1 

CHAPTER 2 COMBINATIONS OF LOADS

2  2.1 GENERAL

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3  Buildings and other structures shall be designed using the provisions of either Section 2.3 or 2.4.
4  Where elements of a structure are designed by a particular material standard or specification,
they shall be designed exclusively by either Section 2.3 or 2.4.

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5 

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6  2.2 SYMBOLS

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7  Ak = Load or load effect arising from extraordinary event, A

8 
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D = Dead load
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9  Di = Weight of ice
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10  E = Earthquake load

F = Load caused by fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights

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11 

12  Fa = Flood load

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13  H = Load due to lateral earth pressure (including lateral earth pressure from fixed or moving
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14  surcharge loads), ground water pressure, or pressure of bulk materials

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15  L = Live load

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16  Lr = Roof live load

17  N = Notional load for structural integrity, Section 1.4

18  R = Rain load

19  S = Snow load

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 1  T = Cumulative effect of self-straining forces and effects arising from contraction or expansion
2  resulting from environmental or operational temperature changes, shrinkage, moisture changes,
3  creep in component materials, movement caused by differential settlement, or combinations
4  thereof

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5  W = Wind load

6  Wi = Wind-on-ice, determined in accordance with Chapter 10

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C R
7  WT = Tornado load, determined in accordance with Chapter 32

or T D
8  2.3 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR STRENGTH DESIGN

9  2.3.1 Basic Combinations

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U E
10  Structures, components, and foundations shall be designed so that their design strength equals or
exceeds the effects of the factored loads in the following combinations. Effects of one or more
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11 
12  loads not acting shall be considered. Seismic load effects shall be combined loads, in accordance
13  with Section 2.3.6. Wind and seismic loads need not be considered to act simultaneously.The
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14  most unfavorable effects from wind loads, tornado loads, and earthquake loads shall be
15  considered, where appropriate, but they need not be assumed to act simultaneously. Refer to
16  Sections 1.4, 2.3.6, 12.4, and 12.14.3 for the specific definition of the earthquake load effect, E .
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17  Each relevant strength limit state shall be investigated.

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18  1a. 1.4D

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19  2a. 1.2D + 1.6L + (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R)

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20  3a. 1.2D + (1.6Lr or 1.0S or 1.6R) + (L or 0.5W)

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21  4a. 1.2 D  1.0W  L  0.5 ( Lr or S or R )

22  1.2D + 1.0(W or WT) + L + (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R)

23  5a. 0.9D + 1.0(W or WT)
24  EXCEPTIONS:

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 1  1. The load factor on L in combinations 3 and 4 is permitted to equal 0.5 for all occupancies

2  in which Lo in Chapter 4, Table 4.3-1, is less than, or equal to, 100 psf (4.78 kN/sq m),
3  with the exception of garages or areas occupied as places of public assembly.
4  2. In combinations 2 and 4 the companion load, S, shall be taken as either the flat roof snow

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5  load ( pf ) or the sloped roof snow load ( ps ).

6  3. Where using WT in combination 4a, (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R) is permitted to be replaced with

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7  0.5 (Lr or S or R).

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8  Where fluid loads, F , are present, they shall be included with the same load factor as dead load,

or T D
9  D , in combinations 1 through 4. Where loads, H , are present, they shall be included as follows:

10  1. Where the effect of H adds to the principal load effect, include H with a load factor of
11  1.6;
12  se N
2. Where the effect of H resists the principal load effect, include H with a load factor of 0.9,
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13  where the load is permanent, or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
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14  Effects of one or more loads not acting shall be investigated. The most unfavorable effects from
15  wind loads shall be investigated, where appropriate, but they need not be considered to act
16  simultaneously with seismic loads.
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17  Each relevant strength limit state shall be investigated.

18  2.3.2 Load Combinations Including Flood Load

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19  When a structure is located in a flood zone (Section 5.3.1), the following load combinations shall
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20  be considered, in addition to the basic combinations in Section 2.3.1:

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21  1. In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones, in combinations 4 and 5 shall be replaced by

22  1.0W 2.0Fa .

