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Draft Format Use or Cite: Chapter 2 Combinations of Loads 2.1 General
Draft Format Use or Cite: Chapter 2 Combinations of Loads 2.1 General
2 2.1 GENERAL
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Buildings and other structures shall be designed using the provisions of either Section 2.3 or 2.4.
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4 Where elements of a structure are designed by a particular material standard or specification,
5 they shall be designed exclusively by either Section 2.3 or 2.4.
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6 2.2 SYMBOLS
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7 Ak = Lload or load effect arising from extraordinary event, A
8 D = Ddead load
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Di = Wweight of ice
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11 F = Lload caused by fluids with well-defined pressures and maximum heights
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H = Lload due to lateral earth pressure (including lateral earth pressure from fixed or moving
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14 surcharge loads), ground water pressure, or pressure of bulk materials
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L = Llive load
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1 T = Ccumulative effect of self-straining forces and effects arising from contraction or expansion
2 resulting from environmental or operational temperature changes, shrinkage, moisture changes,
3 creep in component materials, movement caused by differential settlement, or combinations
4 thereof
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6 W = Wwind load
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7 Wi = Wwind-on-ice, determined in accordance with Chapter 10
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8 WT = Ttornado load, determined in accordance with Chapter 32
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2.3 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR STRENGTH DESIGN
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10 2.3.1 Basic Combinations.
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Structures, components, and foundations shall be designed so that their design strength equals or
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12 exceeds the effects of the factored loads in the following combinations. Effects of one or more
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13 loads not acting shall be considered. Seismic load effects shall be combined loads, in accordance
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14 with Section 2.3.6. Wind and seismic loads need not be considered to act simultaneously. The
15 most unfavorable effects from wind loads, tornado loads, and earthquake loads shall be
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16 considered, where appropriate, but they need not be assumed to act simultaneously. Refer to
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17 Sections 1.4, 2.3.6, 12.4, and 12.14.3 for the specific definition of the earthquake load effect, E .
Each relevant strength limit state shall be investigated.
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1 1. The load factor on L in combinations 3 and 4 is permitted to equal 0.5 for all occupancies
2 in which Lo in Chapter 4, Table 4.3-1, is less than, or equal to, 100 psf (4.78 kN/sq m),
3 with the exception of garages or areas occupied as places of public assembly.
2. In combinations 2 and 4 the companion load, S, shall be taken as either the flat roof snow
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5 load ( pf ) or the sloped roof snow load ( ps ).
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6 2.3.Where using WT in combination 4a, 0.5 (0.5Lr or 0.3S or 0.5R) is permitted to be replaced
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7 with 0.5 (Lr or S or R).
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8 Where fluid loads, F , are present, they shall be included with the same load factor as dead load,
9 D , in combinations 1 through 4. Where loads , H , are present, they shall be included as follows:
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10 1. Wwhere the effect of H adds to the principal load effect, include H with a load factor of
11 1.6;
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12 2. Wwhere the effect of H resists the principal load effect, include H with a load factor of
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0.9, where the load is permanent, or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
Effects of one or more loads not acting shall be investigated. The most unfavorable effects from
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15 wind loads shall be investigated, where appropriate, but they need not be considered to act
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19 When a structure is located in a flood zone (Section 5.3.1), the following load combinations shall
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23 2. In noncoastal A-Zones, 1 .0W in combinations 4 and 5 shall be replaced by 0.5W 1.0Fa
24 .
25 In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones:
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1 5b. 0.9D + 1.0W + 2.0Fa
2 In noncoastal A-Zones:
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4 5b. 0.9D + 0.5W + 1.0Fa
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5 2.3.3 Load Combinations Including Atmospheric Ice Loads.
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6 When a structure is subjected to atmospheric ice and wind-on-ice loads, the following load
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7 combinations shall be considered:
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8 1. 0.5( Lr or S or R ) in combination 2 shall be replaced by 0.2Di 0.5S .
11 4.
17 Where the structural effects of T are expected to adversely affect structural safety or
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18 performance, T shall be considered in combination with other loads. The load factor on T shall
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19 be established considering the uncertainty associated with the likely magnitude of the structural
20 forces and effects, the probability that the maximum effect of T will occur simultaneously with
21 other applied loadings, and the potential adverse consequences if the effect of T is greater than
22 assumed. The load factor on T shall not have a value less than 1.0.
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1 Where approved by the Authority Having Jurisdiction, the registered design professional is
2 permitted to determine the combined load effect for strength design using a method that is
3 consistent with the method on which the load combination requirements in Section 2.3.1 are
4 based. Such a method must be probability based and must be accompanied by documentation
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5 regarding the analysis and collection of supporting data that are acceptable to the Authority
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6 Having Jurisdiction.
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2.3.6 Basic Combinations with Seismic Load Effects.
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8 When a structure is subject to seismic load effects, the following load combinations shall be
9 considered in addition to the basic combinations in Section 2.3.1. The most unfavorable effects
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10 from seismic loads shall be investigated, where appropriate, but they need not be considered to
11 act simultaneously with wind loads.
