oxygen
uptake while preventing an excessive
contribution from the anaerobic energy
sources. Training at intensities higher
than those mentioned previously will
contribute to further increases in maxi-
mal oxygen uptake at the cost of the abil-
ity to perform a greater number of repeat
intervals. This remains consistent with
our prescription guidelines of decreased
frequency and duration of activity with
increased exercise intensity.
Frequency and duration of exercise
sessions will be modulated according to
intensity as in the previous examples. The
higher the exercise intensity of an aerobic
activity, the less frequently that level of
intense training can be performed. In
other words, if it takes Joe Runner 3 days
to recover from a 90% intensity work-
out, it may take only 1 or 2 days to
recover from a workout at 75% intensity.
Adequate recovery time between higher
intensity training sessions can be deter-
mined through observation of your cli-
ent’s ability to repeat and maintain train-
ing performance over a number of pro-
gressively more intense training sessions
interspersed with several less intense
“recovery” workouts. These more fre-
quent “recovery” workouts are possible
for two reasons.
Firstly, a well-trained aerobic athlete’s
cardiorespiratory system recovers from
exercise very quickly and is rarely a deter-
minate of one’s ability to recover from a
training session.
Secondly, lower intensity “recovery”
workouts place less stress on the anaero-
bic systems since aerobic systems provide
the primary sources of energy at these
lower-levels of intensity. While incom-
plete recovery of the anaerobic systems
are generally responsible for overtraining
and lagging performance, interspersing
these low intensity “recovery” workouts
will not significantly effect the anaerobic
systems still recovering from the most
recent high intensity workout (high inten-
sity being responsible for depletion of the
anaerobic systems).
For these reasons the aerobic systems,
utilizing oxidized carbohydrate, fatty
acids, and slow twitch muscle fibers, can
be trained more frequently by the condi-
tioned athlete to maximize aerobic capac-
ity development. Joe’s training log may
look something like this:
Day % Intensity
1 90%
2 75%
3 80%
4 85%
5 75%
6 90%
7 OFF
8 75%
The Aerobic Exercise Prescription
35
Understand that this is simply an
example and your client’s performance
will vary depending on current fitness
levels, performance goals, and recovery
ability. Most of your athletic client’s
training sessions will be directed toward
performance in their respective activity
(runners will run, swimmers will swim,
etc.). However, it may be necessary at
times to provide alternative activities to
your athletes to prevent injuries, allow
for healing of old injuries, prevent mental
or physical stagnation, or to emphasize
improvement in one particular aspect of
their performance (strength, glycogen
storage, explosive power, finishing kick,
lactic acid tolerance, etc.).
As a review for the endurance
Athlete:
1) Moderate to very high intensity
(70% to maximal effort)
2) Moderate to high frequency
(depending on exercise intensity,
level of conditioning, and event
demands)
3) Moderate to long duration
(depending on exercise intensity,
level of conditioning, and event
demands)
4) Primarily event related activity.
Hitting the Wall
When an aerobic athlete “hits the
wall”, it is primarily due to the exhaus-
tion of muscle glycogen reserves. The
performance and recovery from resis-
tance activity will increase these glycogen
stores, in turn enhancing and prolonging
the aerobic performance of endurance
athletes.
To maximize the duration of aerobic
performance, have your client perform
regular resistance exercise in the higher
rep ranges (20-25) targeting the muscles
to be used in the chosen event. Through
consistency in proper diet and training,
an aerobic athlete can actually practice
the “muscle burning” stage of endurance
performance, and gauge the length of
time he/she can sustain an intense muscle
burning sensation prior to exhaustion.
Maintenance of Aerobic Fitness
So what happens if your client discon-
tinues their prescribed conditioning pro-
gram? Upon cessation of exercise,
improvements in cardiovascular condi-
tioning will progressively return to pre-
training levels over a period of a few
months. This indicates that improve-
ments in aerobic fitness are definitely not
permanent and do require some form of
regular training to be maintained.
To assure maintenance of current fit-
ness levels, aerobic exercise prescriptions
should be designed using the guidelines
indicated for the “general fitness” client.
Intensity may vary to accommodate those
who wish to maintain a higher but not
competitive level of fitness.
Aerobics and Muscle Tissue
Cannibalism
When glucose is depleting during aer-
obic activity, there are stress hormones
released by the adrenal glands to trigger
the liver to release enzymes into the
bloodstream for the deamination and
cannibalism of amino acids, blood pro-
teins, organ tissue, and muscle tissue. In
the absence of glucose during intense aer-
obic activity, the energy needs are beyond
the oxygen and fatty acids’ supply, and
muscle tissue will have to be catabolized
to provide for the balance of the energy
needed to keep up with this continued
demand.
It is interesting to note that the deple-
tion of cellular energy during resistance
exercise triggers the cannibalism of the
intracellular proteins in the working
muscles only, not amino acids, blood pro-
teins, and organ tissue, such as in the case
of aerobic activity.
The Aerobic Exercise Prescription
36
Weight Training and Aerobic
Enhancement
The biggest problem associated with
aerobics and fat loss is the likelihood of
muscle loss (especially with the perfor-
mance of high intensity aerobics). If resis-
tance exercise is not performed to com-
plement the aerobics program, muscle
loss will likely occur, reducing the size of
your calorie burning “machine” and
diminishing its need for calories. If caloric
intake is not reduced in the presence of
muscle loss, unneeded calories will now
be stored as fat.
The most common oversight made by
those seeking to optimize their aerobic
performance is the failure to perform
resistance exercises. The proper perfor-
mance of resistance exercise is essential if
you are to reach your optimum aerobic
capability. Applying resistance exercise in
the case of aerobic performance enhance-
ment is considered a form of specificity
training.
Resistance training with light weight
causes energy depletion in muscle tissues.
The muscle then recovers and adapts to
regular progressive weight training by
storing more energy than before. This
increased storage of energy will then
allow for muscle activity during aerobic
exercise to be maintained longer, as it is
the exhaustion of blood, liver, and muscle
glycogen (sugar) that is responsible for
aerobic failure.
In order to select proper resistance
exercise movements for athletic/aerobic
enhancement (specificity training), simply
determine which muscles are involved in
the desired activity and stress the perfor-
mance of movements involving these
muscles. Prescribe sets of 20 to 25 repeti-
tions to failure. In other words, find a
weight that will allow for the perfor-
mance of somewhere between 20-25 rep-
etitions at the point of exhaustion. The
selection of “compound” movements is
desirable because there is a larger amount
of muscle involved and more energy
recovery glucose uptake between training
bouts will occur “super-saturating” the
muscles involved. Ideally, schedule your
resistance workouts on days you are not
performing intense aerobic activity (ide-
ally, every other day).
Mitochondrial
Re-Education
When you screen a new client and find
that they have not been performing resis-
tance exercise, and their desired goal is to
lose fat, you can effectively use “mito-
chondrial re-education”. Muscle tissue
which has been relatively sedentary from
the absence of resistance exercise, will
become inactive, especially the mitochon-
drial elements inside the muscles whose
function is to create energy inside the
muscle. The process of ingesting carbo-
hydrates immediately after a workout is
considered “mitochondrial re-education”
and will have the same positive effect on
the veteran trainee as the beginner but is
most effective in beginning stages of
weight training. There is but one discern-
ing difference in the principles between
“mitochondrial re-education” and
“force-feeding”. In the case of “force-
feeding” you are immediately performing
some limited intensity aerobic exercise
along with the carbohydrate (all simple
sugar; 100-200 calories) ingestion. On
the other hand, mitochondrial re-educa-
tion speaks only to the ingestion of a car-
The Aerobic Exercise Prescription
37
bohydrate rich meal right after the resis-
tance workout. By providing glucose
immediately after the workout you are
supplying the mitochondria with exactly
what it needs most at exactly the time it
needs it the most. This will more quickly
teach the beginner’s sedentary muscles
how to perform work and recover from
work. The high carbohydrate post-work-
out meal will provide the sedentary mito-
chondria with a “crash course” in energy
uptake.
Due to the lack of efficiency in the
“un-educated” mitochondria, the begin-
ner’s post-workout carbohydrate intake,
as well as the total post-workout calories,
should be relatively low. Otherwise, the
depleted muscle will be bombarded with
more blood glucose than its sedentary
mitochondria are capable of using. This
excess insulin-carried blood glucose will
then bypass the muscle, and be eventu-
ally stored as fat!
After about 2 weeks of consistent “fat
conversion training”, gradually increase
the carbohydrates and total calories in
the newly “educated” client’s post-work-
out meal. This meal should, in the future,
always contain plenty of complex carbo-
hydrates. Since fat is used to convert
blood glucose into stored muscle glyco-
gen between workouts, the more carbo-
hydrates the muscle is able to take up,
the greater the fat utilization and re-
hydration during recovery.
 SECTION 4

Aerobics for Fat Loss

Aerobics for Fat Loss

Aerobics for fat loss should be performed at low intensity over longer
periods. As discussed earlier, when considering aerobics for fat loss,
remember that the body burns the same number of calories walking
1 mile as it burns running 1 mile. And, interestingly enough, since the
faster pace burns more sugar, choosing to walk the distance will result
in the greatest number of expended fat calories for the average apparently
healthy individual.