23  2. In noncoastal A-Zones, 1 .0W in combinations 4 and 5 shall be replaced by 0.5W 1.0Fa
24  .
25  In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones:

26  4b. 1.2D + 1.0W + 2.0Fa + L + (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R)

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 1  5b. 0.9D + 1.0W + 2.0Fa

2  In noncoastal A-Zones:

3  4b. 1.2D + 0.5W + 1.0Fa + L + (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R)

4  5b. 0.9D + 0.5W + 1.0Fa

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5  2.3.3 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice Loads

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6  When a structure is subjected to atmospheric ice and wind-on-ice loads, the following load

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7  combinations shall be considered:

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8  1. 0.5( Lr or S or R ) in combination 2 shall be replaced by 0.2Di 0.5S .

2. 1 .0 W  0 .5 ( Lr or S or R ) in combination 4 shall be replaced by Di Wi 0.5S .

9 
se N Di Wi .
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10  3. 1 .0W in combination 5 shall be replaced by
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11  4. 1.0W  L  0.5 ( Lr or S or R ) in combination 4 shall be replaced by Di .

12  2b. 1.2D + 1.6L + 0.2Di + 0.3S
13  4c. 1.2D + L + Di + Wi + 0.3S
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14  4d. 1.2D + Di

15  5c. 0.9D + Di + Wi
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16  2.3.4 Load Combinations Including Self-Straining Forces and Effects

N
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17  Where the structural effects of T are expected to adversely affect structural safety or
18  performance, T shall be considered in combination with other loads. The load factor on T shall
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19  be established considering the uncertainty associated with the likely magnitude of the structural
20  forces and effects, the probability that the maximum effect of T will occur simultaneously with
21  other applied loadings, and the potential adverse consequences if the effect of T is greater than
22  assumed. The load factor on T shall not have a value less than 1.0.

23  2.3.5 Load Combinations for Nonspecified Loads

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 1  Where approved by the Authority Having Jurisdiction, the registered design professional is
2  permitted to determine the combined load effect for strength design using a method that is
3  consistent with the method on which the load combination requirements in Section 2.3.1 are
4  based. Such a method must be probability based and must be accompanied by documentation
5  regarding the analysis and collection of supporting data that are acceptable to the Authority

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6  Having Jurisdiction.

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7  2.3.6 Basic Combinations with Seismic Load Effects

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8  When a structure is subject to seismic load effects, the following load combinations shall be

or T D
9  considered in addition to the basic combinations in Section 2.3.1. The most unfavorable effects
10  from seismic loads shall be investigated, where appropriate, but they need not be considered to
11  act simultaneously with wind loads.
se N E  f (Ev, Eh) , (defined in Sections 12.4.2 or
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12  Where the prescribed seismic load effect,
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13  12.14.3.1), is combined with the effects of other loads, the following seismic load combinations
14  shall be used:

6. 1.2D + Ev + Eh + L + 0.15S
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15 
16  7. 0.9D - Ev +Eh

17  Where the seismic load effect with overstrength, Em  f (Ev, Emh) , defined in Sections 12.4.3 or
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18  12.14.3.2, is combined with the effects of other loads, the following seismic load combination
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19  for structures shall be used:

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20  6. 1.2D + Ev + Emh + L + 0.15S

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21  7. 0.9D - Ev +Emh

22  EXCEPTION:

23  1. The load factor on L in combination 6 is permitted to equal 0.5 for all occupancies in

24  which Lo in Chapter 4, Table 4.3-1, is less than or equal to 100 psf (4.78 kN/sq m), with
25  the exception of garages or areas occupied as places of public assembly.

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 1  2. In combination 6, the companion load, S, shall be taken as either the flat roof snow load (

2  pf ) or the sloped roof snow load ( ps ).

3  Where fluid loads, F , are present, they shall be included with the same load factor as dead load
4  D in combinations 6 and 7.

