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WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(INTRODUCTION)

Compiled and Prepared By:

Abhash Acharya
070-BCE-004
Central Campus, Pulchowk

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1.1 Importance of Water:

Water is an essence of life. Human, animals, and plants require water for their survival. Seventy-
one percent of the surface of the earth is covered by water. Five percent of water loss in the body
causes degradation of the muscle strength and endurance. 10% reduction in water leads to delirium
and blurred vision and 20% reduction in water leads to death.

Functions of water in human body:

 It moisturizes the air in lungs and joints

 It helps in metabolism
 It protects our vital organs
 It transports oxygen and nutrients into cells
 It regulates human body temperature
 It helps to absorb nutrients

Importance of Water supply Engineering:

 Necessity of life
 Prevention of land pollution
 Aesthetic appearance

1.2 Definition of Types of Water:

1.2.1 Pure and Impure Water:

Water which does not contain any other substances except Hydrogen and Oxygen is said to be
pure water. Pure water is note actually suitable for drinking as it lacks vital minerals required for
human growth. Pure water is used in laboratories and medical purposes and is obtained by the
special method of distillation.

Water that contains other substances as mineral salts, organisms, gases except hydrogen and
oxygen is called impure water. The water that is used for drinking is impure water, but impurities
should not be excessive to cause an adverse effect on human health.

1.2.2 Potable and Wholesome Water:

Water that is safe for drinking by humans and other animals is called potable water. It is also called
safe water.

Water that is practically clear, colourless, odourless, palatable, sparkling and reasonably free from
objectionable chemical salts in solution and from microscopic organisms in suspension is called
wholesome water.

Requirements:

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 Biological quality: Including the levels of bacteria and viruses.

 Chemical quality: Including the levels of metals, pesticides, solvents and hydrocarbons.
 Physical quality: Including colour, taste and odour.

1.2.3 Polluted and Contaminated Water:

The water that contains excessive impurities as minerals, salts, gases, microorganisms is called
polluted water. The polluted water is not generally clean and wholesome.

The water that contains microorganisms such as bacteria, virus, protozoa, and worms is called as
contaminated water. It is non potable and must not be used for drinking purposes.

1.3 Historical Development of Water Supply System:

The process of supplying potable water from source to consumers through the network of pipes,
reservoir, and other appurtenances is known as water supply system or water supply scheme.

 Digging of shallow wells was the earliest innovation beyond rivers, lakes, and springs.
 Brick lined wells were built by city dwellers in the Indus River basin as early as 2500 BC
and wells almost 500m deep are known to have been used in ancient China.
 Use of cast iron pipes with joints started in the 19thcentury.
 Stone spouts were introduced to the Kathmandu valley during the Lichhavi period, in the
fifth to seventh centuries.
 There are 118 stone spouts in Kathmandu, 103 in Bhaktapur and 48 in Patan.
 Bir Dhara System was commissioned in 1895 A.D.
 Pani Goshowara Adda was established.
 Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) were formally established in 1972.

1.4 Water Supply Sector Institutions in Nepal

Urban Development (MoUD)

Local Development (MLD)

Ministries Water Resources (MWR)

Education and Sports (MoES)

Health and Population (MoHP)

Department of Water Supply and Sewerage (DWSS)
Government
Departments Department of Urban Development and Building Construction (DUDBC)

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Department of Local Infrastructure Development and Agriculture Roads

(DoLIDAR)
Water Supply Tariff Fixation Commission (WSTFC)

Town Development Fund (TDF)

Government Bodies
Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC)

Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL)

District Development Committees (DDC)

Local Government Municipalities

Village Development Committees (VDC)

Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH)

Water Aid Nepal

NGOs
Environment and Public Health Organization (ENPHO)

Federation of Drinking Water and Sanitation Users Nepal (FEDWASUN)

Urban Development through Local Efforts

Urban Environment Improvement Project

Public Private Partnership for Urban Environment

Others Un Habitat-Nepal

World Health Organization (WHO)

United Nations International Children Education Fund (UNICEF)

Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development Board (RWSSFDB)

Source : PPTA No. 4972-NEP

Sectors Functions
Ministry of Urban Development (MoUD) Water Supply Promotion
Promotion of local development and
Ministry of Local Development (MLD)
decentralization
Overall development of education in the country
Ministry of Education and Sports (MoES)

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Designing and construction of school

infrastructures (water supply and sanitation)
Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) Implements the water resource policies.
Water supply Tariff Fixation commission Fixes water tariffs and ensures quality standards
(WSTFC) in service delivery.
Responsible for the provision of drinking water in
Nepal Water Supply Corporation (NWSC)
designated municipalities.
Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Implements projects through a system of technical
Development Board (RWSSFDB) support agencies.
Develops technical standards

Construction of sanitation facilities

Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
(DWSS) Coordination of health and hygiene education

Designs and constructs activities for water supply

and sanitation

1.5 Objectives of Water Supply System:

 Qualitative water supply (safe, wholesome and potable water)

 Quantitative water supply
 Efficient water supplies scheme
 Affordable water supply
 Accessible water supply
 Continuation
 Reliable water supply
 Water supply for industrial, commercial and domestic purposes.

Job:

 Collection of water
 Transmission of water
 Treatment of water
 Distribution of water

1.6 Schematic Diagrams of Typical Water Supply System:

The layout of water supply system and its component extending from the water source to the
consumer areas is called schematic diagram of a water supply system.

Intake > Sedimentation Tank > Disinfection > Distribution

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Fig: Rural water supply scheme

Intake > Reservoir > Sedimentation Tank > Sedimentation with coagulation > Filtration >
Disinfection > Hardening/Softening > Aeration > Storage tank > Distribution

Fig: Urban water supply scheme

1.7 Components of water supply system:

Intake: A device or a structure constructed at the water source for the purpose of drawing water
from the source and conveying to the other components of the water supply system is termed as
intake.

Pump: It is a device to lift the water from the source. Pumping is required when the consumer
area is at the higher elevation than the source. It should be avoided as far as possible to minimize
the cost.

Transmission main: It is a pipe laid to convey water from source to reservoir. It is designed for
the flow equivalent to the maximum daily demand. The transmission main and all other
components located in it are designed for the average flow as daily peak factor is considered to be
one in Nepal.

Collection Chamber: Collection chamber is provided either at the intake or near the intake site to
collect the water from one of more sources. It breaks the incoming water pressure into atmospheric
pressure which prevents the backflow of water from one source to another.

Distribution Chamber: It is a tank provided at the junction of the pipeline when water has to be
conveyed in more than one direction at atmospheric pressure.