Aerobics for Fat Loss

38
Aerobics & Metabolism...
There are misconceptions concerning
the performance of aerobics and increased
metabolism. Anywhere from 65% to
90% of the total calories expended during
the performance of aerobic activity
come from fat (these percentages vary
depending upon the intensity of the activ-
ity and the individual’s level of aerobic
conditioning). This makes aerobic condi-
tioning the most effective form of exer-
cise for fat calorie expenditure. However,
due to the relatively short-lived effect
aerobic activity has on the metabolism,
the performance of aerobic activity does
not result in continued fat mobilization
for extended periods during rest between
aerobic sessions. Therefore, even the
regular performance of aerobic activity
does not directly accelerate the rate that
foods are broken down, (i. e. increased
metabolism.)
Weight Training
Low-level Activity as a Fat Loss Tool
Low-level activity is always the safest
fat loss method, and should sometimes
be considered the only form of recom-
mended exercise among special popula-
tions and older individuals. During low-
level activity, fat is taken up in amounts
sufficient to alone meet energy demands.
This prevents the unnecessary depletion
of blood sugar and liver glycogen, which
could contribute to undue exhaustion
among some special populations and
older clients who have been extremely
sedentary.
Low-level activity refers to activity
that does not cause the average exercise
heart rate to exceed approximately 125
BPM. Everyone can in most cases safely
perform low-level activity. This may sur-
prise you, but by definition, low to mod-
erate intensity resistance exercise is
viewed, in some cardiorespiratory-based
scientific circles, as low-level activity. The
average exercise heart rate while per-
forming resistance exercise may fall
Aerobics for Fat Loss
39
below 125 BPM dependent upon the
length of between set recovery periods.
Some studies indicate that even post
open-heart surgery patients can perform
low-level activity within a matter of days
after surgery. In another test, subjects
who experienced contraindications upon
performing aerobic activity seemed to be
able to perform low-level activity with no
ill side effects at all. This, however, does
not mean it is safe for you to administer
exercise to someone who is at risk or who
experiences contraindications. In these
cases, you will need to consult their
Physician.
As a reminder, contraindications to all
forms of physical activity are: joint pain,
nausea, rapid pulse, excessive sweating,
extreme muscle soreness, cramping, and
chest pain.
When the client is a serious fat loss
resistance exercise enthusiast, you need
to know as much as possible about how
resistance exercise can be altered to max-
imize fat loss. As you are probably aware,
there are several fat loss tools available
(recreational sports, aerobics, walking,
dieting, etc.). But, what you probably
don’t realize is that resistance exercise
offers the most effective tool. Let’s look
at the fundamental application of resis-
tance exercise and what it has to offer in
terms of fat loss.
Realize first of all, that for the pur-
poses of this manual, foods you eat are
destined to provide the individual cell
(muscle fiber) with nutrients and build-
ing blocks for survival energy. With this
understanding, let’s draw a comparison
between muscle tissue, and a common
sponge. The water in the bucket repre-
sents nutrients to include fatty acids (fats)
and blood sugar (carbohydrates). Now,
with a fully saturated sponge, begin
washing your car. The longer you use this
sponge without dipping back into the
bucket, the more water you squeeze out
of it. The same is true with muscle. The
longer the muscle is contracting without
rest, the more energy is depleted. Dipping
your sponge back into the bucket refills
your sponge so you are once again ready
to perform more work. Once again, the
muscle is the same, only not quite as fast
to replete as the sponge. The depleted
muscle absorbs energy from the blood
between exercise sessions. The real key to
resistance exercise and fat loss is that
fatty-acids (fats) from fat stores exclu-
sively provide the energy the muscle uses
during the replacement of muscle energy
(glycogen). Therefore, the more energy
(glycogen) you deplete in your resistance
exercise session, the more fat your body
must release to re-fill these stores between
workouts. It’s just that simple. Muscle
energy depletion is the key to resistance
exercise and fat loss.
With this concept in mind, there are
several fat loss resistance training princi-
ples that apply. Your fat loss goal can be
best achieved by using a weight light
enough to enable you to perform 20-25
repetitions per set with some difficulty,
but an all out effort is not necessary. This
will help to deplete muscle energy while
causing little tissue damage. Since you
will not be causing much tissue damage
there is less recovery between workouts
required and the client can train more
often. Perform several of these high repe-
tition sets. Performing more total sets
will obviously help to deplete as much
energy as possible.
Setting up the
program
Using (3) basic compound movements
(movements which involve the most
amount of muscle possible), a pulling
Aerobics for Fat Loss
40
movement, a pushing movement, and a
leg pressing or squatting movement, per-
form a circuit routine. The more muscle
you involve, the more energy you deplete,
and the more energy you deplete, the
more fat you will lose. In performing this
circuit routine, you should start with
your pushing movement of choice. When
you complete a set, move on to your pull-
ing movement. Next, move to your final
movement, the pressing or squatting
exercise. Upon completing this move-
ment, you are ready to begin your circuit
routine all over again. To start, perform
only three (3) circuits. As the client better
recovers, and overall condition is improv-
ing, simply add more circuits to your
routine. When and if cardio is desired,
begin shortening the recovery periods
between exercises watching for contrain-
dications. Remember, it is not intensity
you should concern yourself with, it is
the volume of work performed that con-
stitutes effective fat loss resistance exer-
cise. The real exciting benefit resistance
exercise offers over any other fat loss
tool, is the ability to maintain or even
gain lean weight while losing fat. This
effect is impossible to achieve using any
other fat loss method.
Spot Reduction
is Physiological
Impossibility
Claims Made by the Experts…
There exists a disregard for physiolog-
ical facts on the part of those profiting
from the sale of “muscle-specific” exer-
cise devices claiming their use to result in
localized fat loss. For example, perform-
ing abdominal exercises using any one of
the currently marketed “ab-isolating”
devices, or even doing appropriately pre-
scribed sit-ups for that matter, does little
or nothing to rid the waistline of fat as is
so often claimed. These devices and the
above stated exercise have value in con-
ditioning muscles in the abdominal region
but that is the extent of their usefulness.
This is not to diminish the need for core
training, simply to state that it does not
lend to fat loss.
Understandably, the overweight and
unfit want so badly to find an easy answer
that little can be done to discourage their
purchase of inappropriately marketed
and only marginally valuable devices. In
the face of professionally produced info-
mercials and advertisements touting cred-
ible endorsements, it is definitely an
uphill battle to educate consumers to the
contrary.
Common Sense –vs.- Spot Reduction
There is simply no such things as local-
ized extramuscular fat loss, no matter
how biomechanical correct the device,
the credibility of the endorsement, or the
form/type of exercise prescribed.
Consumers are in desperate need of
insight through fitness education that
dispels otherwise believable myths such
as these localized fat loss claims. Fitness
education leads to understanding, and
understanding leads to the design of no-
nonsense, effective overall fitness pro-
grams.
Any learned and experienced personal
fitness trainer would tell you that resis-
tance exercises performed for a specific
muscle group will not result in fat loss
only in and around the target muscle
group area. Take the misguided, over-
weight beginning resistance trainee who
religiously performs biceps curls and no
other resistance exercise. After several
months in the gym will this, now sea-
soned trainee be boasting lean hard biceps
attached to an otherwise fat sloppy phy-
sique? Imagine running, being one of the
most researched and long-practiced types
of fat burning exercises, resulting in local-
ized fat loss. If indeed localized fat loss
were possible among runners, why aren’t
initially overweight runners now sporting
Aerobics for Fat Loss
41
unchanged overweight upper torsos bal-
anced atop lean, well-conditioned and
muscular legs? After all, aren’t the lower
extremities solely involved in this type of
activity? There is no difference between
these ridiculous considerations and the
claims made that training abdominals
results in fat loss around the waistline. It
just doesn’t work that way. Period.
Aerobics, Meta-
bolism, and Extra-
muscular Fat Loss?
Let’s take time to clear up a few mis-
conceptions. Increasing your lean weight
through size and strength training may
ultimately result in a greater fat reduction
than performing aerobics. Over 60% of
the average person’s total weight is lean
muscle tissue. Muscle tissue is similar to
a machine and the bigger the machine,
the more fat it will burn around the clock.
Aerobic exercise requires energy from fat
reserves only during and shortly after the
exercise.
Aerobics and Metabolism?
Once again, proper size and strength
training requires recovery energy produc-
tion around the clock; hence, an increased
metabolism. On the other hand, aerobics
require only about 30-45 minutes of
recovery energy production, and the body
then reverts back to its original metabolic
state. With this understanding, the belief
that aerobics increase metabolism is
clearly a myth. Moreover, where metabo-
lism is concerned, aerobics can poten-
tially cause muscle tissue loss, and a
decrease in metabolism (discussed else-
where). So if you’re packing around a
few extra pounds in the off-season refine
your diet and increase your weight train-
ing. Doing aerobics at this point may
prove counter-productive if your goal is
strictly to increase size and strength.
 If your only intention is to improve
cardiorespiratory fitness, consume addi-
tional carbohydrate calories to offset aer-
obic expenditures and help spare muscle
loss. If and when you decide to perform
aerobic activity, follow these basic con-
cepts and guidelines...
Limit your initial aerobic sessions to
3-4 times per week. Keep your heart rate
at not more than 70% of maximum (Max
HR=220-age). Exercise no longer than
20-30 minutes per session. Monitor
strength levels during this period (if
strength drops off, reduce aerobic activ-
ity).
Those who tend to gain weight easily,
have a low metabolic rate. Those who
have trouble gaining weight, have a high
metabolic rate. Your present metabolic
rate will dictate how much aerobic activ-
ity you can perform while minimizing the
risk of muscle tissue loss. The lower your
metabolic rate, the less muscle tissue you
will lose performing aerobics. The higher
your metabolic rate, the more muscle
tissue you will lose performing aerobics.
The more fat you have, the more will-
ing the body will sacrifice fat stores. As
you get leaner, the body will be less will-
ing to sacrifice extramuscular survival fat
stores. The following principles are
designed to further stubborn fat loss
during a “fat loss refusal” period:
1) As fat loss becomes more stubborn,
gradually reduce your target heart
rate to the point of walking (aerobics
now becomes low-level activity).
2) Gradually increase the duration of
your walking (or other chosen low-
level activity) to as long as it is
practical.
3) Increase the frequency of the low-
level activity. Walk or perform your
chosen low-level activity as often as
possible.
4) With prolonged starvation a slight
increase in total calories may be
helpful in losing additional fat.
Aerobics for Fat Loss
42
5) Lastly, performing resistance exercise
more frequently in greater volume
and at lower intensity.
All of the above guidelines will assist
you in maintaining cardiorespiratory
health, and/or losing as much extramus-
cular fat as possible, while sparing hard-
earned muscle tissue. Always consider
aerobic activity a supplemental tool for
fat loss, with changes in the frequency
and duration of your resistance training
routine remaining paramount.
Lets get back to aerobics vs. size and
strength training. Aerobic activity can
wreak havoc on developing muscle tissue.
Aerobics can sometime deprive the recov-
ering muscle of badly needed nutrients.
For instance, Amino acids bound for
muscle tissue uptake are often deami-
nated and used for energy during aerobic
activity. Intercellular catalysts in muscle
function and deplete at an accelerated
rate, slowing anabolic (growth & recov-
ery), function in the cells. Blood glucose
levels drop during aerobic activity, deny-
ing the muscle recovery energy. Also, aer-
obics have been shown to increase the
degradation (breakdown) rate Growth
Hormone (GH is a required precursor to
protein synthesis) as well as testosterone.
With increased intensity and duration of
aerobic activity muscles are undesirably
cannibalized for energy.
Intense aerobic sessions are your
muscles’ worst enemy. Generally speak-
ing, during intense aerobic activity, extra-
muscular fat is released into the blood
and taken up by tissue cells at a specific
rate and no more, dependent on several
factors. This means, that whenever your
level of exertion exceeds your fat supply,
the balance of energy will have to come
from somewhere else. The body will
resort to exhausting available blood glu-
cose, then liver glycogen, then muscle
glycogen, then amino acids, and then the
muscle tissue itself will be cannibalized.
All things considered then, if extramus-
cular fat loss is desired, why exercise at
an intensity level higher than the optimal
rate fat can be released? In addition to
resistance training, the aforementioned
guidelines concerning low-level activity
should be your fat loss method of choice.
Body Tissue
Protein
Requirements
There is a method of exacting the
amount of protein required by the indi-
vidual through testing. UUN - Urinary
Urea Nitrogen - nitrogen can be mea-
sured in the urine. Of consequent impor-