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5  Where loads, H , are present, they shall be included as follows:

1. Where the effect of H adds to the primary variable load effect, include H with a load

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6 
7  factor of 1.6;

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8  2. Where the effect of H resists the primary variable load effect, include H with a load

or T D
9  factor of 0.9 where the load is permanent, or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
10 
11  2.3.7 Alternative Method for Loads from Water in Soil
12  se N
This section is permitted as an alternate for combining loads from soil and water in soil to the
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13  requirements in Section 2.3.1. The alternate is only permitted when using the loads defined in
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14  Section 3.3. For the purposes of this Section, replace Symbol H from Section 2.2 new symbols
15  Heb and Hw as follows:
16 
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17  Heb = load due to lateral earth pressure or pressure of bulk materials, including the effect of
18  buoyancy from ground water pressure on the lateral pressure of earth or bulk materials but
19  otherwise excluding ground water pressure
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Hw = load due to ground water pressure in soil

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20 
21 
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22  Where loads Heb and Hw are present, they shall be included in the basic load combinations of Section 2.3.1
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23  as follows:
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24  1. Where the effect of Heb adds to the principal load effect, compute Heb based upon the maximum
25  ground water elevation and include Heb with a load factor of 1.6
26  2. Where the effect of Heb resists the principal load effect, compute Heb based upon the minimum
27  ground water elevation, and include Heb with a load factor of 0.9 where the load is permanent or a
28  load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
29  3. Where the effect of Hw adds to the principal load effect, include Hw based upon the maximum
30  ground water elevation with a load factor of 1.0.

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 1  4. Where the effect of Hw resists the principal load effect and the soil is permanent, compute Hw
2  based upon the minimum ground water elevation and include Hw with a load factor of 1.0,
3  otherwise assign a load factor of 0.0 to Hw.
4   

5 

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6  2.4 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN

ite A
7  2.4.1 Basic Combinations

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or T D
8  Loads listed herein shall be considered to act in the following combinations; whichever produces
9  the most unfavorable effect on the building, foundation, or structural member shall be
10  considered. Effects of one or more loads not acting shall be considered. Seismic load effects
11  se N
shall be combined with other loads, in accordance with Section 2.4.5. Wind and seismic loads
U E
12  need not be considered to act simultaneously. The most unfavorable effects from wind loads,
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13  tornado loads, and earthquake loads shall be considered, where appropriate, but they need not be
14  assumed to act simultaneously. Refer to Sections 1.4, 2.4.5, 12.4, and 12.14.3 for the specific
15  definition of the earthquake load effect, E .
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16  Increases in allowable stress shall not be used with the loads or load combinations given in this
17  standard unless it can be demonstrated that such an increase is justified by structural behavior
18  caused by rate or duration of load.
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19  1a. D 
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20  2a. D + L 
3a. D + (Lr or 0.7S or R) 
D

21 
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22  4a. D + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or 0.7S or R) 

23  5a. D + 0.6(W or WT) 
24  6a. D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W or WT) + 0.75(Lr or 0.7S or R)     
25  7a. 0.6D + 0.6(W or WT) 
26  EXCEPTIONS:

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 1  1. In combinations 4a and 6a, the companion load, S , shall be taken as either the flat roof
2  snow load ( p f ) or the sloped roof snow load ( ps ).

3  2. For nonbuilding structures in which the wind or tornado load is determined from force
4  coefficients, Cf , identified in Figures 29.4-1, 29.4-2, and 29.4-3 and the projected area

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5  contributing wind or tornado force to a foundation element exceeds 1,000 sq ft (93 sq m)
6  on either a vertical or a horizontal plane, it shall be permitted to replace ( W or WT) with

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7  0.9 (W or WT) in combination 7a for design of the foundation, excluding anchorage of the

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8  structure to the foundation.