Interruption Chamber: It is a tank present in the transmission main to break the excessive
internal water pressure built in the pipeline.

Reservoir: It is a tank or a basin which is used to store water. It may be classified as clean water
reservoir and service reservoir. Clean water reservoir stores water after treatment has been done
and is used for water supply purposes. Service reservoir stores water that is used for firefighting
purposes.

Distribution System: Distribution system is a network of pipeline that conveys the water from
the service reservoir to the consumer. It is designed for maximum or peak flow.

Break Pressure Chamber (BPC): It is a tank that is located in the distribution system to break
the excessive internal water pressure built up in the pipeline. It reduces the cost as it avoids the
necessity of high-pressure rating pipes. It is provided with the float valve.

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Public Stand Post (PSP): It is a structure in the pipeline (usually in the rural water supply system)
from where water is distributed to the consumers.

Valves: Valves are appurtenances provided in the pipeline to control and regulate the flow of
water, to prevent the flow in opposite direction, to release the excessive pressure and to conduct
other functions.

Valve Chamber: The chamber in which one or more valves are located is called a valve chamber.

Fittings: Fittings are those appurtenances that allow pipes to be joined or installed in the
appropriate place and closed where necessary.

Bibliography:

Kansakar B.R. (2015), Water Supply Engineering, Divine Print Support, Lagan Tole, Kathmandu.

Punmia B.C., Jain A. and JainA. (1998), Water Supply Engineering, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.

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WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(SOURCES OF WATER)

Compiled and Prepared By:

Abhash Acharya
070-BCE-004
Central Campus, Pulchowk

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2.1 Classification of Sources of Water

Sources of water may be classified as Surface Sources and Ground Sources which are further
described below.

2.2 Surface Sources:

Sources of water that are available at the ground surface is called surface source. It includes river,
streams, lakes, ponds, impounded reservoir.

Surface water contains organic debris, suspended materials, herbicides and pesticides, domestic
and industrial wastes. On reaching to the impounded reservoir the suspended material settles and
the water improve in turbidity. Organisms can oxidize material and give rise to colour, taste, and
odour.

2.2.1 River:

A river is a natural channel which carries surface runoff received by it from its catchment or
drainage basin. The quantity of water increases as river travels from mountain to downwards. It is
due to the small catchment in the mountain. As river move forward more and more springs
combine resulting in increased discharge. The river may be perennial as well as non-perennial.
Perennial rivers are those rivers in which water are available throughout the year. The water in
such rivers is due to rains in the rainy season and by melting of snow during the summer season.
Non-perennial rivers are those rivers in which water are not available throughout the year.

The quality of water is better at the place of origin i.e. mountainous region and goes on degrading
as it moves forward as it gets contaminated with organisms, suspended materials, clay, silt, etc. As
the quantity of supply from the river is large, it is used as a water supply source for towns and
cities. The water from river must be analyzed and treated before use.

2.2.2 Streams:

Streams are defined as the natural drainage channel. They are found in the mountainous region.
The quantity of water from the stream is less as compared to the river due to its small catchment.
Perennial streams are snow fed and non-perennial streams are fed from surface runoff. It acts as a
water source in villages of hilly areas. Generally, water from streams are used without any
treatment but it is recommended that the water should be analyzed and treated before use.

2.2.3 Lakes:

A large natural depression formed in the earth’s surface where water gets deposited is called the
lake. It is also generally found in the mountainous region. The quantity of water available from
lake depends upon the following factors:

 Size of the lake

 Catchment area of the lake

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 Annual rainfall
 Porosity of the ground surface
 Geological formations

The quality of water from lake depends upon the characteristics of its catchment. The water in a
lake would be pure if it draws water from uninhabited upland hilly areas. Water would be
contaminated if it draws from low land areas. Water from Rara Lake can be used without treatment
whereas water from smaller lakes must be analyzed and treated before distribution.

2.2.4 Ponds:

Ponds are artificially made the body of standing water. These are smaller than lakes in size. The
water from pond cannot be used for water supply purposes. They are used for bathing, washing of
clothes.

2.2.5 Impounded Reservoir

For large cities, a single source cannot fulfil the demand of the growing population. The water may
not be available throughout the year in adequate amount. So a dam is constructed across the river
to form a reservoir where water is stored and can be used when there is a limited supply of water
from the source. Such constructed reservoir are said to be impounded reservoirs. These are used
for water supply scheme in large cities and towns. The water from impounded reservoir is
improved in turbidity.

2.2.6 Capacity determination of Impounded Reservoir:

The capacity of the impounded reservoir is calculated using an analytical method or mass curve
method.

IR capacity = Maximum cumulative surplus + Maximum cumulative deficit – Total inflow + Total
demand.

Inflow > Outflow, reduce the tank by difference or surplus or overflow occurs.

Inflow <= Outflow, no considerations.

2.3 Subsurface Geologic Formation:

The water below the ground surface is known as groundwater. Precipitation acts as the major
source of groundwater.

Infiltration: The entrance of water into the ground.

Percolation: The movement of water underground after infiltration.

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Water table: The surface of the ground water exposed to atmospheric pressure beneath the ground
surface. The water table rises and falls according to the amount of precipitation and the rate at
which groundwater is added or withdrawn from the ground water reservoir.

Aquifer: Aquifer are water bearing strata from which water can be extracted easily.

Confined aquifer: The aquifer between two impermeable layers is called confined aquifer.

Unconfined aquifer: The aquifer which is in between a permeable and impermeable layer is
called unconfined aquifer.

Pearched aquifer: The aquifer that occurs in patches is called pearched aquifer.

Aquiclude: Geologic formation which permits the storage of water but not capable of transmitting
water in sufficient quantity. Eg: Clay.

Aquifuge: Geologic formation which neither contains nor transmits water. Eg: Solid granite.

2.4 Ground Sources:

Those sources of water that exist below the ground surface is called ground water sources. The
ground water may be contaminated with polluted water from agricultural fields, high mineral
content, iron, and sulphur, calcium and magnesium. Iron and manganese affect taste and odor. Iron
and sulphur give rotten egg odor. Calcium and Magnesium cause hardness of water. The various
groundwater sources are:

 Springs
 Wells
 Infiltration galleries
 Infiltration wells

2.4.1 Springs:

A place where ground water naturally comes to the surface at the intersection of the ground surface
and the water table is called spring.