tance, the majority of commonly ingested
proteins are 16% nitrogen. Therefore,
for every 100 grams of ingested dietary
protein, about 16 grams are nitrogen.
Explaining the significance of this
realization is to determine the amount of
your ingested nitrogen and then compare
this to the amount of nitrogen excreted in
the urine (UUN test). The following are
conclusions that can then be objectively
drawn from this comparison.
Lean tissue loss - If you are excreting
more nitrogen than you are ingesting,
you are losing lean weight and other body
proteins (negative nitrogen balance).
Lean tissue maintenance - If you are
excreting an amount of nitrogen compa-
rable to the amount ingested, you are
allowing for tissue maintenance but not
growth (nitrogen balance or equilib-
rium).
Lean tissue increase - If you are
excreting less nitrogen than you are
ingesting, you are providing the materials
with which to build lean tissue (positive
nitrogen balance).
Scientists contend that protein intake
need not exceed 10-15% of total ingested
calories even in the case of size and
strength training. In contrast, strength
athletes are generally in favor of consid-
Aerobics for Fat Loss
43
erably higher protein intake. Before con-
tinuing, it is worth mentioning on behalf
of the athlete, that protein needs do
increase with increased training intensity.
The greater the body tissue breakdown
the greater the protein requirement. On
behalf of the scientist, too much protein
may cause liver and kidney damage
(mostly to those genetically pre-disposed),
as will be discussed later. UUN testing is
costly and impractical but exacting.
A note to scientists - Too little protein
intake in conjunction with proper
strength training will result in a detect-
able negative nitrogen balance as earlier
explained. To slightly increase dietary
protein, while monitoring nitrogen bal-
ance, will allow one to arrive at his/her
specific, genetically based protein needs.
Keep in mind these needs vary based on
changes in training intensity and resis-
tance used as mentioned earlier.
A note to athletes - Too much protein
intake may cause you problems should
you have an existing liver or kidney dis-
order. The liver must break down the
excess ingested protein over and above
the body’s needs. Deamination is dis-
cussed in more detail elsewhere in this
text. When deamination occurs, toxins
derived from this excess ingested protein
may cause further liver and kidney
damage. On a high protein diet, excessive
urea can be found in the urine. This indi-
cates that protein ingestion is far too
high. However, high protein diets for
strength-trained individuals appears to
be relatively safe and also requires the
increased ingestion of water.
In summary, everyone has differing
genetic protein needs, and different types
of training have differing protein
demands. Any mention of protein require-
ments in this manual is strictly for the
purpose of establishing a reference point
from which to make changes. The only
way to get around the protein require-
ment controversy is through nitrogen
detection (UUN).
Body Tissue
Energy Production
Now that we have discussed body
tissue protein requirements, let’s discuss
how these same tissues convert nutrients
into energy.
ATP is the only form of energy mus-
cles can use. Knowing this, ATP is already
synthesized and stored in the tissue cells,
so you can perform immediate strenuous
work, such as picking up a heavy object,
or walking up a flight of stairs. The fol-
lowing events occur in the cell to produce
ATP energy:
First, there are about 4 seconds worth
of ATP already stored in the cells. After
this period of sustained muscle contrac-
tions ATP in the working muscle is
exhausted and the cells resort to the use
of Creatine Phosphate and ADP to create
more ATP that can provide energy for
about another 25-30 seconds. The cell
has a total combined storage of energy
available to last up to about 30-35 sec-
onds during sustained muscle contraction
before the cell must resort to the conver-
sion and use of stored muscle glycogen.
When energy is needed for longer than
30-35 seconds, stored muscle glycogen is
broken down into the form Pyruvate to
produce ATP. During slightly longer peri-
ods, oxygen acquired from the blood
assists Pyruvate creating ATP (sometimes
referred to as metabolic oxidation.) These
energy pathways are common in continu-
ous tension resistance exercise and during
the performance of strenuous work.
Also, in resistance exercise, oxygen
transport into the working muscles
during a set (continuous tension) is lim-
ited based on the amount of time the
muscle is contracted compared to the
amount of time the muscle is in a relaxed
state. When the muscle is in a contracted
state, nothing can get in or out of the
cells, including oxygen. During these con-
Aerobics for Fat Loss
44
tractions, the muscle cell membrane is
said to be impermeable.
Therefore, the amount of work that
can be performed during prolonged sus-
tained contraction will be limited in part
by the amount of intracellular energy
stored in the muscle at the onset of con-
traction. This production of ATP in the
absence of oxygen is known as Anaerobic
Glycolysis.
When a contraction includes brief
periods of relaxation, oxygen can be
taken up from outside the cell assisting
pyruvate in producing more ATP energy.
This relaxation period will slightly
increase the duration of the contractions.
Also, oxygen uptake and waste removal
during relaxation, both act to offset the
accumulation of the contractile inhibiting
end product of anaerobic glycolysis,
Lactic Acid. And since lactic acid accu-
mulation inhibits the contraction of a
muscle fiber, the contractions would be
prolonged. With relaxation pauses, ATP
is produced from pyruvate, the end prod-
uct of glycolysis in the presence of oxygen,
in a process called oxidative phosphory-
lation, also known as metabolic oxida-
tion.
Since the heart and lungs are some-
what slow in delivering oxygen during
the onset of aerobic activity, the pyruvate
is used for energy until the heart and
lungs catch up and can keep up with the
oxygen demand. The rate of breathing is
extremely labored at the onset of aerobic
exercise because the heart is not yet beat-
ing fast enough nor are the blood vessels
dilated sufficiently to provide an ade-
quate volume of oxygenated blood to the
working muscles, and the lungs are trying
to compensate until the heart and blood
vessels do catch up.
Once the heart and cardiorespiratory
system catches up and can provide suffi-
cient oxygenated blood, the respiration
decreases, and the needed oxygen is being
provided. This occurrence is commonly
referred to as “catching your second
wind”. This occurrence indicates that the
majority of energy provided to produce
ATP is coming from an aerobic mix of
oxygen, glucose, AND Fatty Acids. The
simple logic is that fatty acids require
large amounts of oxygen before they can
be efficiently used for ATP energy pro-
duction, and these large volumes of
oxygen can only be provided through the
increased cardiorespiratory activity
accompanying aerobics. Simply put,
during the performance of aerobic activ-
ity, increasing amounts of fatty acids and
oxygen are used for ATP production.
This form of ATP production is called
Aerobic Metabolism, and will rarely; if
ever occur during the proper performance
of weight resistance exercise.
Fat Begets Fat
For years there has been an unfounded
and inconclusive assumption among sev-
eral health and medical professionals that
the over-ingestion of fats is solely respon-
sible for overweight conditions among
otherwise apparently healthy individuals
(not diseased). Moreover, some contend
that body fat increases linearly to fat
ingestion. These may very well be incor-
rect and unsubstantiated claims. Some of
these sources even go so far as to say that
large quantities of protein and carbohy-
drates can be ingested without contribut-
ing to fat deposit at all. To respond… a
calorie is a calorie, is a calorie.
The belief that fat begets fat is long-
standing, but not conclusively researched
by leading scientific and medical organi-
zations. Due to the widespread accep-
tance of health related publications, and
broadcasts re-enforcing the previously
unquestioned fat begets fat nutritional
assumption, the collective attitude of the
American people now mirrors this nutri-
tional falsehood.
Although fat is not a preferred source
of calories, it is just that - a source of cal-
Aerobics for Fat Loss
45
ories - just as carbohydrates and proteins
are sources of calories. The body has a
(3) step priority sequence concerning its
nutritional needs.
1st Nutritional Priority…
Its first priority is to be provided with
enough total calories (regardless of
source) for conversion and use in meeting
energy demands (to be discussed below).
2nd Nutritional Priority…
Secondly, after this first priority is
addressed, the body then sorts through
these calories looking to apply different
macro-nutrient calorie sources to its
needs. example - using carbohydrates for
brain function, blood sugar maintenance,
and liver & muscle glycogen replenish-
ment; using proteins for tissue repair,
blood protein synthesis, and catalyst for-
mation; using fats for membrane forma-
tion, hormone production, synovial fluid,
arterial insulation, and energy storage.
3rd Nutritional Priority…
Third and lastly, the body will seek
out and extract valuable micro-nutrients
from the ingested calorie sources. The
more natural the calorie source, the more
rich the nutrient content and the less need
the body will have to draw from its own
enzymatic resources (common with
empty calorie ingestion).
The above has been a brief and simpli-
fied description of the body’s nutrient
priority system.
It is certainly true that ingested fats
are more easily converted to their storage
form than proteins and carbohydrates.
However, consider that fat cells are
extremely active metabolically. This
simply means that fat cells are constantly
storing and releasing fatty acids & glyc-
erol all day long. Therefore, fat stored at
one point in time will be released for
energy needs at another point in time
they will be stored for future energy
needs. A diet, even if consisting entirely
of fat, still satisfies step (1) of the nutri-
ent priority system which effects total
body weight as outlined in the above
“priority” contention. It is true this type
of diet is viewed as being extremely
unhealthy as it does not satisfy steps (2) &
(3) of the body’s nutrient priority system.
What this all boils down to, is that the
human body, undesirably, can actually
survive on a maintenance caloric intake
consisting almost exclusively of fat calo-
ries so long as these calories provide the
body with its energy needs. Cases in
point-Eskimos have been considered
some of the healthiest people on the face
of the earth, practically absent of disease
and/or obesity. To many of the above
learned health professionals this repre-
sents a scientific phenomenon, since the
mainstay of the Eskimos diet has always
been whale blubber (fat). For the sake of
argument, let’s consider fat begets fat a
given, and assume also that the Eskimo
shares the same internal body functions
as the rest of us. By ingesting all this
whale blubber, the Eskimos should take
on an overweight, unhealthy appearance
similar to that of the very beasts they tra-
ditionally feed upon. However, as dis-
cussed earlier, this is not the case at all.
On the contrary, they are quite healthy
and strong. This means that eating fat
not always makes us fat.
It is the comparison of the number of
total calories ingested to the number of
total calories expended that reflects a true
measure of weight gain or loss. This phi-
losophy holds the answers to the dilemma
of the Eskimo, and since we are all cre-
ated equal, our own personal weight
maintenance dilemmas as well.
The Eskimos, not unlike us, expend
calories throughout the course of a day
that need to be replaced through the
ingestion of food stuffs. If the calories
expended equal the calories ingested,
there will be no long-term accumulation
of fat storage. If the calories expended
are less than the calories ingested, fat will
be deposited. And lastly, if the calories
expended are greater than the calories
Aerobics for Fat Loss
46
ingested, fat loss will occur. National
Federation of Professional Trainers in no
way advocates or condones high fat
intake, as it has been clearly linked with
cardiovascular diseases. In closing… a
calorie, is a calorie, is a calorie.
Is Fat Friend
or Foe?
There are several misconceptions con-
cerning fat and the role it plays in main-
taining the adaptability of the human
body. For instance, if it were not for fat
reserves the body would surely die. As a
reminder, the body is an adaptive mecha-
nism. Fat is actually transported and
stored in different locations based on the
exercise and activity needs imposed on
the body.
Ingested fat is of 2 types, saturated,
containing cholesterol; and unsaturated,
which does not contain cholesterol. Both
contribute equally to fat accumulation. It
is also interesting to note that in the
absence of dietary fat, excess carbohy-
drates and proteins are converted and
stored as fat. The end result being the
same, only the process is slower. For this
reason, a calorie, is a calorie, is a calorie.
A high total caloric intake, even low in
fat, is more likely to contribute to fat
accumulation than a low total caloric
intake consisting of moderate to high
levels of ingested fat.
Under temporary restrictive dietary
conditions (pertaining to those individu-
als with average metabolisms), the body
is deprived of its needed total calories in
the first place, and it becomes desperate
for ingested calories it can use for energy...
even if they are fat calories. This was
touched upon in the previous chapter.
When the body’s demand for total calo-
ries is once again met, it then becomes
important to restrict the now overabun-
dant fat calorie consumption, because
now these fat calories are surplus, and
will be readily stored in fat cells. Simply
put, in relation to low calorie diets, the
body’s nutrition priority system places
quantity first and then quality. If your
metabolism is slow however, the quality
of the low calorie diet becomes more
important as it sooner reaches the endo-
morph’s lower maintenance calorie
levels.
Even with this understanding, it is still
obvious that avoiding excess fat intake is
the healthy thing to do. There is no excuse
for a healthy diet to consist of more than
20-25% fat with an acceptable macro-
nutrient breakdown reflected in the
“Nutrition Tables” section later in this
manual.