or T D
9  3. Where using WT in combination 6a, 0.75 (Lr or 0.7S or R) is permitted to be replaced
10  with 0.75 (Lr or R).
11  Where fluid loads, F , are present, they shall be included in combinations 1a through 6a, with the
12 
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same factor as that used for dead load, D .
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13  Where loads, H , are present, they shall be included as follows:
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14  1. Where the effect of H adds to the principal load effect, include H with a load factor of
15  1.0;
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16  2. Where the effect of H resists the principal load effect, include H with a load factor of
17  0.6 where the load is permanent, or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
18  The most unfavorable effects from both wind and earthquake loads shall be considered, where
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19  appropriate, but they need not be assumed to act simultaneously. Refer to Sections 1.4, 2.4.5,
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20  12.4, and 12.14.3 for the specific definition of the earthquake load effect E .
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21  Increases in allowable stress shall not be used with the loads or load combinations given in this
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22  standard unless it can be demonstrated that such an increase is justified by structural behavior
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23  caused by rate or duration of load.

24  2.4.2 Load Combinations Including Flood Load

25  When a structure is located in a flood zone, the following load combinations shall be considered,
26  in addition to the basic combinations in Section 2.4.1:

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 1  1. In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones (Section 5.3.1), shall be added to other loads in
2  combinations 5, 6, and 7, and shall be set equal to zero in combinations 5 and 6.
3  2. In noncoastal A-Zones, shall be added to combinations 5, 6, and 7, and shall be set equal
4  to zero in combinations 5 and 6.
5  In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones:

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6 
7  5b. D + 0.6W + 1.5Fa

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8  6b. D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or 0.7S or R) + 1.5Fa

C R
9  7b. 0.6D + 0.6W + 1.5Fa

or T D
10 
11  In noncoastal A-Zones:
12 
13 
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5b. D + 0.6W + 0.75Fa
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14  6b. D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or 0.7S or R) + 0.75Fa
7b. 0.6D + 0.6W + 0.75Fa
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15 

16  2.4.3 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice Loads

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17  When a structure is subjected to atmospheric ice and wind-on-ice loads, the following load
18  combinations shall be considered:

0.7Di shall be added to combination 2.

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19  1.
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( Lr or S or R ) in combination 3 shall be replaced by 0.7Di 0.7Wi S .

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20  2.

21  3. 0 .6W in combination 7 shall be replaced by 0.7Di 0.7Wi .

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22  4. 0.7Di shall be added to combination 1.

23  1b. D + 0.7Di
24  2b. D + L + 0.7Di
25  3b. D + 0.7Di + 0.7Wi + 0.7S
26  7c. 0.6D + 0.7Di + 0.7Wi

27  2.4.4 Load Combinations Including Self-Straining Forces and Effects

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 1  Where the structural effects of T are expected to adversely affect structural safety or
2  performance, T shall be considered in combination with other loads. Where the maximum effect
3  of load, T , is unlikely to occur simultaneously with the maximum effects of other variable loads,
4  it shall be permitted to reduce the magnitude of T considered in combination with these other
5  loads. The fraction of T considered in combination with other loads shall not be less than 0.75.

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6  2.4.5 Basic Combinations with Seismic Load Effects

ite A
7  When a structure is subject to seismic load effects, the following load combinations shall be

C R
8  considered, in addition to the basic combinations and associated exceptions detailed in

or T D
9  Section 2.4.1.

10  Where the prescribed seismic load effect, E  f (Ev, Eh) , (defined in Sections 12.4.2 and
11  se N
12.14.3.1), is combined with the effects of other loads, the following seismic load combinations
U E
12  shall be used:
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1.0D  0.7Ev  0.7Eh

13  8.
14  9. 1.0D + 0.525Ev + 0.525Eh +0.75L + 0.750.1S
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15  10. 0.6D  0.7Ev  0.7Eh

16  Where the seismic load effect with overstrength, Em  f (Ev, Emh) , defined in Sections 12.4.3 and
17  12.14.3.2, is combined with the effects of other loads, the following seismic load combinations
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18  for structures not subject to flood or atmospheric ice loads shall be used:
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19  8.
1.0D0.7Ev 0.7Emh
D

9. 1.0D + 0.525Ev + 0.525Emh +0.75L + 0.750.1S 

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20 

21  10. 0.6D  0.7Ev  0.7Emh

22  Where allowable stress design methodologies are used with the seismic load effect defined in
23  Sections 12.4.3 and 12.14.3.2 and applied in load combinations 8, 9, or 10, allowable stresses are
24  permitted to be determined using an allowable stress increase factor of 1.2. This increase shall
25  not be combined with increases in allowable stresses or load combination reductions otherwise

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 1  permitted by this standard, or the material reference document, except for increases caused by
2  adjustment factors, in accordance with AWC NDS.