Gravity Springs:

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Depression Spring

Contact or Surface Spring

Artesian Spring

 Depression springs: Springs formed where ground surface intersects the water table.
 Contact springs: Created by a permeable water bearing formation over lying a less
permeable formation that intersects the ground surface.
 Artesian springs: Result from the release of water under pressure from confined aquifers
either at an outcrop of the aquifer or through an opening in the confining bed.

Non-Gravity Springs:

 Tabular/Fracture Springs: It is issuing from rounded channels such as lava tubes, of

fractures on impermeable rocks connecting on ground water.

2.4.2 Wells:

Wells are holes or shaft, usually vertically excavated for bringing ground water to the surface.
Wells are classified as:

 Open wells/Dug wells

 Tube wells

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1. Open wells/Dug wells:

Shallow and Deep Open Wells

 Diameter: 1-10m
 Depth: 2-20m
 Low yield

Open wells can be further classified as:

 Shallow wells:

Shallow wells are those wells that rest in top water bearing strata and draw their supplies from
surrounding materials. There is more chance of contamination in shallow wells. The yield from
shallow wells is less and the water from such wells are adequately available for a single family.

 Deep wells:

Deep wells are those wells that rest in impervious strata and draw its supplies from the pervious
formation lying below the impervious strata through bore holes. The chance of contamination in
the deep well is less but there is the presence of minerals in high amount. The yield from deep
wells is more and are adequately available for a community.

2. Tube Wells:

It is a long pipe sunk into the ground intercepting one or more water-bearing stratum. The
diameters are much less as compared to open wells. Classified as:

 a. Shallow tube wells – Max 30 m

 b. Deep tube wells. - Max 600 m

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 These tube wells may be classified as:

(i)Strainer type tube well

(ii)Cavity type tube well

(iii)Slotted type tube well

i) Strainer type of Tube well:

Strainer type tube well

 If not stated, tube well means Strainer type.

 The strainer pipes and blind pipes are alternately placed.
 Strainer consists of fine wire mesh wrapped round a perforated pipe.
 The size of openings of wire mesh= D60,D70 of surrounding soil.

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ii) Cavity type of Tube Well

Cavity type tube well

 The borehole is dug until it finds the pervious layer of water.

 Pumping is done and sandy water is withdrawn.
 Cavity formation occurs at the sandy layer and thus, water enters the sand pore at critical
velocity but less than this in the cavity.
 Thus after sometimes clear water is obtained.

iii) Slotted type of Tube well

 Derives water from aquifer using education pipe and casing.

2.4.3 Infiltration Galleries:

Infiltration Galleries

Infiltration galleries are also known as horizontal wells. Groundwater moving towards, river,
stream, and lakes is intercepted and collected. They are located near the perennial recharge sources.
The depth of placement is 3-10 meters below the ground surface. When the ground water is
available in small quantity infiltration pipes are used. These are horizontal pipes with perforations
all around its surface laid in place of the rectangular tunnel. The perforations are covered with
gravel to prevent entry of fine sand particles.

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2.4.4 Infiltration Wells:

Infiltration Well

Infiltration wells are constructed in series along the bank to collect the water seeping through the
bank. These wells work on the same principle as infiltration galleries. The yield through infiltration
well is less as compared to infiltration galleries. These wells are used as a source of water for the
small community. They are open at the bottom and closed at the top. The various infiltration wells
are connected by the porous pipe to collecting sump well, known as jack well. The water flows
into the jack well by gravity flow which is then treated and distributed.

2.5 Selection of water sources:

The selection of water sources depends upon the following factors:

 Location:

The water source must be near the community. This enables the reduction in cost for pipes as
shorter pipes can be used. The location of the water source should be such that the water is supplied
to the consumers through gravity rather than pumping which decreases the overall system cost.

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 Quantity of water:

The source must be selected such that it is able to fulfil the demand of consumers even during the
driest period. The domestic, industrial, commercial, livestock, public and fire demand need to be
fulfilled.

 Quality of water:

The source should supply potable water to the consumer which is suitable for drinking. The
treatment of water should be avoided as far as possible so as to reduce the system cost.

 Continuity and Reliability:

The source must be selected such that it is able to supply water continuously to the consumers and
the source needs to be reliable as well.

 Cost:

The cost of water supply scheme should be taken into consideration during the selection of source.
The cost should be minimized as far as possible so as to supply water to the consumers at the
affordable price.

Bibliography:

Kansakar B.R. (2015), Water Supply Engineering, Divine Print Support, Lagan Tole, Kathmandu.

Punmia B.C., Jain A., and JainA. (1998), Water Supply Engineering, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.

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WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(QUANTITY OF WATER)

Compiled and Prepared By:

Abhash Acharya
070-BCE-004
Central Campus, Pulchowk

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The design of water supply system for any community requires the determination of the quantity
of water required for various purposes. The sources that fulfills the demand of the water are
examined. Multiple sources are determined if the water from a single source cannot fulfill the
demand of the community. For estimating the quantity of water required following three factors
needs to be known.

 Per capita Demand of water

 Base and design period
 Population

3.1 Per Capita Demand of Water

It is also termed as the rate of demand. It is defined as the total annual average daily consumption
including all demands of water for a person. It is expressed in liters per capita per day (lpcd). In
Nepalese context, for rural water supply system per capita demand is taken as 40 – 45 lpcd and for
urban water supply system per capita demand is taken as 100-160 lpcd. If Q be the quantity of
water required per year by community with population P, then per capita demand of water is given
as:

Per capita demand of water = Q/(P*365)

3.2 Base and Design Periods

Base Period:

Base period is the period required for survey, design and construction of water supply system.
Usually, base period of two to three years is adopted.

Design Period:

Design period is defined as the future period for which a provision is made while planning and
designing the water supply programs. Usually, 15 to 20 years is adopted as design period. For
developing community where population growth rate is high, the population estimation may not
be accurate so a low design period is taken. For the developed community where population growth
rate is low, high design period can be taken.

3.2.1 Typical Base and Design Periods:

For rural water supply system with the high population growth rate base period of 2-3 years and
design period of 15 years is taken whereas for rural water supply system with low population
growth rate base period of 2-3 years and design period of 20 years is taken. For urban water supply
system base period of 2-3 years and design period up to 30 years is taken.

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3.2.2 Base Year:

After the completion of the water supply system, water is delivered to the community. The year in
which the water is delivered to the community is called the base year.