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E f (Ev, Eh) , (defined in Sections 12.4.2 or
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Where the prescribed seismic load effect,
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12.14.3.1), is combined with the effects of other loads, the following seismic load combinations
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18 12.14.3.2, is combined with the effects of other loads, the following seismic load combination
19 for structures shall be used:
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23 1. The load factor on L in combinations 6 is permitted to equal 0.5 for all occupancies in
24 which Lo in Chapter 4, Table 4.3-1, is less than or equal to 100 psf (4.78 kN/sq m), with
25 the exception of garages or areas occupied as places of public assembly.
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1 2. In combinations 6, the companion load, S, shall be taken as either the flat roof snow load
3 Where fluid loads, F , are present, they shall be included with the same load factor as dead load
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4 D in combinations 6 and 7.
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5 Where loads, H , are present, they shall be included as follows:
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6 1. Where the effect of H adds to the primary variable load effect, include H with a load
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7 factor of 1.6;
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8 2. Where the effect of H resists the primary variable load effect, include H with a load
9 factor of 0.9 where the load is permanent, or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
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11 2.3.7 Alternative Method for Loads from Water in Soil
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12 This section is permitted as an alternate for combining loads from soil and water in soil to the
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requirements in Section 2.3.1. The alternate is only permitted when using the loads defined in
Section 3.3. For the purposes of this Section, replace Symbol H from Section 2.2 new symbols
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15 Heb and Hw as follows:
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17 Heb = load due to lateral earth pressure or pressure of bulk materials, including the effect of
18 buoyancy from ground water pressure on the lateral pressure of earth or bulk materials but
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22 Where loads Heb and Hw are present, they shall be included in the basic load combinations of Section 2.3.1
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23 as follows:
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24 1. Where the effect of Heb adds to the principal load effect, compute Heb based upon the maximum
25 ground water elevation and include Heb with a load factor of 1.6
26 2. Where the effect of Heb resists the principal load effect, compute Heb based upon the minimum
27 ground water elevation, and include Heb with a load factor of 0.9 where the load is permanent or a
28 load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
29 3. Where the effect of Hw adds to the principal load effect, include Hw based upon the maximum
30 ground water elevation with a load factor of 1.0.
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1 4. Where the effect of Hw resists the principal load effect and the soil is permanent, compute Hw
2 based upon the minimum ground water elevation and include Hw with a load factor of 1.0,
3 otherwise assign a load factor of 0.0 to Hw.
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6 2.4 LOAD COMBINATIONS FOR ALLOWABLE STRESS DESIGN
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7 2.4.1 Basic Combinations.
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8 Loads listed herein shall be considered to act in the following combinations; whichever produces
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9 the most unfavorable effect in on the building, foundation, or structural member shall be
10 considered. Effects of one or more loads not acting shall be considered. Seismic load effects
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11 shall be combined with other loads, in accordance with Section 2.4.5. Wind and seismic loads
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12 need not be considered to act simultaneously. The most unfavorable effects from wind loads,
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13 tornado loads, and earthquake loads shall be considered, where appropriate, but they need not be
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14 assumed to act simultaneously. Refer to Sections 1.4, 2.4.5, 12.4, and 12.14.3 for the specific
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16 Increases in allowable stress shall not be used with the loads or load combinations given in this
17 standard unless it can be demonstrated that such an increase is justified by structural behavior
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19 1a. D
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20 2a. D + L
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1 1. In combinations 4a and 6a, the companion load, S , shall be taken as either the flat roof
2 snow load ( p f ) or the sloped roof snow load ( ps ).
3 2. For nonbuilding structures in which the wind or tornado load is determined from force
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4 coefficients, Cf , identified in Figuress. 29.4-1, 29.4-2, and 29.4-3 and the projected area
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5 contributing wind or tornado force to a foundation element exceeds 1,000 sq ft (93 sq m)
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6 on either a vertical or a horizontal plane, it shall be permitted to replace ( W or WT) with
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7 0.9 (W or WT) in combination 7a for design of the foundation, excluding anchorage of the
structure to the foundation.
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9 2.3.Where using WT in combination 6a, 0.75 (Lr or 0.7S or R) is permitted to be replaced
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10 with 0.75 (Lr or R).
11 Where fluid loads, F , are present, they shall be included in combinations 1a through 6a, with the
same factor as that used for dead load, D .
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Where loads, H , are present, they shall be included as follows:
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14 1. Wwhere the effect of H adds to the principal load effect, include H with a load factor of
1.0;
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16 2. Wwhere the effect of H resists the principal load effect, include H with a load factor of
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17 0.6 where the load is permanent, or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
The most unfavorable effects from both wind and earthquake loads shall be considered, where
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19 appropriate, but they need not be assumed to act simultaneously. Refer to Sections 1.4, 2.4.5,
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20 12.4, and 12.14.3 for the specific definition of the earthquake load effect E .
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21 Increases in allowable stress shall not be used with the loads or load combinations given in this
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standard unless it can be demonstrated that such an increase is justified by structural behavior
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23 caused by rate or duration of load.