Aerobics for Fat Loss

47
 SECTION 5

Cross Training and

Athletic Events
Muscle Endurance & Athletic Events
In lay terms, a burning sensation in the musculature involved in an
activity is common to the performance of all types of athletics that are
of a duration and/or intensity sufficient to require muscle energy at a
faster rate than allows for timely and adequate extramuscular energy
provision, and intramuscular removal of wastes. This lends to a common
physiological phenomenon most often characterized by the term
“burning” sensation. This “burning” sensation represents the most
prominent indicator to any event participant that he/she is now to a
lesser extent drawing upon energy reserves from outside the muscles
(blood glucose, oxygen, fatty acids, etc.), while to a greater extent
drawing from muscle energy reserves inside the muscle fibers (muscle
glycogen). In all forms of athletic events, the occurrence of these
phenomena hastens the onset of fatigue and significantly reduces the
efficiency of muscular work performed. For this reason, the duration
and severity of the above described burning sensation should be
controlled, when and if possible (as many forms of athletics inherently
use this energy pathway), in an effort to prolong optimum
performance.

Cross Training and Athletic Events

48
 The above discussed “burning” sensa-
tion, whether associated with aerobic,
incremental, or anaerobic activities,
equates to the same thing; an increase in
the use of muscle glycogen (sugar in the
muscles) for energy due to increased
muscle tissue involvement and contrac-
tions.
As we all know, sugar, regardless of its
internal reserve location (liver, blood, or
muscle), is expended faster and is burned
less efficiently when used for sustained
activity energy than fatty acids, and if
drawn upon too heavily in any activity,
will prematurely cause muscle perfor-
mance failure. The longer the scheduled
duration of an activity the more impor-
tant the avoidance of this “burning” sen-
sation and the shorter the duration of an
endurance activity the greater the need
for tolerance of this “burning” sensation.
Remember that when working with ath-
letes, you must impress upon them that
failure does not result from the sensation
of pain rather the complete exhaustion of
muscle glycogen which may occur several
seconds and in some cases several min-
utes after the initial burning sensation. In
all forms of exercise (with the exception
of extremely heavy resistance training
where structural tissue fails), absolute &
total failure is reached with sugar deple-
tion as the primary contributing factor.
Athlete Pain
Management
A methodology developed by NFPT
entitled “Athlete Pain Management”
addresses the endurance athlete’s learned
ability to vary their level of effort around
the burning sensation and use it as a
means of gauging reserve energy. For
example, a 1,000 meter runner may chose
to push as quickly as possible to the onset
of this pain threshold and then maintain
this level of intensity throughout the
event for an optimum maintained pace
Cross Training and Athletic Events
49
from start to finish. Or, the athlete may
want to avoid this sensation for some
portion of the event preserving the inten-
sity-driven pain for a final exhaustive
“kick”. In either case, the serious endur-
ance athlete’s envisioned goal should
always be to come as close as humanly
possible to reaching total exhaustion
(complete disregard and tolerance of the
pain) at the instant of event completion.
Training To
Improve Muscle
Endurance
In all athletic event preparation, espe-
cially when the nature of an athletic event
is such that the form of energy provision
inherent to the activity unavoidably elic-
its this “burning” sensation, appropriate
muscle endurance conditioning should be
prescribed. Extremely high repetition
resistance exercises for appropriate mus-
culature should be applied in an effort to
#1-increase the participant’s tolerance
level to the training induced duplicated
burning sensation through the repetitious
and relentless application of greater and
greater intensity. #2-consequently train
those specific muscles involved in the
activity to adapt by increasing energy
stores and building more energy burning
mitochondria. Proper recovery from this
type of resistance training will afford the
athlete greater starting energy stores
resulting in the off-set of total muscle
energy exhaustion and a greater tolerance
threshold.
The above applied measures will result
in adaptation through the formation of
new intercellular organelles, improved
collateral circulation (oxygen & nutrient
provision), and the overall enhancement
of the appropriate intercellular energy
pathways. Performance improvements
will be reflected in the offset, tolerance,
elimination, and/or minimized severity of
the burning occurrence, all of which
point to greater muscle energy efficiency
and prolonged performance capability.
And the bottom line is? Optimizing
muscle endurance and gaining the wisdom
to control it, are the true seldom consid-
ered keys to athletic success in virtually
every incremental or endurance sport.
Intro to
Specificity Training
It is well known that the widely
accepted ‘general fitness prescription’
consists of segments to include both aer-
obic as well as resistance exercise. This is
all well and good but what about the fit-
ness enthusiast who wishes to be more
specific concerning the application of his/
her exercise program relative to a goal
oriented athletic endeavor?
The pursuit or enhancement of ath-
letic ability via the application of aerobic
and or resistance conditioning is com-
monplace among personal trainer clients.
The personal trainer will come across all
varieties of recreational and competitive
athletes ranging from the marathon
runner to the power-lifter. In this event,
the personal trainer cannot hide behind
his or her superior understanding and
effective application of a general fitness
prescription. These athletes will require
an individually tailored conditioning pro-
gram.
On one end of the continuum the
marathon runner will need to almost
completely focus on aerobic conditioning
with less emphasis on resistance training.
Somewhere in the center of the contin-
uum, the boxer, basketball, and football
player will need a mix of aerobics and
resistance conditioning. On the other end
of the continuum the bodybuilder and
power-lifter will need to almost com-
pletely focus on resistance conditioning
Cross Training and Athletic Events
50
with less emphasis on aerobic condition-
ing. As a personal trainer it is your job to
make the determination regarding the
timing, proportion, volume, and intensity
of aerobic and resistance exercise condi-
tioning. Keep in mind that NO client
should ever completely exclude aerobic
or resistance training from his or her
overall exercise program as both are
required toward the universal goal of
good health.
Many would argue that an aerobic
effect could be achieved while perform-
ing resistance training with little or no
rest between sets. By definition, in order
for an aerobic effect to be achieved the
participant must maintain a heart rate
that is at least 70% of maximum for a
period no shorter than 20 minutes and
perform this activity 3-4 times per week.
Resistance exercise is incremental in
nature. This means that the heart rate
and exercise intensity varies as the work-
out is performed. With this in mind an
aerobic effect, as defined above, cannot
be achieved during resistance exercise. In
contrast to this, have you ever performed
intense multiple sets of squats in the 12-
15 repetition range back to back? It defi-
nitely feels like you are working the car-
diorespiratory system doesn’t it? The
question is can you do this for 20 min-
utes? There is no doubt that a cardiore-
spiratory benefit can be achieved during
resistance training, however short of
reaching an aerobic threshold.
When balancing aerobics and resis-
tance training, it is strongly suggested
that intense aerobic and anaerobic (resis-
tance) exercises NOT be performed on
the same day. Energy reserves may be
tapped from the liver, blood, and work-
ing muscles to the extent that cannibal-
ism of muscle tissue occurs during recov-
ery. This constitutes over-training and is
obviously undesirable. It is acceptable
however, to combine light aerobics with
intense resistance training, or to combine
light resistance training with intense aer-
obic training. Attention must be paid to
the athlete’s diet when imposing exhaus-
tive resistance and or aerobic training.
Sufficient calories must be ingested to
replace expended energy. This will spare
lean tissue loss and assure optimum
energy levels for the next exercise bout.
To summarize, one needs a blend of
both aerobic and anaerobic exercise.
Aerobic exercise conditions the cardiore-
spiratory system while anaerobic exercise
conditions the skeletal muscle tissue. The
cardiorespiratory system acts as a sup-
port system to provide for the needs of
body tissues, predominantly muscle. The
muscles then in turn provide for locomo-
tion and the performance of all activities.
When attempting to balance aerobic and
resistance exercise performance for over-
all health, realize that one is no less
important than the other.
More on
Specificity Training
There is no question that the improved
coordination and motor skill enhance-
ment acquired through the repetitious
performance of a specified athletic activ-
ity constitutes the foundation of athletic
development. With this in mind, the com-
plete athlete constantly strives to improve
those systems which support his or her
physical endeavors, thus taking perfor-
mance to new levels of achievement.
To closely examine the unique and
specific biomechanical movements of the
body while performing a given activity
and to then effectively prescribe individ-
ual stretches, resistance exercises, and
aerobic activities that directly involve the
musculature and energy pathways unique
to that activity can be referred to as spec-
ificity training. The complete understand-
ing of specificity in training is a must for
all exercise administrators from health
club staff members and personal trainers,
to professional athletic trainers.
Cross Training and Athletic Events
51
All sports and athletic activities involv-
ing the skilled movement of skeletal and
soft tissue in the achievement of a coordi-
nated measurable and goal specific effort
can be enhanced through the application
of variations of the anaerobic and aero-
bic exercise prescriptions outlined in this
publication. Before you can prescribe
effective sports-specific exercise regimens,
you must first be able to clearly identify
an individual sport’s fundamentally
imposed energy and strength (condition-
ing) demands. Making this initial deter-
mination is the basis of every successful
sport-specific enhancement exercise pre-
scription.
For our purposes, beyond coordina-
tion of neuromuscular activity and motor
skill development, specific athletic activi-
ties can generally be placed into one of
three basic conditioning categories; 1)
Anaerobic, 2) Incremental, and 3)
Aerobic. Identifying the general condi-
tioning category in which a sport falls, is
the most logical way to initiate an effec-
tive sports-specific resistance exercise
prescription.
Anaerobic
Sports that involve activities requiring
significant muscle strength with little
muscle endurance; are performed with
less cardiorespiratory involvement and
high muscle contractile intensity; require
comparatively short bursts of energy
maintained over periods of short dura-
tion and rely heavily on carbohydrate
energy sources.
Incremental
Sports that involve comparatively
equal muscle strength and endurance;
require the intermittent performance of
both high and low intensity muscle and
cardiorespiratory activity; are performed
over periods of moderate duration; cause
a varying fluctuation of training heart
rate with a moderate to high average
exercise heart rate; rely on both carbohy-
drate and fat energy sources.
Aerobic
Sports that require muscular endur-
ance and little strength; require the per-
formance of moderate to high intensity
and possibly “steady-state” cardiorespi-
ratory activity; are performed over peri-
ods of longer duration; cause a steady,
moderate to high average exercise heart
rate; rely more heavily upon fat energy
sources.
Being able to categorize sports and
athletic activities in terms of the above
required conditioning parameters, enables
us to develop and prescribe an optimal
“sports-specific” resistance program of
exercise to complement an athlete’s exist-
ing coordination and motor skills devel-
oped through sport-related activity and
plyometric drills (multi-direction, non-
load barring movement).
Proper specificity training can best be
prescribed only after the performance of
a close preliminary analysis of the indi-
vidual athlete’s existing genetic attributes,
motor skills, past experience in the sport,
current physical condition, etc. Secondly,
a detailed understanding of the inherent
conditioning demands imposed upon the
athlete by the sport itself is required.
Given ALL this information, you are
ready to formulate a physical condition-
ing, sports-specific resistance exercise
prescription.
Cross Training &
Enhancing Sports
Skills for the
Athlete
Before getting into the art of cross-
training it should be clear to all athletes
that your body will adapt only to those
Cross Training and Athletic Events
52
activities that you perform regularly.
With this in mind the only way to obtain
optimum “general functional fitness” the
art of cross-training must be applied. The
manner in which most athletes prepare
for a specific event or sport is generally
specific to the sport itself and all sport
activities have unique conditioning needs.
The SAID (Specific Adaptation to
Imposed Demands), principle applies
here. Here is an example of this principle
in action. If a triathlon athlete trains
using only techniques specific to that
sport he will most likely perform poorly
in another sport since its demands are
completely different than those demands
imposed during triathlon preparation.
Take for instance the extremely well con-
ditioned bodybuilder playing a serious
game of football. To everyone’s surprise
he performs terribly. Moreover, the next
day he has to pass on the playoff game
because he can hardly get out of bed.
What can be learned from this? The need
for cross-training in order to achieve peek
general functional fitness (ability to per-
form well in activities across the board),
requires equal measures of cardio, multi-
directional exercises, varied sport activ-
ity, strength training, and
flexibility exercise. It is important to real-
ize that cross-training techniques, prop-
erly applied while focusing mostly upon
the select sport activity component, will
enhance the athlete’s performance in
that sport.
Functional Fitness
Training
In most cases the avid fitness enthusi-
ast gets into a groove by identifying a fit-
ness program comprised of exercises that
seem to be a good fit when it comes to
their initial needs and goals. After some
period of time this fitness buff becomes
attached to his/her program and they
often times will be resistant to change.
Here are the 4 commonly known compo-
nents of a cross training program for the
athlete or those wishing to maintain func-
tion fitness.
1. Strength – Building strong muscles is
an asset to anyone, to include
athletes as well as those seeking
general functional fitness. Where the
athlete is concerned, there are
varying strength demands in any
sport. The greater the strength
requirement in the chosen sport the
more one should emphasize this
component. If you are simply
pursuing functional fitness, strength
training will result in lean weight
gain, fat loss, joint stability, and
prevent muscle imbalances.
2. Cardio – Cardiorespiratory training
conditions and makes more efficient
& stronger, the heart, cardiovascular,
and respiratory systems. The
duration & intensity should vary
based on goals.
3. Flexibility – Include Functional
Range of Motion (F-ROM) exercises
to include stretching to enhance
flexibility and prevent injury. Yoga
and Pilates can be used as
alternatives as well. Flexibility will
enhance sports performance.
4. Sport Activity – Sport activity refers
to the multi-directional exercises
specific to a given sport(s). Hence,
they are “sport - specific”. Study the
movement of a sport to determine
multi-directional (plyometric)
exercises of choice.
Without giving attention to ALL of
the above components of cross training,
your performance will absolutely suffer,
you will be prone to injury, there may be
imbalances in your development, and you
will never reach your true potential.
Let’s take a closer look at cross train-
Cross Training and Athletic Events
53
ing one component at a time. We will be
exploring the details of each and the mis-
takes commonly made that keep serious
people from reaching their potential
when it comes to functional fitness.
Strength & Power
Exclusively Training for Strength
& Power
Avoiding cardiorespiratory, flexibility,
and multi-directional training while only
developing strength and power, is not a
good idea. Over a prolonged period this
type of fitness program will result in an
extremely de-conditioned, inflexible,
unbalanced, yet potentially very large
individual. Sacrificing cardio, stretching,
and multi-directional training on the part
of strength athletes results in poorer per-
formance and potential for injury during
events both related and unrelated to the
sport of their choice. While it may be
acceptable for the strength athlete to
place more emphasis on this component
than the other three, the others should
never be absent completely. It has in the
past been believed that performing exer-
cises from the remaining three compo-
nents listed above will somehow take
away from the progress being made in
strength & power increase. Professional
strength-based athletes train vigorously
in the remaining 3 components and still
perform on an exceptional skill level.
Exercise Selection
Some beginning and intermediate
resistance athletes do not train for sym-
metrical development. In other words,
many people train their “show muscles”.
Using NFPT resistance exercise method-
ologies provides attention to all the major
muscle groups and results in a more sym-
metrical and balanced physique. One
should be reminded to not become reli-
ant on any one or unbalanced combina-
tion of exercises. Consider the following
advice to minimize imbalances.
1. Use multi-joint exercises when
possible that are in no way isolated
2. Train each muscle group at least 1
time per week in some form of cycle
3. Never train specific muscle groups
on back-to-back days without rest
4. Pay attention to muscles that
stabilize the joints such as the hips
and rotator cuff
Use Variety in
Programming
Three to four weeks is all the longer it
takes for the body to begin adapting to a
particular strength training program.
Most people don’t realize this and stay
with the same program for years.
Variation can come in many forms and
does not always require drastic changes.
Even subtle changes can make a huge dif-
ference. Exchanging machine with free
weights is a good example.
1. Vary Exercises:
Use exchangeable exercises that work
the same body part from time to time.
Exercises that attack the muscles (prime
movers) from different angles stress dif-
ferent neuro-pathways and re-vitalize
muscle tissues. Using different leverage
would be a refreshing change for the
target muscles and keep them in an adap-
tive state. It would also be advised not to
focus for long periods on exercises that
could be considered “isolated” even
though strict isolation is a physiological
impossibility.
2. Vary the Number of Repetitions:
If you are looking for the best possible
way to obtain functional fitness, the vari-
ation of weights and reps trigger different
motor units just as the sport activity
would do and is recommended.
Cross Training and Athletic Events
54
For example, if your desired sport spe-
cific muscle conditioning program calls
for the performance of sets in the 4-6 rep
range, throw in some lighter sets in higher
rep ranges once and a while to get a little
variation and to strengthen bones and
joints. If your sport-based position calls
for focus in the 20-25 rep range, throw in
some 4-6 rep sets from time to time to
alter tissue effects and to keep things
fresh. Seldom, if ever, concentrate on 1-3
rep sets for periods longer than 1 week as