Base year = Survey year + Base Period

3.2.3 Design Year:

Design year is defined as that year for which the water supply system is designed for. It depends
on the base year and the design period and is given as:

Design Year = Base year + Design Period

3.2.4 Selection Basis of Design Period

Design period must be selected in such a way that it is neither too long nor too short. Shorter design
period may lead to an uneconomical project whereas a longer design period may result in the
financial burden on the present population as the components need to be of high capacities.
Following are the selection basis of design period:

1. Fluid Available:

The fluid available at the water source must be able to fulfill the needs and demands at the design
year. Higher the fluid available longer can be the design period and the design period would be
shorter if the fluid available is low.

2. Development of community:

For the developing communities, higher will be the population growth rate due to migration from
the community with poor infrastructures. So the estimation of the population may not be accurate
so a short design period is selected whereas the case is just reverse for the developed community
where population growth rate is low.

3. Population Growth rate:

Due to migration and other natural phenomenon as birth and death the population cannot be
accurately determined so the design period is taken shorter for high population growth rate.

4. Availability of funds and rate of interest:

If the fund available for the water supply system is adequate (not limited), the system with higher
capacity can be constructed for which a longer design period can be taken. Shorter design period
is taken when the fund is limited. If the interest on the money borrowed for the construction of
water supply project, a longer design period can be taken and vice-versa.

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5. Useful life of components:

Every component used in the water supply system (pipe, valves, fittings, etc) has their useful life.
The design period should not exceed the useful life of such components.

3.3 Types of Water Demand:

Depending upon the water used for various purposes water demand are classified as:

3.3.1 Domestic Demand (DD)

The domestic demand includes water used for drinking, bathing, cooking, house washing, utensils
washing, cloth wasting, latrine, gardening and so on.

 112 lpcd for fully plumbed houses

 45 lpcd for partly plumbed houses
 45 lpcd for rural areas served by public stand posts.

As per WHO guidelines, 135 lpcd is recommended for domestic demand.

3.3.2 Livestock Demand (LD)

Livestock demand includes the quantity of water consumed by domestic animals and birds as cows,
buffalos, horses, sheep, goat, pigs, chicken, ducks, etc.

 45 lits/animal/day for big animals as cows, horses, etc.

 20 lits/animal/day for medium sized animals as pigs, sheep, goats, etc.
 20 lits/100birds/day for birds such as chicken ducks, etc.

The livestock demand should not exceed 20% of the total domestic demand. The livestock demand
in the urban area is much lower as compared to the domestic demand and can be neglected.

3.3.3 Commercial Demand (CD)

Commercial Demand includes the demand of water by offices, restaurants, schools, colleges,
hospitals, hotels and other institutions.

 500-1000 lits/day for offices (Depending upon the size)

 500 lits/bed/day for hospitals with the bed.
 2500 lits/day for hospitals without bed and health clinics.
 200 lits/bed/day for hotels with the bed.
 500 - 1000 lits/day for hotels without the bed.
 500 – 1000 lits/day for restaurants and tea stalls.
 10 lpcd for day scholars.
 65 lpcd for boarders.

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3.3.4 Public/Municipal Demand (PD)

Public Demand includes the quantity of water required for watering of public parks and gardening
purposes. It includes cleaning of roads and sewers. This demand is taken into consideration in
urban communities only. 5-10% of the total consumption is made for public/municipal demand.

3.3.5 Industrial Demand (ID)

Water consumed by industries is included within the industrial demand. The consumption depends
upon the size and type of industries. 20-25% of the total consumption is made for industrial
demand.

3.3.6 Fire Demand (FD)

The quantity of water that is required for firefighting purposes is included under fire demand. For
cities and towns provision of fire, demand should be included in the water supply scheme.
Following are the empirical formulas to determine the fire demand:

Indian Water Supply Manual and Treatment Formula

Q = 100 P1/2

Where, Q = Quantity of water for fire demand in kilolitres/day.

P = Population in thousands.

Buston’s Formula

Q = 5663 P1/2

Where, Q = Quantity of water for fire demand in liters/min.

P = Population in thousands.

Kuichling’s Formula

Q = 3182 P1/2

Where, Q = Quantity of water for fire demand in liters/min.

P = Population in thousands.

Freeman’s Formula

Q = 1136 ((P/5)+10)

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Where, Q = Quantity of water for fire demand in liters/min.

P = Population in thousands.

National Board of Fire Underwriters’ Formula

Q = 4637 P1/2 (1-0.01P1/2)

Where, Q = Quantity of water for fire demand in liters/min.

P = Population in thousands.

3.3.7 Loss and Wastage (LW)

There is always a loss and wastage during the supply of water. The actual amount of water wasted
cannot be determined. So 15% of the total supply is taken as loss and wastage. The loss of water
may be due to leakage in valves, mains, unauthorized connections, fittings, etc.

3.3.8 Total Water Demand

The sum of all the various types of demand is known as water demand.

Total water Demand = DD + LD + CD + PD + ID + FD + LW

3.4 Variation in Demand of Water

The water consumption varies from day to day, season to season and hour to hour. As the water
consumption is not uniform they are studied as:

1. Seasonal Variations:

The rate of demand of water varies from season to season. During summer, more quantity of water
is required for drinking, bathing, washing of clothes. It is due to the hotter climatic condition during
summer. During winter, due to cool weather the consumption of water is less. In Nepalese context,
the seasonal variation is low and can be neglected.

Maximum Seasonal Demand = Seasonal Peak Factor * Annual average demand

The seasonal peak factor is 1 in Nepal.

2. Daily Variations:

The rate of demand of water also varies from day to day. The consumption of water during special
occasion and function is more than in any other normal day. Water is consumed more during
Dashain, Tihar, wedding ceremony and other festivals. In Nepalese context, water is consumed
more on Saturday.

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Maximum Daily Demand = Daily Peak Factor * Annual average demand

The daily peak factor is 1 in Nepal.

3. Hourly Variations:

The rate of demand of water also varies from hour to hour. The demand of water is high in the
morning from 5 AM to 7 AM as more amount of water is consumed for cleaning and sanitary
purposes. The demand is also high during the period of cooking. The water demand remains less
during day time and increases from 5 PM to 7 PM. From midnight to 5 AM in the morning, the
demand remains almost zero.

Maximum Hourly Demand -= Hourly Peak Factor * Annual average demand.

The hourly peak factor is 3 in Nepal.

3.5 Peak Factor

Peak factor is the factor which is used to match the maximum demand as per fluctuation of daily
water demand as well as seasonal from average.

It is the ratio of maximum demand to that of average annual demand of water.

Maximum demand = Peak factor * Annual average demand

Peak factor = Seasonal peak factor * Daily Peak Factor * Hourly Peak factor.

For continuous system: Peak factor of 2 – 4 is adopted.

For intermittent System: Peak factor 4 – 6 is adopted.