25 When a structure is located in a flood zone, the following load combinations shall be considered,
26 in addition to the basic combinations in Section 2.4.1:
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1 1. In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones (Section 5.3.1), shall be added to other loads in
2 combinations 5, 6, and 7, and shall be set equal to zero in combinations 5 and 6.
3 2. In noncoastal A-Zones, shall be added to combinations 5, 6, and 7, and shall be set equal
4 to zero in combinations 5 and 6.
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5 In V-Zones or Coastal A-Zones:
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7 5b. D + 0.6W + 1.5Fa
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8 6b. D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or 0.7S or R) + 1.5Fa
7b. 0.6D + 0.6W + 1.5Fa
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11 In noncoastal A-Zones:
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13 5b. D + 0.6W + 0.75Fa
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14 6b. D + 0.75L + 0.75(0.6W) + 0.75(Lr or 0.7S or R) + 0.75Fa
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7b. 0.6D + 0.6W + 0.75Fa
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17 When a structure is subjected to atmospheric ice and wind-on-ice loads, the following load
18 combinations shall be considered:
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0.7Di 0.7Wi S .
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0.7Di 0.7Wi .
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1 Where the structural effects of T are expected to adversely affect structural safety or
2 performance, T shall be considered in combination with other loads. Where the maximum effect
3 of load, T , is unlikely to occur simultaneously with the maximum effects of other variable loads,
4 it shall be permitted to reduce the magnitude of T considered in combination with these other
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5 loads. The fraction of T considered in combination with other loads shall not be less than 0.75.
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6 2.4.5 Basic Combinations with Seismic Load Effects.
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7 When a structure is subject to seismic load effects, the following load combinations shall be
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8 considered, in addition to the basic combinations and associated Eexceptions detailed in
9 Section 2.4.1.
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Where the prescribed seismic load effect, E f (Ev, Eh) , (defined in Sections 12.4.2 and
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12.14.3.1), is combined with the effects of other loads, the following seismic load combinations
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shall be used:
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16 Where the seismic load effect with overstrength, Em f (Ev, Emh) , defined in Sections 12.4.3 and
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17 12.14.3.2, is combined with the effects of other loads, the following seismic load combinations
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18 for structures not subject to flood or atmospheric ice loads shall be used:
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1.0D0.7Ev 0.7Emh
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19 8.
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1 permitted by this standard, or the material reference document, except for increases caused by
2 adjustment factors, in accordance with AWC NDS.
3 EXCEPTIONS:
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4 1. In combinations 9, the companion load, S, shall be taken as either the flat roof snow load
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5 ( pf ) or the sloped roof snow load ( ps ).
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6 2. It shall be permitted to replace 0 .6 D with 0 .9 D in combination 10, for the design of
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7 special reinforced masonry shear walls where the walls satisfy the requirement of Section
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8 14.4.2.
9 Where fluid loads, F , are present, they shall be included in combinations 8, 9, and 10, with the
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10 same factor as that used for dead load, D .
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11 Where loads H are present, they shall be included as follows:
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1. Wwhere the effect of H adds to the primary variable load effect, include H with a load
factor of 1.0;
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14 2. Wwhere the effect of H resists the primary variable load effect, include H with a load
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15 factor of 0.6 where the load is permanent or a load factor of 0 for all other conditions.
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18 Where required by the owner or applicable code, strength and stability shall be checked to ensure
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19 that structures are capable of withstanding the effects of extraordinary (i.e., low-probability)
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20 events, such as fires, explosions, and vehicular impact without disproportionate collapse.
23 For checking the capacity of a structure or structural element to withstand the effect of an
24 extraordinary event, the following gravity load combination shall be considered:
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1 (0.9 or 1.2)D + Ak + 0.5L + 0.20.15S (2.5-1)
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4 For checking the residual load-carrying capacity of a structure or structural element following
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5 the occurrence of a damaging event, selected load-bearing elements identified by the registered
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6 design professional shall be notionally removed, and the capacity of the damaged structure shall
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7 be evaluated using the following gravity load combination:
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8 (0.9 or 1.2)D + 0.5L + 0.2(Lr or 0.7S or R) (2.5-2)
13 The notional loads, N , specified in Section 1.4 for structural integrity shall be combined with
14 other loads, in accordance with Section 2.6.1 for strength design and Section 2.6.2 for allowable
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18 2. 0 .9 D 1 .0 N
20 1. D 0 .7 N
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1 2.7 CONSENSUS STANDARDS AND OTHER REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
2 This section lists the consensus standards and other documents that shall be considered part of
3 this standard to the extent referenced in this chapter.
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4 ANSI/AISC 300, Specification for Structural Steel Buildings, American Institute of Steel
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5 Construction, 2016.
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6 Cited in: Section 2.3.5
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7 AWC NDS 12, National Design Specification for Wood Construction, Including Supplements,
8 American Wood Council, 2012.
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9 Cited in: Section 2.4.5
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10 AWC NDS 1518, National Design Specification for Wood Construction, Including Supplements,
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American Wood Council, 20142017.
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