too much tissue damage is done and
recovery is more difficult especially in the
young inexperienced athlete.
Power 1 to 3 reps
Muscular Strength
Strength / Stamina
4 to 6 reps
12 to 15 reps
Muscular Endurance 20 to 25 reps
Note: Be certain that you have spent
considerable time building a Muscular
Endurance or Strength/Stamina base
before moving on to Muscular Strength
or the seldom recommended Power work
rep ranges.
3. Vary Speed:
A fast speed of contraction results in
the development of power while the
slower contractile speed causes size and
strength increase. Speed and power result
through “compensatory acceleration”
common to Olympic Style Weight Lifting.
There is an inherent risk of injury associ-
ated with this training style especially
among young athletes. It is the position
of the National Federation of Professional
Trainers that Olympic Weight Lifting is a
professional sport requiring a consider-
able amount of experience to master and
should not even be considered an alterna-
tive conditioning methodology to be used
on any population unless for the expressed
purpose of training for that sport and
only then with strict and professional
instruction. This is not to say that there is
no value to speed and power training,
only to say the benefits are not worth the
associated risk on a non-competitive
level.
In all NFPT manuals there are various
methods for altering resistance training
performance in order to accommodate a
mind-set geared towards achieving an
ultimate level of functional fitness
through cross training where strength
and power are concerned, whether you
are an athlete or avid fitness enthusiast.
Incorporating different movement
speeds from slow continuous tension to
“compensatory acceleration” (maximum
effort against a sub-maximal resistance),
without resorting to Olympic Weight
Lifting techniques is one of them. Be
reminded that strength and power train-
ing are just one component to enhancing
sport and functional fitness performance
optimally. Some sports require heavy
intense training while others require light
weight low intensity resistance training.
As a personal fitness trainer, you need to
study the sport activity to determine the
specific weights and reps that will be
most effective.
Cardiovascular
Training
Exclusively Cardio with No Strength
Training
There is a common misconception
that weight training always results in
large muscles, inflexibility, poor athletic
performance, etc. These beliefs are most
common among females. The lost advan-
tages in not performing resistance train-
ing while exclusively doing cardio are an
increased risk of injury, weak muscles,
lost lean weight, probable accompanying
fat accumulation, and poor muscle tone.
The fact is that while using cardio
alone and while on a strict diet, your
muscle will be cannibalized and used for
energy instead of fat since the body will
desire to maintain fat for survival during
Cross Training and Athletic Events
55
the existing low calorie diet. If muscles
are not required to work they will be
viewed as expendable by the body.
Performing Aerobics at the Same
Intensity Level:
Duration and intensity of aerobic
activity are the two primary variables
that dictate the training result. If the par-
ticipant performs aerobic activity for the
same duration and at the same level of
effort (intensity), the body will soon
adapt and further enhancement is impos-
sible. Keep in mind that there is still value
in this type of exercise for general but not
peak functional fitness.
For peak functional fitness, which is
desirable by the cross training athlete,
aerobics should be performed in cycles of
different intensity levels. Depending upon
the athlete and the desired result, a par-
ticular level of intensity may be more
productive than others. Consider the 4
primary modes of cardiorespiratory activ-
ity; a. Low intensity for long durations;
b. Alternating high and low intensities
over equal durations; c. Short recovery
between bursts of maximum intensity; d.
Steady State Target Heart Rate Aerobics.
a. Low Intensity, Long Duration:
It is generally recommended that this
mode of aerobic work be sustained for at
least 40-45 minutes per session. A larger
percentage of energy during this type of
activity comes from mobilized fat. The
long duration of this activity allows fatty
acids to perfuse even more extensively
into the smallest of capillary beds feeding
the working muscles thus optimizing fat
loss and oxygenation. It is also important
to note that muscle cellular furnaces
called Mitochondria become more effi-
cient at burning fatty acids for ATP.
b. Alternating High and Low Intensities
over Equal Durations:
This type of aerobic training effect
requires the participant to perform at a
level of intensity that can just barely be
maintained for periods of no longer than
5-10 minutes alternated with 5-10 min-
utes of low intensity output. The thresh-
old of aerobic power and lactate thresh-
old increases when performing this activ-
ity. Translated, this means that the dura-
tion of a participant’s ability to work at
maximum effort increases.
This is of tremendous value for ath-
letes needing to perform repeated short
bursts of near maximum effort. Increasing
lactate threshold translates into the ath-
lete being able to perform high intensity
work longer even during endurance
events. This result is consistent across the
board regardless of the sport event.
Since this higher intensity activity
requires more glucose energy, the muscles
adapt by building more glucose energy
burning Mitochondria. In addition, the
muscles become more efficient at trans-
porting and utilizing insulin-carried glu-
cose from the bloodstream, and convert-
ing lactic acid back into energy.
Generally speaking, this type of train-
ing mode makes more efficient the mus-
cle’s ability to utilize all of the related
aerobic and anaerobic energy fuels and
pathways since multiple intensity levels
have there own unique and valuable
effects and benefits. This training mode
could be considered to offer the most
holistic (overall), approach to total car-
diorespiratory conditioning.
c. Short Recovery between Bursts of
Maximum Intensity:
The primary differences between this
type of training and the alternating of
near maximum work with equal dura-
tions of submaximal work is that the
intensity is maximal and the recovery (5
minutes or more depending on how the
participant feels), calls for complete rest.
To achieve VO2 Max the effort must
be intense enough that it cannot be per-
formed for longer than 1.5 to 3 minutes
while subsequently reaching near com-
plete failure. Adaptation includes the
improvement of VO2 Max; the heart
muscle itself becomes stronger and can
pump more blood per contraction, the
Cross Training and Athletic Events
56
muscles anaerobic energy producing
pathways become more efficient, and the
body’s ability to remove, convert, and
tolerate lactic acid improves.
This type of cross training is not for
the faint-of-heart! Pay close attention to
the contraindications to exercise and
don’t overdo it. Those athletes that are
required to perform short bursts at maxi-
mal effort would benefit from this mode
of cardio. An NFL linebacker perhaps?
The above aerobic training modes
clearly take the participant well into the
realm of peak functional fitness. However,
do not forget that performing aerobic
exercise exclusively is NOT a good idea
if you wish to reach your potential peak
level of functional or athletic fitness. In
order to increase intensity either increase
speed or incline. This will shift the energy
pathway to muscle stores.
How would you structure this aerobic
program? It is suggested that the partici-
pant target these modes progressively
(modes from a. thru c.), focusing on each
mode for a period of 4-6 weeks before
progressing. It is also recommended that
the participant include a long duration,
low intensity component at least once
a week.
It is appropriate to realize the poten-
tial for over-use injury even in the best
planned aerobic component of the func-
tional cross training routine. There is tre-
mendous value in mixing up cross train-
ing activities such as cycling, running,
skiing, swimming, etc., especially if you
are not committed to a specific sport. If
you are committed to a sport one of the
best ways to improve skills is to engage
primarily in that activity. In other words,
to be a better basketball player, put the
greatest emphasis on playing basket-
ball, if you wish to be a better football
player, put more emphasis on position-
based training. Regardless, some occa-
sional variety in sport involvement will
always be helpful even if committed to a
given sport.
d. Steady State Target Heart Rate
Aerobics:
Now let’s back away somewhat from
the cross training applications of cardio
work and discuss the most popular and
commonly used aerobic training mode in
existence. When it comes to cross train-
ing and athletic conditioning avoid this
conditioning method completely aside
from its possible value in preparing the
athlete participant for a progressive
cardio program leading towards the per-
formance of the above (a. thru c.), ath-
letic training modes.
This aerobic training methodology
results in little if any adaptation in terms
of athletic enhancement. Using the .70 x
Max HR = Target HR will result in a
short term adaptation at best and can be
continuously performed by the general
fitness enthusiast whose goal it is to
simply stay fit.
The continued performance of this
type of approach to aerobic fitness is not
functional because no one truly functions
in this way throughout their real-world
life or athletic endeavor. The Target Heart
Rate (THR), method of training lacks the
intensity to improve the anaerobic path-
ways toward improvement and contin-
ued adaptation and lacks the duration to
result in optimum fat loss.
Flexibility Training
Research has shed an entirely new
light of disapproval concerning the age
old practice of stretching prior to exer-
cise. Functional range of motion (F-
ROM) training, encompassing all forms
of stretching exercises. While flexibility is
argued by some researchers as the most
vital component of a functional fitness
routine, timing now appears to be every-
thing. On the other hand, some minimal
dynamic stretches just prior to exercise
can be performed but the tissue being
stretched MUST be properly warmed up
Cross Training and Athletic Events
57
first. Intensive stretching prior to either
an endurance or resistance activity will
have a negative affect on performance.
However, injury prevention, continued
mobility while aging, and sports perfor-
mance are all greatly enhanced by prop-
erly executed and well timed F-ROM
exercises.
F-ROM exercises such as Pilates and
Yoga should be performed on there own
and not a part of a routine involving the
other components discussed above. The
following should be a general rule of
thumb. The more intense the stretching
activities the more disassociated they
should be from any events requiring opti-
mum performance. Keep in mind that if
F-ROM exercises are to be performed
along with a good cross training, func-
tional routine that they should be per-
formed last and at low intensity. This
timing of F-ROM training will to some
degree enhance recovery and allow for
optimum adaptation.
Sport Activity
There is little doubt that every sport
poses its own unique demands. Multi-
direction movement, lateral quickness,
strength and endurance requirements,
explosive power, vertical leap, eye–hand
coordination, etc.. With this said, the
more variety in sport performance the
more well-rounded your motor skill
development and neuromuscular condi-
tioning. This will help to bring you to the
highest level of fitness. Keep in mind that
in order to improve skills unique to your
sport of choice, as stated earlier, one
should perform that sport!
Performing Sport
Activity Alone:
Overuse injuries abound in sports
today. This is a direct result of repetitive
activity without change. Ignoring F-
ROM; Strength; and Cardio cross train-
ing activities will minimize the athlete’s
ability to continue adapting and improv-
ing physically. Athletes must continue to
challenge themselves using the cross
training techniques discussed in this
chapter in order to keep up or better yet,
set the pace at game time. When face to
face with an opponent it may very well
boil down to the differing level of physi-
cal conditioning through cross training
and not just the sport skill that will ulti-
mately mean the difference between win-
ning and losing. If your opponent is cross
training shouldn’t you be?
Aerobics &
Lower-Body
Generally speaking, even if the prac-
tice were popular, the aerobic training of
upper-body tissue alone would foster
minimal overall cardiorespiratory benefit
by comparison to the aerobic training of
lower-body tissue of equal aerobic inten-
sity. One of the reasons is because the
demand for increased blood flow is much
farther from the heart during lower-body
aerobics. This creates more work for the
circulatory system increasing the stress
imposed by the exercise. There is by far
more muscle tissue in the lower body
allowing for more work. It should also be
mentioned that the simple act of standing
while performing aerobic exercise
imposes a greater stress and energy
expenditure than exercises performed
seated.
The philosophy of extensive lower-
body and lessened upper body involve-
ment for aerobic enhancement has not
only been well known among health pro-
fessionals for years, but by long-term
exercise equipment manufacturers as well.
Cross Training and Athletic Events
58
More on
Flexibility,
Stability, and
Core Strength
A quality trainer will focus on flexibil-
ity, stability and core strength while
working towards a specific goal.
Flexibility is argued by some the most
important part of a training program.
Unfortunately it is often over looked by
most trainers. Lack of flexibility is the
root of most injury related problems.
When a muscle is tight it limits the mus-
cle’s ability to contract properly causing
inefficient movements. Muscles that are
tight are more likely to become injured
and cause the opposing muscle to con-
tract improperly. If people would just
stretch and perform moderate exercise
many problems as well as the need for
certain medications may dissipate.
Flexibility and stability are the founda-
tion of exercise. Without them, the body’s
movement becomes limited and results
are difficult to achieve.
Stability exercises should be imple-
mented into every exercise program.
Exercising with free weights and chal-
lenged environments promotes balance
and stability, which is essential, especially
in the older population. Training primar-
ily with machines without integrating
free weights into a program is inefficient
because the client is moving resistance
along a fixed axis and not free in space.
Stability is critical for everyone. Without
stability, even the strongest person can
not effectively propel a force into the
environment. Stability training starts
with an efficient core routine. A weak
core contributes to poor stability and
inhibits proper limb movements.
Training the core (mid section)
involves more than just sit ups and hyper-
extensions. An efficient core routine con-
sists of dynamic movements, challenge of
the center of gravity and isometric exer-
cises. Medicine balls, balance boards and
physio balls are great tools for core train-
ing and should be integrated into every
program. It is a fact that training on the
physio ball is superior to traditional floor
exercises. If the core is weak, the extremi-
ties cannot function properly. This causes
muscle imbalances in the kinetic chain.
As a person ages, balance and stability
become compromised. If balance and sta-
bility are not addressed, they will consis-
tently degrade. This is why falls are
common in the geriatric population.
Many back and hip injuries are related to
weak core muscles. There are many small
muscles in the core that the general popu-
lation knows little about or addresses
during exercise. MRI images show atro-
phy in these small muscles in most spinal
injuries. These little muscles need to be
trained in order to maintain a healthy
spine. Functional training that relates to
every day activities and focuses on core
stability will improve a person’s quality
of life.
When the goal is lean muscle mainte-
nance and loss of body fat, circuit train-
ing is the best choice. Performing full
body functional workouts every session
is a sure way to burn maximum calories.
You should not try to isolate muscles,
rather you should try to get as many body
parts involved as possible while keeping
strict form. This type of training insures a
very efficient and balanced session. For
the general population, the benefits of
this type of training surpass the tradi-
tional style of single body part sessions.
Circuit training is geared towards increas-
ing the heart rate while using some type
of resistance or environmental challenge.
When circuit training, it is crucial to keep
moving and maintain your target heart
rate.
Cross Training and Athletic Events
59
Nutrition &
Aerobic Athletes
Your nutritional needs as an aerobic
athlete are demanding indeed. It is impor-
tant that you understand how food is
used for aerobic energy, and the bodily
processes occurring during the break-
down and use of these foods. It is your
comprehension and application of simple
nutritional principles that will greatly
improve your aerobic performance.
It has been typical for nutritionists
and other fitness experts to recommend
complex carbohydrates almost exclu-
sively for aerobic energy. They assume
that since aerobic energy is best provided
for through the consumption of slowly
released sugars (complex carbohydrates),
that they should be the mainstay of the
aerobic athlete’s diet. Also, these same
experts say that since there is limited tissue
breakdown during aerobic activity, there
is no need for a significant intake of pro-
tein. These are both false assumptions.
When the aerobic athlete is overtrain-
ing, protein intake becomes essential. In
some cases well conditioned aerobic ath-
letes have been mis-diagnosed as suffer-
ing from anemia (reduction in the con-
centration of red blood cells) as their
blood volume can be slightly greater. This
occurs for two basic reasons. When over-
training is due to insufficient total calo-
ries & too much aerobic activity, blood
proteins (red blood cells) are cannibal-
ized and used for the balance of energy
not provided in the diet. In some cases
one may even notice extreme fatigue, and
unusually long periods of recovery from
illness.
Secondly, even if you are not over-
training, protein ingestion still provides
the aerobic athlete with several benefits.
The liver has the ability to change ingested
protein into sugar for energy. This pro-
cess takes even longer than the absorp-
tion of complex carbohydrates. And, the
longer and slower sugar is released into
the blood, the more prolonged and effi-
cient the aerobic use of these nutrients
most importantly during long-term sus-
tained aerobic events.
It is most crucial to ingest an appro-
priate amount of carbohydrates within
30-60 minutes after completion of all
forms of aerobic activity. The more pro-
longed and/or intense, the more carbohy-
drates you should ingest. You need to
provide the body with what it needs when
it needs it the most, or it will eat away at
itself for the recovery calories needed.
The more intense the aerobic event, the
more complete proteins one should
ingest.
How do you know how many calories
you can ingest prior to and after aerobic
exercise? It is a simple matter to find
tables that indicate the rate of calorie
expenditure related to wide varieties of
activities to include aerobic events. Use
these commonly found tables to estimate
calorie expenditure prior to performing a
chosen exercise. Ideally, this should be
planned before each aerobic session.
Once you have calculated the number of
calories, ingest approximately ½ of these
calories 2-3 hours prior to exercise in
addition to your normal meal. Eat the
remaining ½ of these calculated calories
within 30-60 minutes after you complete
the aerobic exercise.
Furthermore, in the case of the aero-
bic athlete, it is of the utmost importance
that liver glycogen stores are full, and
blood sugar is at its peak at the onset of
the chosen event. As stated elsewhere in
this manual, the liver can store between
300-400 calories of glycogen and the
blood has the capacity to carry about 80
calories of glucose at any given time.
Taking into account the above consid-