3.6 Factors Affecting Demand of Water

 Size and type of community:

The rate of demand of water demand depends on the size and type of community. If the community
is large with more municipal and other types of demand, the demand of water is high and for the
small community, the demand of water is also less.

 Climatic conditions:

During summer, the water consumption is high as water is required in more quantity for drinking,
washing and bathing purposes. During winter due to cool climate, the rate of water demand is also
less.

 Standard of living:

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Higher the standards of living higher would be the demand of water as people with high standards
can afford the luxury and use of more water.

 Quality of water:

The demand for water increases if the quality of water supplied is good as consumers feel safe to
consume the provided water. The demand decreases when the quality of water decreases.

 System of Supply:

The rate of demand of water depends upon the system of supply. If the system of supply is
continuous the demand is more and the demand is less when the system of supply is intermittent.

 Sewerage System:

If the community or a society is provided with sewerage system. More water is required for
flushing sanitary units.

 Metering and Cost:

For metered water supply the demand is less and for the unmetered system of supply, the demand
is high. If the cost is high, the demand is less and the demand increases for the low cost.

Other factors:

 Pressure in the distribution system

 Industrial and commercial activities
 Public and Private connections
 Distance of tap stand
 Dominating age group

3.7. Population Forecasting

Water demand for the community is given by the product of per capita demand of water and the
population of the community. The population needs to be known for the design and construction
of water supply system. So, population forecasting needs to be done.

Methods of Population Forecasting:

1. Mathematical Method:
o Arithmetical increase Method

In this method, the increase in population from decade to decade is assumed to be constant.

Pn = P0 + nC

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Where,

P0 = Population at the base year

Pn = Population at the nth decade

n = no of decades

C = average increase in population for a decade.

 Geometrical Increase Method

In this method, the percentage increase in population per decade remains constant for each future
decade.

Pn = P0 (1+(r/100))n

Where,

P0 = Population at the base year

Pn = Population at the nth decade

n = no of decades

r = average percentage increase in population per decade

 Incremental Increase Method

Pn = P0 + nC + (nC’(n+1))/2

Where,

P0 = Population at the base year

Pn = Population at the nth decade

n = no of decades

C = average increase in population for a decade

C’ = average incremental increase in population for decade.

 Decreased Rate of Growth/Changing Rate of Increase Method

Pn = P0 (1+(rn – r’)/100) (1+(rn – 2r’)/100)….(1+(rn – nr’)/100)

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Where,

P0 = Population at the base year

Pn = Population at the nth decade

n = no of decades

rn = percentage increase in population in the last decade

r’ = average decrease in percent increase in population per decade

 Saturation Limit Method

 Logistic Curve Method (S - curve Method)

2. Graphical Method:

 Extension Method
 Comparison Method

3. Miscellaneous Method:

 Master Plan Method

Bibliography:

Kansakar B.R. (2015), Water Supply Engineering, Divine Print Support, Lagan Tole, Kathmandu.

Punmia B.C., Jain A., and JainA. (1998), Water Supply Engineering, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.

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WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(QUALITY OF WATER)

Compiled and Prepared By:

Abhash Acharya
070-BCE-004
Central Campus, Pulchowk

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4.1 Impurities in water, their classification and effects:

Pure water contains only two parts of Hydrogen and one part of oxygen by volume which is never
found in nature. Water found in nature contains a number of impurities.

4.1.1 Classification of impurities according to its characteristics:

 Physical Impurities
 Chemical Impurities
 Bacteriological Impurities

Physical Impurities:

Physical impurities are those impurities that affect the physical properties of water. The physical
properties include colour, odour, taste and turbidity.

Chemical Impurities:

Chemical impurities are those impurities that affect the chemical properties of water. The chemical
properties of water include pH, solids, hardness, mineral content, chloride, nitrogen, etc.

Bacteriological Impurities:

Bacteriological impurities are those impurities that affect the bacteriological characteristics of
water as pathogenic and non-pathogenic microorganisms present in the water.

4.1.2 Classification of impurities according to its state:

 Suspended impurities
 Colloidal impurities
 Dissolved impurities

Suspended impurities:

Suspended impurities are impurities with size more than one micron and can be visible by naked
eyes. It includes:

 Bacteria: Pathogenic bacteria cause diseases.

 Algae, Protozoa: Affects taste, color and turbidity.
 Clay, Silt: Murkiness and turbidity.
 Organic matters: Vegetable – color, taste and acidity. Dead animals – Cause harmful
diseases.

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Colloidal impurities:

Colloidal impurities are impurities with size more than 10-3 micron and less than 1 micron. They
are not visible to naked eyes. Acidic materials such as silica, glass, and most organic particles
acquire negative charge whereas basic materials such as metallic oxides Al2O3 and Fe2O3 are
positively charged.

Dissolved impurities:

Dissolved impurities are impurities with size greater than 10-5 micron and less than 10-3 micron.

1. Salts of sodium:

 Bicarbonate: Softening and alkalinity

 Carbonate: Softening and alkalinity
 Fluoride: Leads to mottled enamels
 Chloride: Affects taste

2. Metal and Compounds:

 Iron oxide: Gives red colour, affects taste and hardness and causes corrosiveness.
 Manganese: Gives black or brown colour.
 Lead: Causes cumulative poisoning.
 Arsenic: Causes toxicity.
 Barium: Toxic effect on heart and nerves.
 Cadmium: Toxic in nature.
 Cyanide: Fatal.
 Boron: Affects the central nervous system.
 Selenium: Highly toxic to animals.
 Silver: Discoloration of the skin.

3. Gases:

 Oxygen: Corrosiveness
 Carbon dioxide: Acidity, corrosiveness
 Hydrogen sulphide: Odor, acidity, corrosiveness

4. Organic Matters:

 Vegetable: Produce bacteria

 Dead animals: Causes pollution of water and causes diseases.

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4.2 Hardness and Alkalinity

4.2.1 Hardness:

Hardness is the characteristics of water due to which sufficient lather is not formed with soap. It
is due to the presence of bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium, magnesium,
and strontium.

Effects of hardness:

 Consumption of more soap.

 Corrosion in pipes.
 Forms scale in boilers.
 Modification of color in dying industries.
 Choking or clogging of house plumbing.
 Bad taste of food.

Types of hardness:

Temporary hardness: Bicarbonates of calcium, magnesium and strontium causes temporary

hardness. It is also known as carbonate hardness.

Permanent hardness: Sulphates, chlorides, and nitrates of calcium, magnesium and strontium
causes permanent hardness. It is also known as non-carbonate hardness.