3  EXCEPTIONS:

4  1. In combinations 9, the companion load, S, shall be taken as either the flat roof snow load

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5  ( pf ) or the sloped roof snow load ( ps ).

2. It shall be permitted to replace 0 .6 D with 0 .9 D in combination 10, for the design of

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6 
7  special reinforced masonry shear walls where the walls satisfy the requirement of Section

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8  14.4.2.

or T D
9  Where fluid loads, F , are present, they shall be included in combinations 8, 9, and 10, with the
10  same factor as that used for dead load, D .

11 
se N
Where loads H are present, they shall be included as follows:
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12  1. Where the effect of H adds to the primary variable load effect, include H with a load
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13  factor of 1.0;

14  2. Where the effect of H resists the primary variable load effect, include H with a load
15  factor of 0.6 where the load is permanent or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
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16  2.5 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR EXTRAORDINARY EVENTS

2.5.1 Applicability
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17 
N

Where required by the owner or applicable code, strength and stability shall be checked to ensure
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18 
19  that structures are capable of withstanding the effects of extraordinary (i.e., low-probability)
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20  events, such as fires, explosions, and vehicular impact without disproportionate collapse.
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21  2.5.2 Load Combinations

22  2.5.2.1 Capacity

23  For checking the capacity of a structure or structural element to withstand the effect of an
24  extraordinary event, the following gravity load combination shall be considered:

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 1  (0.9 or 1.2)D + Ak + 0.5L + 0.15S (2.5-1)

2  in which 𝐴 isthe load or load effect resulting from extraordinary event, A .

3  2.5.2.2 Residual Capacity

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4  For checking the residual load-carrying capacity of a structure or structural element following
5  the occurrence of a damaging event, selected load-bearing elements identified by the registered

ite A
6  design professional shall be notionally removed, and the capacity of the damaged structure shall

C R
7  be evaluated using the following gravity load combination:

or T D
8  (0.9 or 1.2)D + 0.5L + 0.2(Lr or 0.7S or R) (2.5-2)

9  2.5.3 Stability Requirements

se N
U E
10  Stability shall be provided for the structure as a whole and for each of its elements. Any method
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11  that considers the influence of second-order effects is permitted.

12  2.6 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR GENERAL STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY LOADS

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13  The notional loads, N , specified in Section 1.4 for structural integrity shall be combined with
14  other loads, in accordance with Section 2.6.1 for strength design and Section 2.6.2 for allowable
15  stress design.
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N

16  2.6.1 Strength Design Notional Load Combinations

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17  1. 1.2D + 1.0N + L + 0.15S

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18  2. 0 .9 D  1 .0 N

19  2.6.2 Allowable Stress Design Notional Load Combinations

20  1. D  0 .7 N

21  2. D + 0.75(0.7N) + 0.75L + 0.75(Lr or 0.7S or R)

22  3. 0 .6 D  0 .7 N

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 1  2.7 CONSENSUS STANDARDS AND OTHER REFERENCED DOCUMENTS

2  This section lists the consensus standards and other documents that shall be considered part of
3  this standard to the extent referenced in this chapter.

4  ANSI/AISC 300, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, American Institute of Steel

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5  Construction, 2016.

ite A
6  Cited in: Section 2.3.5

C R
7  AWC NDS 12, National Design Specification for Wood Construction, Including Supplements,

or T D
8  American Wood Council, 2012.

9  Cited in: Section 2.4.5

10  se N
AWC NDS 1518, National Design Specification for Wood Construction, Including Supplements,
U E
11  American Wood Council, 20142017.
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12  Cited in: Section 2.4.5

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N
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D
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