erations, this means that in preparation
Cross Training and Athletic Events
60
for an aerobic event, as many as 480 cal-
ories of complex (some simple sugars),
carbohydrates should be ingested about
2-3 hours prior to an aerobic activity
while remaining totally inactive. Not only
will digestion have been completed in this
time, liver glycogen and blood glucose
will be at optimum levels offsetting the
exhaustion of aerobic energy. It is not the
exhaustion of fatty acids that ultimately
terminates aerobic activity, it is the
exhaustion of glucose.
Eating Around
Aerobic &
Incremental
Exercise Sessions
Pre-Workout Meal
In the cases of muscle and cardiorespi-
ratory endurance training it would be
appropriate to insure liver glycogen stores
are full and blood-sugar is at an optimal
level at the onset of exercise. Remember
however, not to overdo it in the pre-
workout meal when it comes to total cal-
ories as the liver only has a glycogen stor-
age capacity of 300-400 calories, and the
bloodstream no more than 100 calories
of glucose. All total then, this amounts to
only a 400-500 calorie, predominately
complex carbohydrate meal. If the activ-
ity will be prolonged beyond 90+ minutes
in duration, it would be suggested to
include another 250-500 calories (depen-
dant upon specific duration and inten-
sity), in the form of complex carbohy-
drates, opting for protein when possible
(explained elsewhere). If these additional
calories are not provided for activity of
the extended duration indicated above,
provided energy may be insufficient and
body proteins will be cannibalized for the
balance of energy needed. As stated ear-
lier, these additional calories should ide-
ally come from protein sources as it takes
the body even longer to process and con-
vert ingested protein into energy than it
takes to process and convert complex
carbohydrates into energy. A more popu-
lar solution is to ingest a sports drink
containing simple sugar during activity.
Note: While the chief energy substrate
during aerobic and endurance activity
performance is fatty acids, the use and
maintenance of circulating blood-glucose
energy, predominantly originating from
carbohydrate ingestion, is the all-impor-
tant crucial energy substrate without
which the performance of any and all
activity is not possible.
So long as proper warm up of the car-
diorespiratory and muscular systems are
achieved, and exercise intensity increase
is steady and gradual, the redirection of
blood flow away from digestion will be
equally gradual and adequate to provide
oxygen and nutrients for the working
muscles’ less than maximum energy
needs.
When energy is needed for the above
type of exercise over even longer periods,
90 minutes or more, if possible, it would
be appropriate to ingest small quantities
of additional complex carbohydrates and
proteins during exercise performance.
Since digestive rate slows during exercise,
don’t wait for the last minute to eat these
additional complex carbohydrates and/or
proteins. In most cases, sports drinks are
sufficient.
Post-Workout Meal
Since the preferred energy substrate
during steady state aerobic and endur-
ance activity is fatty acids in the appar-
ently healthy individual, the carbohydrate
source glucose should come nowhere
near exhaustion. When other-than-resis-
tance activity is performed that is incre-
mental & not steady state, i.e. boxing,
Cross Training and Athletic Events
61
basketball, football, etc., glucose expen-
diture increases and comprises a greater
percentage of the total energy expended.
Generally, and within given parameters
of intensity and duration, the perfor-
mance of incremental activities such as
described above, will result in lower over-
all post-workout glucose levels than both
resistance and steady state aerobic activi-
ties because liver as well as muscle glyco-
gen stores are both being tapped.
The major difference between incre-
mental and steady state aerobic activity
in relation to glucose energy expenditure
is that aerobic glucose energy comes
chiefly from the liver, while incremental
glucose energy comes not only from the
liver but in large part from the working
muscles. With this said, it would be
appropriate to apply the same basic post-
workout meal considerations to incre-
mental activity performance as applied to
moderate resistance activity performance.
In short, incremental activity falls some-
where between aerobic and resistance
exercise. This means three things. #1 –
Liver glycogen depletion; #2 – Muscle
glycogen depletion; #3 – Moderate inten-
sity, moderate protein requirements.
In getting back to aerobic activity
post-workout meal considerations, it is
clear that glucose energy has been
expended and is in need of replacement.
It is equally clear there is no measurable
means to determine carbohydrate replace-
ment amounts due to varying intensities
of effort. It is therefore recommended to
ingest 400-500 calories coming primarily
from complex carbohydrates with some
complete proteins in the post-workout
meal. In cases of extreme aerobic (and
even incremental), energy depletion, a
100 calorie simple sugar is recommended
for immediate blood-sugar replacement.
Apply these simple sugars when signs of
mental and physical fatigue are present.
This practice will bring blood-sugar levels
back to a safe level within 5-7 minutes.
The carbohydrates will generally insure
the repletion of liver glycogen and blood
glucose levels, while the protein intake
will facilitate the synthesis of various
deaminated and cannibalized blood pro-
teins. All measures geared toward bring-
ing the body back to the metabolic state
of equilibrium and on from there to the
state of anabolism if tissue is damaged
and require repair (another purpose for
post-workout protein ingestion).
In closing, it should be noted also that
“hunger” is not a sensation that is com-
monly experienced immediately follow-
ing a workout. The absence of this sensa-
tion further encourages the unwillingness
of the exercise participant to eat. Proper
pre and post-workout dietary habits can
therefore be considered a learned dietary
behavior and YOU are the teacher.
Participants should get out of the habit of
allowing their bodies to dictate their diet.
Eating is something to be dictated by our
brains and not by our bodies. Eating and
hunger should have NOTHING in
common regarding meal timing. Eating
without your body telling you to, makes
your body an unwitting accomplice to
accelerated metabolism and ultimate fat
loss will result when eating by the clock
and not the stomach.
Are Aerobics Bad
for Big Guys?
No one has ever gotten big by doing
aerobics. While training for size and
strength, aerobic activity should be kept
at a minimum; and in some cases, com-
pletely avoided.
While exclusively training for size and
strength, keep the value of aerobic condi-
tioning in its proper perspective. It all
boils down to a question of priorities.
You have all heard of phase training?
Well, if you are going to add aerobics,
add them in at a later, more appropriate
date. Contrary to popular opinion, body-
builders usually respond quite well to
Cross Training and Athletic Events
62
aerobic activity. They adapt faster, they
recover better, and they work much
harder in the actual performance of aero-
bics since they are carrying so much more
metabolically active tissue than the aver-
age endurance enthusiast. Keep in mind
that a bodybuilder who minimizes rest
between sets over a period of time experi-
ences cardio benefits that steady state
aerobic performance simply cannot
match (refer to text located elsewhere in
this material). Moreover, it is more diffi-
cult to improve anaerobically than aero-
bically. Simply put, it is harder to build
muscle tissue than to progress in an aero-
bic program.
Aerobics is healthy for everyone, even
the bodybuilder, in that the efficiency of
oxygen and nutrient transport to work-
ing and recovering muscles is enhanced.
However, this particular benefit would
not seem as valuable to those training
properly for optimum size and strength
increase. Do not forget that training
should be goal-oriented. There is a
reduced need for oxygen in muscles per-
forming and/or recovering from strict
anaerobic glycolitic (size and strength)
training. The resistance athletes who are
either contest training, volume training,
or cross training, would benefit most
from regular aerobic exercise. The uptake
of oxygen and fatty acids is greater with
these types of training, and aerobics may
increase the efficiency of this uptake.
Conversely, most of the energy for strict
size and strength training comes from
sources already inside the tissue cells and
certainly not from oxygen and fatty
acids.
Training for size and strength is not
designed to prepare you for a running
event in the Olympics. The value of aero-
bics to the size and strength trainee
should simply be to maintain the health
of the cardiorespiratory support systems.
Therefore, consider aerobics only when
size and strength training is performed
over prolonged periods in the complete
absence of cardiorespiratory activity.
Swimmers swim, cyclist cycle, run-
ners run, and resistance athletes perform
resistance exercise. The types of regular
exercises you perform will be directly
reflected in the appearance of your phy-
sique. Generally speaking, as a body-
builder, the more time you spend per-
forming aerobic exercises, the more diffi-
cult and limited your size and strength
progress will be. Training too fast may
even provide an undesirable aerobic effect
and diminish your results. Establish your
priorities. If size and strength increase is
desired, pump iron, not your Reeboks.
Reducing fat in and around muscle
tissues (intramuscular fat) contributes to
density. Not all of us have the muscle
density displayed by many of the top
bodybuilding superstars. These super-
stars can perform more aerobics with less
risk of losing muscular size since they
have little intramuscular fat to begin
with. When resistance trainees perform
aerobics however, they lose intramuscu-
lar fat that contributes to their size and
immediately lose lean weight. Losing a
considerable amount of muscular size
may be a high price to pay for improved
density if your only interest is the quest
for size.
Post Workout Force
Feeding
Much attention has been given to the
topic of carbohydrate replacement fol-
lowing exhaustive resistance exercise.
Rest assured there is no controversy here-
or at least not anymore. Back then, on
the surface, the need for immediate pro-
tein ingestion after a heavy training bout
probably seemed to make a lot of sense.
In Arnold’s defense, bodybuilding was
then in its infancy, and because of the
economic principle of supply and demand,
there was no real money invested in the
performance of research in the area of
bodybuilding nutrition. This has since
Cross Training and Athletic Events
63
changed. Due to the steadily increased
popularity of the iron game, there are
now millions of dollars being spent in
researching bodybuilding nutrition &
supplements!
In these earlier days, however, before
nutritional research was in full swing, the
iron game was, for the most part, a guess-
ing game. Do you believe that some of
the world’s greatest discoveries were
stumbled upon completely by accident?
Back then, whatever the winner did must
have been right, and what the loser did
must have been wrong.
For a time, this hit-or-miss principle
applied to other areas of athletics as well.
For example, cyclists and other endur-
ance athletes have been ingesting carbo-
hydrate- based drinks during the perfor-
mance of their respective events for years
successfully, probably because someone
in the past accidentally did it, and it
worked. Ask one of these cyclists exactly
why the timely intake of these carbohy-
drates is beneficial, and of the many quite
logical responses you will get, the true
answer will escape them every time. The
very answer that escapes them is the topic
of this chapter! You may be asking your-
self, “So what? What if they don’t know
exactly how it works? As long as it works,
the reasons shouldn’t matter?” This way
of thinking, has in the past, slowed the
advancement of athletic performance in
all sports. The truth of the matter is, that
the more timely research into the exact
reasons why this “carbohydrate ingestion
during activity” worked for the endur-
ance athlete, could have led to the earlier
discovery of its positive effect on ALL
athletes and resistance trainees. The prac-
tice of simple carbohydrate ingestion
during post-resistance workout activity
offers an extremely functional method of
minimizing the duration of catabolism by
“forcing” post-workout carbohydrate
replacement on the muscles!
The primary reason why the ingestion
of carbohydrates during activity by
endurance athletes can productively be
applied to those performing resistance
exercises is because all athletes share a
common denominator...the basic human
anatomy. While various forms of exercise
have distinct differences in the demands
they impose upon the body, the energy
pathways during recovery from exercise
remain the same.
Let’s get back to the resistance trainee.
It was Mike Mentzer who first ushered in
the practice of eating post-workout car-
bohydrates. ICE CREAM contained the
carbohydrates of his choice. In discussing
the use of objectivity in the area of body-
building nutrition, Mike Mentzer comes
to mind as one of the first to take a more
learned approach. Mentzer’s post-work-
out “carbohydrate loading” sermons
were at first met with indifference in the
bodybuilding community. It wasn’t long,
however, before this “methodology” was
upheld time and time again through vari-
ous studies. Mentzer’s once controversial
carbohydrate replacement theory has
today evolved into a cornerstone of the
very foundation of productive resistance
training & nutrition.
The NFPT has researched and now
successfully applied a “force-feeding”
principle that effectively enhances the
value of post-workout carbohydrate
loading by including the performance of
activity simultaneous to “simple carbo-
hydrate” ingestion. The performance of
this activity discourages Insulin from
taking glucose to fat cells. Since we know
fat cells generally mobilize fat during
activity, and they cannot store Insulin-
carried glucose & release fat at the same
time, the Insulin has nowhere else to take
the majority of this new glucose during
the performance of this exercise but to
the energy depleted muscle tissues. Hence,
“force-feeding”. The application of
“force-feeding” has appeared quite suc-
cessful among resistance athletes in every
instance to the best of our knowledge and
research. The following is a brief sum-
Cross Training and Athletic Events
64
mary of the concept of “force-feeding”.
An abundant amount of Insulin releas-
ing simple sugar should be ingested
immediately following a muscle glycogen
depleting resistance- training session.
Simultaneously perform post-workout
low intensity aerobic activity. This will
accelerate the insulin-carried glucose
uptake in the badly depleted muscles
(recovery), with minimal insulin-carried
glucose being deposited in adipose tissues
(fat cells) since these fat cells are forced
to release energy during activity and
cannot store energy at the same time.
This leaves Insulin only one place to take
its glucose... directly to glycogen depleted
muscle tissues! This carbohydrate-load-
ing will even be more rapid than normal
since Insulin must remove overabundant
blood glucose quickly.
With this understanding, it is no
wonder why endurance athletes experi-
ence increased energy levels by ingesting
carbohydrates during activity. These
newly ingested carbohydrates are being
driven directly into the muscle because
fat cells are working hard to release
needed energy and cannot store and
release energy at the same time. Along
with this newly delivered insulin-carried
glucose comes considerable fluids as well
preventing heat injuries, dehydration,
and consequent muscle cramping.
Use this “Force-Feeding” concept to
accelerate carbohydrate replacement
before you even leave the gym!
Note - If you are a diabetic, make the
appropriate considerations
After your clients’ intense and exhaus-
tive resistance- training workout, have
him/her hop on a stair-master, exercise
bike, or choose any one of a hundred
other aerobic activities. Break out some
nutritious form of simple sugar (fruit
juices, honey, etc.). Immediately ingest
anywhere from 100 to 500 calories of
this simple sugar. The actual number of
these calories should be determined based
on two variables. #1- How energy
exhaustive their training session was, and
#2- the length of time they plan on per-
forming the “low to moderate intensity”
post-workout aerobic activity! Keep in
mind that the circulatory system has an
average capacity to maintain 80 calories
of glucose before “spilling over”, and
that it will take at least 5 to 7 minutes
before the ingested simple sugar even
reaches the bloodstream. Take these fac-
tors into consideration when applying
the Force-Feeding concept.
As with the cyclist, as long as they are
performing activity, the bulk of ingested
sugar will be driven into recovering and
working muscle tissues! It is suggested
that you experiment somewhat in deter-
mining the right exercise duration and
number of calories ingested. When prop-
erly applied, they should experience a
more “full” feeling upon completion of
this post-workout activity. The reason
for this sensation, as you are probably
aware, is due to the enormous amount of
water that accompanies Insulin-carried
blood glucose into recovering muscles.
It is a fact that catabolism (break
down of muscle tissue), initiated during
the workout, typically continues for some
time after training until sufficient recov-
ery energy (blood glucose) is provided
from outside the muscles. Once this “out-
side help” is provided, damaged muscles
will stop eating away at themselves for
energy. The Force-Feeding concept
directly addresses this issue, thus acceler-
ating recovery from training and shorten-
ing the catabolic period.
Used properly, this “Force-Feeding”
concept will dramatically minimize the
duration of post-workout catabolism
“naturally”, and more rapidly initiate
anabolism. These principles have been
theorized and researched independently
by the National Federation of Professional
Trainers and found sufficiently effective
to warrant publication. While this prac-
tice is proven quite safe and free from
Cross Training and Athletic Events
65
health risk only apparently healthy indi-
viduals should practice “force-feeding”.
As mentioned earlier, those diabetics,
insulin dependent or otherwise, are
advised to take appropriate measures in
this concept’s application, given their
own familiarity with their specific health
concerns. As stated earlier, since the first
and quite recent publication of this
“Force-Feeding” concept, there have
been reports of its effectiveness in practi-
cal application without a single trainer
complaint or report of ineffective imple-
mentation among 14,000 NFPT fitness
professionals.
The questionable
role of Insulin in
“Force-Feeding”
Insulin cannot intelligently decide the
destination of the glucose it carries. Its
function is simply to remove overabun-
dant glucose from the blood. For our
purposes, there are two storage locations
where Insulin can deposit its glucose: the
muscle cells and the fat cells. The argu-
ment has arisen that since the presence of
Insulin inhibits lypolisis (mobilization of
fatty acids & glycerol from adipose tis-
sues), that the exercise performed in
force-feeding may not totally prevent the
abundance of Insulin from depositing at
least some glucose in these fat cells since
the post-workout aerobic activity is not
long in its duration and steady state. Even
if this argument is valid (while not
researched to NFPT’s satisfaction), the
bottom line is this. The purpose of “force-
feeding” is to shorten the duration of
catabolic metabolism, and to more
quickly initiate the anabolic (recovery &
growth) process. Even if this incredible
achievement can only be accomplished at
the cost of some insignificant amount of
temporary fat calorie storage, it will cer-
tainly be worthwhile in accelerating the
recovery process between resistance train-
ing workouts. Those concerned about the
questionable actions of Insulin would do
well to count these calories ingested
immediately after exercise and count
them towards their daily intake. This
would entirely off-set any potential for
fat tissue accumulation.