Total Hardness = Carbonate Hardness + Non-carbonate hardness = CH + NCH.

Determination of hardness:

Hardness in mg/l as CaCO3 = ion concentration in mg/l * (Equivalent wt of CaCO3/Eq wt of ion)

Equivalent wt of CaCO3, Ca++, Mg++ and Sr++ are 50, 20, 12.2 and 43.8 respectively.

Hardness

Grade Value
Soft 0-75
Moderate 75-150
Hard 150-300
Very Hard >300

Removal of hardness is discussed in Chapter 6.

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4.2.2 Alkalinity:

The alkalinity of water is the capacity to neutralize a standard solution of acid. Waste water is
normally alkaline in nature. Alkaline water is bitter in taste. The water with pH more than 7 is
alkaline and less than 7 is acidic in nature. The presence of bicarbonate (HCO3-), carbonate (CO3-
) and hydroxide (OH-) causes alkalinity. The major form of alkalinity is the bicarbonate alkalinity.
The carbonate alkalinity and bicarbonate alkalinity or carbonate alkalinity and hydroxide alkalinity
can exist together. But bicarbonate alkalinity and hydroxide alkalinity do not exist together.

Total alkalinity = Carbonate alkalinity + Bicarbonate alkalinity

Or

Total alkalinity = Carbonate alkalinity + Hydroxide alkalinity

Determination of alkalinity:

Carbonate alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO3 = CO3—concentration/0.6

Bicarbonate alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO3 = HCO3- concentration/1.22

Hydroxide alkalinity in mg/l as CaCO3 = OH- concentration/0.34

4.2.3 Relation between Hardness and alkalinity:

Carbonate Hardness = Alkalinity

NCH = TH – CH when Alkalinity < TH

CH = TH

NCH = 0 when, Alkalinity >= TH

4.3 Living Organisms in Water

Living organisms either plant or animals exist in water. They may be microscopic as well as
macroscopic. They may be unicellular or multi-cellular. They may be harmful or may not be
harmful. Algae, Bacteria, Viruses, and Worms exist in the water as living organisms.

4.3.1 Algae:

Algae are unicellular photosynthetic plants which grow in water. They derive energy from
inorganics substances as gases and salts dissolved in the presence of sunlight. They are self-

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nourishing. Algae affect taste, odor, color and turbidity. Excessive growth of algae in water may
be controlled by the application of copper sulphate or chlorine.

4.3.2 Bacteria:

Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organisms that reproduce by fission.

Classification

On the basis of shape:

 Cocci: Round, ovoid or spherical in shape.

 Bacilla: Straight or rod-shaped bacteria with square or rounded ends.
 Spirilla: Helical or spiral in shape.
 Filamentous: Length of 100 microns or larger.

On the basis of oxygen demand:

 Aerobic: Bacteria that survives in the presence of oxygen.

 Anaerobic: Bacteria that survives in the absence of oxygen.
 Facultative: Bacteria that lives and multiplies with or without oxygen.

On the basis of disease-causing characteristics:

 Pathogenic: Bacteria that causes disease.

 Non-pathogenic: Bacteria that does not cause disease.

On the basis of life process:

 Saprophytic: Bacteria that depends upon dead or decaying organic matter.

 Parasitic: Bacteria that lives and multiplies within the body of living organism.

On the basis of use of source:

 Heterotrophic
 Autotrophic

On the basis of temperature survival:

 Psychrophilic bacteria: 10-30oC

 Mesophilic bacteria: 20-50oC
 Thermophilic bacteria: 35-75oC

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Indicator organisms:

Pathogenic bacteria are present in small numbers in water supply and are difficult to detect. The
presence of pathogenic bacteria can be indirectly checked by testing the water for coliforms or E-
coli. The presence of E-coli in water indicates the pollution of water. So, coliforms are known as
indicator organisms as their presence indicate probable pollution from excreta. They are also
identified by a simple procedure which is quick and economical.

4.3.3 Viruses:

Viruses are known as obligatory parasites. They require the host for survival or multiplication.
They consist of an outer protein coat enclosing a core of nucleic acid. Viruses cause hepatitis,
jaundice, etc. They can be inactivated by disinfection.

4.3.4 Worms:

Worms are also known as helminths. Worms are classified into roundworms and flatworms. They
can be removed by controlling turbidity through effective coagulation and filtration.

4.4 Water-Related Diseases

The water acts as a prime cause for various diseases. Such diseases are said to be water related
diseases. It is classified as:

 Water borne diseases

 Water-washed diseases
 Water-based diseases
 Water vector diseases

4.4.1 Water borne diseases

The transmission of such disease occurs when the pathogen is in water. Such water when drunk,
the consumer is infected.

1. Diarrhoea:

Symptoms:

 Watery stool
 Abdominal Discomfort
 Swollen intestine

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2. Dysentery:

Caused by: Bacillary dysentery – Bacillus Sighella; Amebic dysentery – Entamoeba Hystolytica.

Symptoms:

 Intestinal Inflammation
 Abdominal Pain
 Intense diarrhoea

3. Typhoid:

Caused by: Salmonella Typhi.

Symptoms:

 Headache
 Fever
 Slow heart beat
 Swollen intestine
 Indigestion
 Constipation

Preventive Strategies:

 The quality of water needs to be improved.

 The source of water needs to be made clean.

4.4.2 Water Washed Diseases

The transmission of such disease depends on the quantity of water used, rather than the quality of
water. Affects mainly the intestinal tract and the skin.

1. Ascariasis

Symptoms:

 Nausea and vomiting

 Diarrhoea
 Loss of appetite
 Abdominal discomfort

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2. Conjunctivitis

Symptoms:

 Redness of eyes
 Pus in eyes
 Burning in eyes
 Blindness if not treated

3. Bacillary Dysentery

Symptoms:

 Diarrhoea
 Vomiting
 Fever
 Constipation

Preventive Strategies:

 Increase the water quantity.

4.4.3 Water Based Diseases

All these diseases are due to infections by parasitic worms.

1. Schistosomiasis (Bilharziasis)

Symptoms:

. Itchy skin

. Skin rash

. Fever

. Cough

. Damage to the abdomen, liver or spleen after five years.

. Damage to brain, lungs.

. Paralysis of the lower body.

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Preventive Strategies:

 Reduce contact with infected water.

4.4.4 Water Vector Diseases:

These diseases are caused by insects that either breed in water or bite near water.

1. Malaria

Symptoms:

 Chills
 Fever
 Headache
 Nausea
 Heavy sweating

2. Yellow Fever and Dengue (Arboviruses)

Symptoms:

 Fever
 Headache
 Body ache
 Vomiting

3. Filariasis

Symptoms:

 Fever
 Inflammation of lymph nodes

Preventive Strategies:

 Step to improve the surface water must be taken.

 Make an unfavorable environment for insects to breed on water. Kerosene may stop the
breeding of mosquitoes in water.

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4.4.5 Transmission Routes:

F-diagram

4.4.6 Preventive measures:

 Care on personal and food hygiene need to be given.

 Consumption of safe water needs to be practiced.
 Domestic hygiene and animal management,
 Human excreta needs to be disposed safely.

4.5 Examination of water/analysis of water:

The following types of examination are carried out for water:

 Physical examination
 Chemical examination
 Bacteriological examination

4.5.1 Physical examination:

This examination is done to determine the physical characteristics of water.

 Temperature:

Temperature affects several parameters as surface tension, viscosity, density, etc. The desirable
temperature is 10 to 15.60C. The temperature above 250C is considered objectionable and the
temperature above 350C is considered to be unsuitable for water supply. The temperature of the
water is measured by the thermometer.

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Determination of temperature:

 200ml water is taken in a beaker.

 The thermometer is dipped in a beaker with water.
 Reading is taken after two minutes.

 Color:

The color is measured by the ability of the solution to absorb light. Dissolved organic material
imparts color in the water. The color is expressed in units of platinum cobalt scale. The permissible
color unit is 5 for drinking water but up to 15 units is considered. The color is measured by means
of tintometer or colour meter.

Determination of color:

 The instrument is kept with the red switch towards us.

 The lid of the instrument is opened.
 Colour measurement disc with colour units either in oHazen or platinum-cobalt scale is
inserted.
 The empty glass tube is inserted into the left-hand slot and the tube with the water sample
is inserted in the right-hand slot.
 The lid of the instrument is closed.
 The instrument is then switched on.
 Looking through the eye piece the standard color disc is rotated until the color on the disc
matches with the color or water.
 The reading is then taken carefully.

 Turbidity:

Turbidity is defined as the measure of the resistance of the passage of light through it. The units
of turbidity are Nephelometric Turbidity Unit (NTU), Jackson Turbidity Unit (JTU), Formazyn
Turbidity Unit (FTU). The standard unit of turbidity is obtained by one mg of Fuller’s Earth in the
form of finely divided silica in one liter of distilled water. Permissible turbidity is 5NTU but
turbidity up to 10 NTU is tolerated.

Determination of Turbidity:

 The instrument is turned on.

 The instrument is left for 10 minutes for stabilization.
 25ml of the sample is poured into the sample cell.
 10 NTU standard cell is selected and is put into the sample holder.
 Scale reading is then adjusted to 100.
 The standard cell is removed and the sample cell is introduced.
 The reading is then taken.

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4.5.2 Chemical Examination:

The chemical examination is done to determine the chemical characteristics of the water sample.

 pH:

pH is defined as the negative logarithm of H+ concentration. The pH of drinking water should be

between 6.5 and 8.5.

Determination of pH:

 Function control to ‘Batt Test’ is turned on and the voltage is maintained.

 The electrode is connected to the meter and is immersed in the buffer solution of known
pH.
 The function ‘pH’ is switched on.
 The function ‘pH’ is turned off and the electrode is removed from the buffer solution.
 The electrode is well rinsed and is immersed in the water sample and the ‘pH’ function is
switched on.
 The reading is recorded.
 Solids:

Solids are classified as total solids, dissolved solids and suspended solids. 1000mg/l total dissolved
solids is acceptable in water supply scheme.

Determination of total solids:

 The weight of the clean and dry crucible is measured. Let it be A mg.
 A known volume of water, let it be W ml is taken in the crucible.
 The water is evaporated to dryness.
 The crucible is then kept in the oven at 103oC for half an hour and cooled in the dessicator
with Calcium Carbonate for 10 minutes.
 The weight of the crucible is then measured again. Let it be B mg.
 The total solid is calculated in mg/l as Total solids (mg/l) = (B-A)*1000/W.

Determination of suspended solids:

 Whatman filter No. 44 is kept in a funnel and a known volume of the water sample is
filtered through the filter paper.
 The weight of the clean and dry crucible is measured. Let it be A mg.
 A known volume of filtered water, let it be W ml is taken in the crucible.
 The crucible is then kept in the oven at 103oC for half an hour and cooled in the dessicator
with Calcium Carbonate for 10 minutes.
 The weight of the crucible is then measured again. Let it be B mg.
 The suspended solid is calculated in mg/l as suspended solids (mg/l) = (B-A)*1000/W.

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4.5.3 Bacteriological Examination:

The bacteriological examination is carried out to determine the presence of microorganisms in the
water sample. The concentration of indicator organisms E-coli are tested to determine the presence
of pathogens. The two methods are:

 Multiple tube fermentation technique.

 Membrane filter fermentation technique.

Multiple tube fermentation technique:

Durham tubes are used for the determination of the coliform group of bacteria. The method is
performed in three tests as:

 Presumptive test
 Confirmed test
 Completed test

Presumptive test:

The sample is take in Durham tubes containing lactose broth in multiples of ten as 0.1 ml, 1 ml,10
ml and so on. The tubes are then incubated at a temperature of 37 oC for 24 hours. After that, the
presence of gas is checked in the tube. The presence of gases indicates the presence of coliform
group and the test is said to be positive. The absence of gas means the test is negative. If all the
tube contains gas i.e. result is positive from all the tubes confirmed test is carried out else the
incubation at 37oC is carried out for other 24 hours. The observation of gas is done again and the
sample showing positive tests are taken for confirmed test and the sample showing negative tests
are discarded.

Confirmed test:

A small portion of the incubated material from the tubes showing positive test in the presumptive
test is transferred to the other fermentation tube containing brilliant lactose broth. The tubes are
then incubated at a temperature of 37oC for 24 hours. After that, the presence of gas is checked in
the tube. The presence of gases indicates the presence of coliform group and the test is said to be
positive. The absence of gas means the test is negative. If all the tube contains gas i.e. result is
positive from all the tubes completed test is carried out else the incubation at 37 oC is carried out
for other 24 hours. The observation of gas is done again and the sample showing positive tests are
taken for completed test and the sample showing negative tests are discarded.