Cross Training and Athletic Events

66
 SECTION 6

Elderly and Aerobics

Carbohydrates and Aging
The liver, among its approximate 64 other functions, must insure the
provision of glucose for brain function. Glucose is the brain’s only
source of energy. During periods of reduced carbohydrate intake, the
liver is stimulated by the hormone glucagon from the pancreas to release
stored glycogen in the form of glucose at a rate of about 26 calories per
hour. This process is known as glycogenolysis. With this in mind, at
rest, the minimum daily carbohydrate intake should be no less than 156
grams if amino acids, blood proteins, and other energy reserves are to
be spared from being converted and used for brain function. Whenever
too few carbohydrates are ingested, the liver must in turn convert amino
acids and other proteins into glucose to provide for energy demands.
This process is called gluconeogenesis. There is a resulting toxin,
ammonia that results when amino acids are used for energy. This
ammonia must be further broken down into urea for excretion which is
stressful for the kidneys. Either reducing the duration and/or intensity
of exercise, or increasing the protein sparing carbohydrate intake will
easily keep the liver from deaminating amino acids and cannibalizing
body tissue.

Elderly and Aerobics

67
Aging
Considerations
As was touched on in the introduction
of this text, with the aging process, our
muscles slowly forget how to take up
sugar, while our fat cells become more
and more proficient. Along the entire
length of muscle tissue fibers, there exists
Insulin Receptor Sites (touched upon ear-
lier). These receptor sites are similar to
“doors” that must be opened to allow
the passage of blood glucose and amino
acids into the cells. While muscles are
sedentary they require very little blood
glucose, and after prolonged sedentary
periods, these doors are not actively func-
tioning, as they should be. This sedentary
state results in muscle loss (atrophy)
which is common with aging.
Too many carbohydrates in the diet of
an aging sedentary individual whose
receptor sites are not functioning will
result in increased fat stores. This is
because the insulin carried glucose (car-
bohydrates) is bypassing the non-func-
tioning receptor sites and move directly
on to storage in fat cells. Exercise depletes
muscle energy (glycogen) requiring these
receptor sites to open during recovery
allowing for glucose uptake. This keeps
the muscle fibers and these receptor sites
active and functional even in the elderly.
Elderly and Aerobics
68
Senility
In addition, the by-product of wasting
muscle tissue, a build up of ketone bodies,
is toxic to brain function and possibly
contributes to senility. All of this is
common in the elderly, and, in theory,
can be best delayed through the perfor-
mance of various forms of safe and effec-
tive RESISTANCE exercises. This will
result in the muscles’ continued ability to
maintain functional receptor sites, and
prevent the wasting of tissue. For the sed-
entary elderly to take on a low to moder-
ate amount of resistance exercise may be
productive in “re-educating” receptor
sites resulting in the more efficient uptake
of blood glucose by the muscles.
Proteins & Aging
As we age, our muscles slowly forget
how to take up sugar while our fat cells
become more and more proficient. Too
many carbohydrates in the diet result in
increased fat stores. Replacing some car-
bohydrates with proteins is beneficial
because the aging body’s conversion of
proteins into sugar is so slow it is not
readily deposited in fat cells. Some carbo-
hydrates however should always remain
in the diet (624 calories daily) for brain
function.
 NFPT Charts & Tables
General Exercise Recommendations Chart
Starter Through Advanced & Resistance; Incremental, Endurance Athlete
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Goal Rep Range Routine Set Intensity Duration Recovery HR

______________________________________________________________________________________________
Strength/Size (4-6) 3 Day Split 70-100 % 30-90 Min 100 BPM
______________________________________________________________________________________________
General Fitness/Stamina (12-15) 2 Day Split 70-100 % 30-90 Min 115 BPM
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Fat Loss/Endurance (20-25) Total Body Circuit 70-100 % 30-90 Min 125 BPM
■ All advance clients should use the overload principle only ■ At set intensity less than 100%, use the range
chart for weight & reps ■ Use the range chart to set up holistic routines as well (outlined below)

Some Suggested Movements & Total Sets

Muscle Total Sets Total Set Circuit Suggested
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Group 4 to 6 REPs 12-15 reps 20-25 reps Movements
Chest 6 to 8 sets 8 to 10 sets 4 to 5 sets Bench Press/Incline Press
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Back
______________________________________________________________________________________________
8 to 10 sets 10 to 12 sets 4 to 5 sets Lat Pull Down/Seated Row
Shoulders
______________________________________________________________________________________________
4 to 6 sets 6 to 8 sets *Upright Row
Triceps
______________________________________________________________________________________________
4 to 6 sets 6 to 8 sets Triceps Dips/Triceps Ext
Biceps
______________________________________________________________________________________________
3 to 5 sets 5 to 7 sets Curl w/Dumbbells or Bar
Traps
______________________________________________________________________________________________
3 sets 3 sets Shrug w/Dumbbells or Bar
Quads
______________________________________________________________________________________________
8 to 10 sets 10 to 12 sets 4 to 5 sets Squat/Leg Press/Seated Ext
Hams
______________________________________________________________________________________________
3 to 4 sets 3 to 4 sets Seated Leg Curl/Lying Leg Curl
Calves
______________________________________________________________________________________________
3 to 4 sets 3 to 4 sets Standing/Seated Toe Raise
Abs
______________________________________________________________________________________________
1 to 2 sets 1 to 2 sets Crunch/Leg Raise
Forearms
_______________________________________________________________________________________________
2 to 4 sets 2 to 4 sets Wrist Curl/Reverse Wrist Curl
*Upright Rows, as with all exercises, are contraindicated when improperly performed.
There is no need to raise the bar during this exercise any higher than the nipple-line.

Range Chart
Chart is only effective with proper diet & recovery
Intensity during set and effect on tissues
(4-6) Rep Range (12-15) Rep Range (20-25) Rep Range
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Effect on Tissue at 70% Minimal Strength Minimal Stamina Some Fat Conversion_________
______________________________________________________________________________________
Effect on Tissue at 80% Maintain Strength Maintain Stamina Moderate Fat Conversion
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Effect on Tissue at 90% Improve Strength Improve Stamina Improve Fat Conversion
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Effect on Tissue at 100% Build White Tissue Build Red Fast Tissue Build Red Slow Tissue
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Effect on Tissue at 110% Tissue Damage Tissue Damage Tissue Damage
______________________________________________________________________________________________

Explanation of Intensity
RPE (4-6) Rep Range (12-15) Rep Range (20-25) Rep Range
______________________________________________________________________________________________
somewhat hard - 70% 3 reps short of failure 6 reps short of failure 9 reps short of failure
______________________________________________________________________________________________
hard - 80% 2 reps short of failure 4 reps short of failure 6 reps short of failure
______________________________________________________________________________________________
very hard - 90% 1 rep short of failure 2 rep short of failure 3 rep short of failure
______________________________________________________________________________________________
very very hard - 100% max; unassisted failure (Good) max; unassisted failure (Good) max; unassisted failure (Good)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
exhaustion - 110% past failure; forced reps (Bad) past failure; forced reps (Bad) past failure; forced reps (Bad)
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Rate-of-Perceived-Exertion

69
 Overload Training Principle
Example (4-6 reps): Select a weight that can be controlled throughout the entire range
of motion, in strict form, barely being able to complete 4 reps with absolutely no forced
reps. Sufficient between set recovery will allow for the performance of the same number
of reps in the following sets in this particular movement. When it is possible to perform
6 reps in strict form in all the required sets of this movement, it will be appropriate to
increase the weight used until once again only 4 reps can be performed
in each set using strict form with absolutely no forced reps.

Note: The Overload Principle explained above, applies to all rep ranges including the
(12-15) rep range & the (20-25) rep range. The Overload Principle applied in
each rep range, has a different effect on the target muscle group(s).

Total Activity Expenditure Chart

Calculate & add BELOW Training Expenditure to Daily Activity Expenditure
______________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
100 BPM = Recovery Heart Rate 500 Calories per Hr Training
______________________________________________________________________________________________
115 BPM = Recovery Heart Rate 750 Calories per Hr Training
______________________________________________________________________________________________
125 BPM = Recovery Heart Rate 1,000 Calories per Hr Training
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Average person’s day-to-day activity requirement 500 Calories For Daily Activity

General Dietary Advice Chart

Goal = Weight Loss Weight Maintenance Weight Gain
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Total Calories = BMR + Total (LBW x 11) = BMR BMR + Total
______________________________________________________________________________________________
Expenditure - 500 Ca + Total Expenditure Expenditure + 500 Ca
______________________________________________________________________________________________
% Protein = 25% 20% 15%
______________________________________________________________________________________________
% Carbs = 50% 55% 60%
______________________________________________________________________________________________
% Fats = 25% 25% 25%
______________________________________________________________________________________________
# Meals per Day 4-5 Meals 4-5 Meals 5-6 Meals

Supplement Table
GOALS WEIGHT GENERAL WEIGHT SIZE & INTERMEDIATE ENDURANCE
______________________________________________________________________________________________
GAIN FITNESS LOSS STRENGTH

BCAAs ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
______________________________________________________________________________________________
FREE FORM AMINOS ■ ■ ■ ■
______________________________________________________________________________________________
■ ■
PROTEIN DRINK ■ ■
______________________________________________________________________________________________
■ ■ ■ ■
B-COMPLEX
______________________________________________________________________________________________
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
MULTI-VITAMIN
______________________________________________________________________________________________
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
CARB LOAD DRINK
______________________________________________________________________________________________
■ ■ ■ ■
HCL (PEPSIN) ■
______________________________________________________________________________________________
■

While National Federation of Professional Trainers does NOT advocate the trainer’s use or
prescription of supplements, those supplements in the above table seem
safe and effective as suggested by athletes surveyed

70
 GLOSSARY
AHA- American Heart Association
Abduction- movement of an extremity
away from the midline of the body.
Acetate- an organic substance produced
by the liver to be used for energy using
cannibalized fat and muscle tissue; occurs
during both starvation and over-exertion;
extreme levels are toxic to the brain
Actin- the smaller of the two contractile
elements which sustain damage through
applied resistance and are once again
repaired through anabolism resulting in
hypertrophy of the myofibril
Acute- rapid onset and severe symptoms
of occurrence; usually referring to injury
Adipose- of a fatty nature; fat
Aldosterone- hormone regulating salt
and water balance
Androgenic- contributing to the forma-
tion of male and/or female characteristics
Anemia- condition in which oxygen
transport by the red blood cells is defi-
cient
Anabolism- the stage of metabolism when
damaged tissue is being repaired
Angina Pectoris- periodic severe pain in
the chest radiating to the left shoulder
and down the inner side of the left arm,
usually precipitated by physical exertion
or emotional stress
Anorexia- lack or loss of appetite for
food
Antagonistic Multi-set- a slow “super
set” involving the performance of two
movements, back to back, targeting
antagonistic muscle groups
Antagonistic Muscle- a muscle whose
action opposes that of another muscle
Glossary
71
Amylase- carbohydrate digestive enzymes.
Arteriole- a very small artery
Artery- a vessel through which the blood
passes away from the heart to the various
parts of the body
ADP- adenosine diphosphate; resultant
molecule of splitting ATP for energy also
used to regenerate ATP
ATP- adenosine triphosphate; chemical
source of energy for all nucleated cells
Atrophy- a wasting away or diminution
in the size of a cell, tissue, organ, or part
Ballistic- jerky or projectile movement
Beta Oxidation- energy producing pro-
cess involving the breakdown of long
chains of fatty acids into two carbon
molecules which enter metabolic path-
ways to produce ATP
Bile- emulsifier of fat; breaks fat down
into easily metabolized droplets
Biomechanics- mechanical movement of
human anatomy
Bloodsugar- circulating glucose within
the cardiovascular system
Cannibalism- the breakdown and use of
body tissue for energy in the absence of
nutrients
Cartilage- hard tissue located chiefly in
the joints of major bones
Catabolism- the stage of metabolism
when activity is being performed causing
damage to cells later needing repair
Catalyst- a substance which changes the
velocity of a reaction but does not form
part of the final product
Cerebrospinal Fluid- fluid which sur-
rounds and circulates throughout the
central nervous system
Collateral- referring to fluid (blood)
movement outside the main cardiovascu-
lar tree
Compensatory Acceleration- the increase
in speed of a repetition as the leverage
improves
Compound- the unity of two or more
parts in the accomplishment of a task
Concentric Contraction- the occurrence
of a contractile shortening of a muscle
fiber or a group of fibers; the positive
rep
Contraindication- outward signal of
internal dysfunction, or adverse bodily
activity
Cortisol- principle stress hormone
released by the adrenal gland during
times of physical and physiological stress,
mobilizes fat and stimulates the liver to
release tissue cannibalizing enzymes into
the bloodstream
Chronic- gradual in onset and very slow
in recovery, usually refers to injury which
is long in duration
Chylomicrons- packaged form of fatty
substances entering into the blood from
digestion via the lymphatic system
Creatine Phosphate- acts as store of high
energy phosphate in muscle tissue
Deamination- the undesirable breakdown
and use of amino acids for energy, per-
formed by the liver, results in the toxic
ammonia; later broken down into urea
for excretion
Dilation- the peripheral expansion of
tissue; usually blood vessels
Eccentric Contraction- a controlled con-
traction of a muscle fiber of group of
fibers from the fully contracted state to
the starting position; the negative rep
Ectomorphic- having a relative tendency
to remain very thin
Edema- the presence of an abnormally
large volume of fluid in the interstitial
spaces of the body
Glossary
72
Endomorphic- having a relative tendency
to remain heavy or obese
Endomysium- a fine connective tissue
sheath surrounding the individual muscle
cell fiber
Enzyme- proteins in small amounts that
speed up chemical reactions
Epimysium- a fine connective tissue
sheath that surrounds the entire muscle
group, also known as deep fascia
Equilibrium- the stage in metabolism
when neither damage or repair is occur-
ring; the cell is at rest
Ergometer- device normally used for sub-
maximal aerobic evaluation (exercise bike)
Exogenous- imposing an affect on the
body from the outside environment
Extension- when a joint functions result-
ing in an increase in the angle of the levers
involved
Extracellular- all areas outside the tissue
cell wall; usually referring to intramuscu-
lar areas
Fatty acids- the body’s desired source of
energy during steady state aerobic activ-
ity, and low level activity; used for ATP
production in muscle tissue during recov-
ery glycogen replenishment
Fixators- any muscle or group of muscles
that stabilize the body and/or its parts
during the functioning of the prime
movers
Flexion- when a joint functions resulting
in a decrease in the angle formed by the
levers involved
Forced Rep- performing repetitions of an
exercise beyond concentric failure with
the assistance of spotter
Glucagon- hormone released in response
to low bloodsugar level; stimulates the
liver to release stored glycogen in the
form of glucose into the bloodstream,
returning bloodsugar levels to normal
Glucometer- self-testing device used to
measure blood glucose
Gluconeogenesis- the formation of glu-
cose from noncarbohydrate sources such
as protein or fatty acids
Glucose- the principle bloodsugar
Glucose polymers- chain of glucose mol-
ecules linked together
Gluco-Stix- blood blotting stick used in
conjunction with glucometer testing
Glycemic Index- a functional list of foods
rated according to their specific absorp-
tion rate into the bloodstream
Glycerol- component of triglycerides
capable of conversion to glucose
Glycogen- the chief carbohydrate storage
form of glucose
Glycolysis- energy production using glu-
cose
Holistic training- training in various rep
ranges in a single session to stimulate
adaptation of all three motor units of the
target muscle group
Hydrolysis- decomposition with the addi-
tion of water
Hyperplasia- an increase in the size of a
muscle or organ owing to an increase in
the number of cells
Hypertension- abnormally high tension;
usually high blood pressure
Hypertonic- having an osmotic pressure
greater than that of another solution with
which it is compared
Hypertrophy- the enlargement or over-
growth of a part due to an increase in the
size of its cells
Hypoglycemia- concentration of glucose
in the blood below the normal limit
Hypotonic- having an osmotic pressure
lower than that of a solution with which
it is compared
Internal rotation- movement in which the
anterior surface of the humerus (upper
arm) turns inward toward the midline of
the body.
Glossary
73
Impermeable- not permitting for passage;
usually fluid
Innervation- a nerve supply that stimu-
lates a motor unit to contract regardless
of the angle of resistance, so long as the
action potential exceeds the motor unit’s
contractile threshold
Insertion- place of attachment of a muscle
to the bone which it moves; occurs at the
end of the muscle furthest from the body
Insulin- hormone released during high
bloodsugar levels, or at the onset of exer-
cise, responsible for reducing bloodsugar
to its normal level through its mediating
affect on the uptake of sugar into various
body tissues to include muscle and fat
Insulin Receptor Sites- pathways located
on various body tissues, which in the
presence of insulin, allow for the trans-
port of nutrients into the cell
Intracellular- situated inside the cell
Intramuscular- areas which are situated
anywhere inside a muscle group
Intercostal- situated between the ribs
Interstitial- pertaining to, or situated in
the gaps between tissues
Isometric Contraction- static contraction;
contraction of a muscle resulting in nei-
ther a shortening or lengthening of the
tissues
Isolation- to single out and develop a part
separately
Keto-Stix- self-test sticks used to examine
urine levels of acetate, ketones
Ketones- bi-product of tissue use for
energy; large amounts are toxic to brain
function
Lactic Acid- accumulates in muscle fibers
during strenuous exercise causing cramps
and inhibiting contraction; is converted
into energy by the liver
Leverage- an angle from which resistance
is applied against a muscular contraction
Ligament- any tough, fibrous tissue con-
necting bone to bone
Lipolytic enzymes- fat digestive enzymes
Lymphatic Vessels- network of vessels
that transport fluids from the interstitial
areas back into the bloodstream
Lypase- one of the two principle fat burn-
ing enzymes
Mesomorphic- a relative tendency to
remain muscular in appearance
Metabolism- the sum of all the chemical
and physical changes that can take place
in the body and enable continued growth
and functioning
Mitochondria- cell organelles that most
of the cell’s ATP; known as the power-
house of the cell
Motor Unit- a group of fibers stimulated
to contract simultaneously in response to
an action potential of sufficient intensity
to surpass its threshold of sensitivity
Multi-Set- a slow “super-set” involving
the performance of two movements, back
to back, targeting different prime movers
Myofibril- contractile proteins inside the
cell comprised of actin and myosin
Myosin- the larger of the two contractile
elements making up the myofibrils
Neuron- a nerve cell transmitting an
impulse allowing for the contraction of a
motor unit
Nucleolus- surrounds nucleus and houses
RNA
Nucleus- the controlling organelle embed-
ded in cell membrane and houses DNA
Oblique Muscles- located on either side
of the lower abdomen
Origin- the attachment of a muscle at the
end closest to the center of the body
Oxidative Phosphorylation- system of
energy production involving the utiliza-
tion of glucose or fat in the presence of
oxygen
Peptides- short chains of amino acid mol-
ecules linked together
Glossary
74
Perfusion- passage of blood through the
vascular tissue into the interstitial space
Perimysium- connective tissue sheath sur-
rounding each motor unit
Plateau- period of training in which no
progress is identified
Prime Mover- A muscle group that is
directly responsible for the movement of
resistance in a given exercise.
Proteases- protein digesting enzymes
Pyruvate- converted form of intracellular
glucose used for producing ATP energy
with oxygen.
Ribosomes- elements located along myo-
fibrils which act to manufacture and
repair actin and myosin
Rough Sacroplasmic Reticulum- houses
ribosomes and are located around myofi-
brils
Subcutaneous- beneath the skin
Symmetrical- opposite sides of the body
corresponding with each other; usually
refers to muscular development
Synergists- any muscle or group of mus-
cles allowing balance during the contrac-
tion of prime movers
Synthesis- putting together parts to form
a more complete whole
Tendon- fibrous cord of connective tissue
in which the muscles end, and are where
muscles attach to bone or other struc-
tures
Tropic- triggering or influencing an
action
Valsalva’s Maneuver- increasing of intra-
thoracic pressure by holding the breath
and straining against a closed glottis; typ-
ically associated with coughing, defeca-
tion, and weight lifting
Vein- vessel which moves blood to or
toward the heart
Ventricle (left)- the chamber of the heart
pumping blood to the aorta
 Par - Q & You
Physical Activity Readiness
PAR – Q & YOU
Questionnaire - PAR-Q(revised 1994)

(A Questionnaire for People Aged 15 to 69)

Regular physical activity is fun and healthy, and increasingly more people are starting to become more active every day.
Being more active is very safe for most people. However, some people should check with their doctor before they start becoming much
more physically active.
If you are planning to become much more physically active than you are now, start by answering the seven questions in the box below.
If you are between the ages of 15 and 69, the PAR-Q will tell you if you should check with your doctor before you start. If you are over 69
years of age, and you are not used to being very active, check with your doctor.
Common sense is your best guide when you answer these questions. Please read the questions carefully and answer each one
honestly: check YES or NO.

YES NO
1. Has your doctor ever said that you have a heart condition and that you should only do physical activity
recommended by a doctor?
2. Do you feel pain in your chest when you do physical activity?
3. In the past month, have you had chest pain when you were not doing physical activity?
4. Do you lose your balance because of dizziness or do you ever lose consciousness?
5. Do you have a bone or joint problem that could be made worse by a change in your physical activity?
6. Is your doctor currently prescribing drugs (for example, water pills) for your blood pressure or heart condition?
condition?
7. Do you know of any other reason why you should not do physical activity?

If YES to one or more questions

you Talk with your doctor by phone or in person BEFORE you start becoming much more physically active or BEFORE you

answered have a fitness appraisal. Tell your doctor about the PAR-O and which questions you answered YES.
x You may be able to do any activity you want - as long as you start slowly and build up gradually. Or, you may need to
restrict your activities to those which are safe for you. Talk with your doctor about the kinds of activities you wish to
participate in and follow his/her advice.
x Find out which community programs are safe and helpful for you.

DELAY BECOMING MUCH MORE ACTIVE:

NO to all questions x If you are not feeling well because of temporary illness
such as a cold or a fever – wait until you feel better; or
If you answered NO honestly to all PAR-Q questions, you can be
x If you are or may be pregnant – talk to your doctor
reasonably sure that you can:
before you start becoming more active
x start becoming much more physically active - begin slowly and
build up gradually. This is the safest and easiest way to go.
Please note: If your health changes so that you then
x take part in a fitness appraisal - this is an excellent way to answer YES to any of the above questions, tell your fitness
or health professional.
determine your basic fitness so that you can plan the best way
Ask whether you should change your physical activity plan.
for you to live actively.

Informed Use of the PAR-Q: The Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology, Health Canada, and their agents assume no liability for persons who
undertake physical activity, and if in doubt after completing this questionnaire, consult your doctor prior to physical activity.

I have read, understood and completed this questionnaire. Any questions I had were answered to my full satisfaction.

NAME: _______________________________________________________

SIGNATURE: __________________________________________________ DATE: __________________________________

SIGNATURE OF PARENT: ______________________________________ WITNESS: _______________________________
or GUARDIAN (for participants under the age of majority)

Note: If the PAR-Q is being given to a person before he or she participates in a physical activity program or a fitness appraisal, this
section may be used for legal or administrative purposes.

You are encouraged to copy the PAR-Q but only if you use the entire form
© Canadian Society for Exercise Physiology Société. canadienne de physiologie de l’exercice

Health Santé
Canada Canada

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