Completed test:

A small portion of the incubated material from the tubes showing positive test in the confirmed
test is marked as streaks in the plates containing Endo or Eosin methylene blue agar. The plates
are then incubated at the temperature of 37oC for 24 hours. Colonies of the coliform group will be
formed after the incubation period. The discrete isolated colonies of the coliform group are

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transferred to the fermentation tube containing lactose broth. The tubes are then incubated at a
temperature of 37oC for 24 hours. After that, the presence of gas is checked in the tube. The
presence of gases indicates the presence of coliform group and the test is said to be positive. The
absence of gas means the test is negative.

Most Probable Number (MPN)

Most Probable Number (MPN) is defined as that bacterial density which is most likely to be present
in the water.

MPN/100ml = Number of positive tubes * 100 / (ml in negative tubes * ml in all tubes)1/2

Membrane filter fermentation technique:

Membrane filter fermentation technique is the most recent method for detecting coliform group.
Sterile membrane filter having porosity 80% with microscopic pores of 5-10 micron capable of
retaining bacteria is taken and is fitted with a funnel. About 20 ml of the water sample is filtered
through the funnel with the vacuum pump. The membrane filter is taken out from the funnel and
is put in the plate containing M-Endo medium as a nutrient which inhabits the growth of bacteria
other than the coliform group. The plate is then incubated at a temperature of 37oC for 20 hours.
If the bacteria of the coliform group were present, they become visible colonies at this period of
time. The number of visible colonies was counted with the help of the microscope. Coliform
colonies / 100 ml is then calculated as:

Coliform colonies / 100 ml = (Number of coliform colonies counted*100)/(ml of water sample

taken).

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4.6 Water quality standard for drinking purposes:

Water quality standard for drinking purposes

Bibliography:

Kansakar B.R. (2015), Water Supply Engineering, Divine Print Support, Lagan Tole, Kathmandu.

Punmia B.C., Jain A., and JainA. (1998), Water Supply Engineering, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.

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WATER SUPPLY
ENGINEERING
(INTAKES)

Compiled and Prepared By:

Abhash Acharya
070-BCE-004
Central Campus, Pulchowk

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5.1 Definition of intakes

A structure placed in a water source to permit the withdrawal of water from the source and
discharge it into an intake conduit through which it flows to the treatment plant is called intake.
Intake consist of two sections First, intake conduit with the screen at the inlet end and valve to
control the flow of water. Second, a structure permitting the withdrawal of water from source and
housing and supporting intake conduit, valves, pumps etc. The structure may be of stone masonry
or brick masonry, R.C.C, or concrete blocks. The structure is constructed watertight and is
designed to resist all forces likely to come upon it including the pressures due to water, wave
action, the wind, floating debris, annual rainfall, geological formations.

5.2 Site selection of intakes

 Location:
 Should be constructed on the upstream side.
 Should never be located in the curves in the river or at least on sharp curves in meandering
rivers.
 Should never be constructed near the navigation channel.
 Should be constructed such that it is accessible during the flood and other time.
 Quantity:
 Sufficient withdrawal of water is permitted.
 Capable to fulfil the expansion water works.
 Quality:
 Purer zone of the source must be selected for intake construction.
 Economy:
 For the reduction in system cost, the intake site is selected near the treatment plant.
 The site must be well connected by the good approach of roads.

5.3 Classification of Intakes

 Submerged Intake: Submerged intakes are those intakes that are constructed entirely
under water and is commonly used to obtain water from lakes.
 Exposed Intake: Exposed intakes are in the form of oil or tower constructed near the bank
of the river, or in some cases even away from the bank of the river. It is common due to
ease of its operation.
 Wet Intake: In wet intake the water level of intake tower is practically the same as the
water level of sources of supply. It is also known as jack well or sump well.
 Dry Intake: In dry intake there is no water in the water tower. Water enters through the
port directly into the conveying pipes. The dry tower is simply used for the operation of
valves.

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5.4 Characteristics of Intakes

5.4.1 River Intakes:

River Intake

River Intake when river bed is unstable

It is the structure constructed with an objective of withdrawing water from the rivers. It is generally
constructed when water is required in large amount for a large community. River intakes are so
located that even during the low water level in the river water remains available at the intake in
sufficient quantity. It consists of masonry or RCC inlet tower which is provided with several inlets
called penstocks. Sometimes approach channel is constructed in the river to lead water from
upstream of the river to the intake. The penstocks are provided with valves to control the entry of
water through them. The penstocks are provided at different water levels to permit the withdrawal

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of water when the water level in the river drops. The penstocks discharge water into intake tower.
Pumping is required when the level of intake is lower than community.

When river bed is unstable or soft, the foundation is kept slightly away from the river bed. Intake
is kept submerged under lowest water level. Weir or channels are constructed to get water in all
conditions.

5.4.2 Reservoir Intakes:

Reservoir Intake

Reservoir Intake (Gravity)

In the case of a reservoir created by constructing an earth dam, the intake consists of a masonry or
R.C.C intake tower (or intake well) placed near the upstream toe of the dam. The intake tower is
connected to the top of the dam by a foot bridge.

Earth dam:

 Made of the earth (or soil) and gravel built up by compacting successive layers of soil.
 Can be constructed to a moderate height to which it depends on foundation material.

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 The shear strength of soil plays the vital role in resisting the forces.
 It is cheaper in construction.

Gravity dam:

 Made up of masonry or solid concrete.

 The weight of the water is actually enough to resist the horizontal thrust of water pushing
against it.
 The weight of the gravity dam makes it more stable.
 It can be constructed to any height.
 Once built, it needs less maintenance.

Reservoir intake for earth dam

 The intake pipes are at different levels with the common vertical pipe.
 The intake pipe has the fine screen to permit entry of clear water.
 Pipes at different level maintain level of reservoir.
 Intake pipes are provided with valves to control the flow of water.
 The control room is at the top to operate valves.
 Common vertical pipe enters the conduit which carries water to the treatment plant.
 The dry intake tower has pipes fitted inside.

Reservoir intake for gravity dam

 In the case of the reservoir, the type of intake to be provided depends on the type of dam
constructed to create the reservoir.
 The reservoir intake for gravity dam consists of an intake created by constructing gravity
dam.

The reservoir intake involves two alternative forms of intake works as in figure below:

1. Single inlet port:

 The trash rack provided at the inlet check the entry of debris and other floating materials.
 Water enters from the single port which has trash rack.
 The slide gate allows water to flow through trash rack to another supply system.

2. Many inlet ports:

 In this, intake well is provided in the main body of the dam.

 Inlet at various levels enables withdrawal of water even if the level of reservoir water drops.
 Gates and valves are used to control the flow of water.
 Inlet ports have screened openings to prevent debris from entering.

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5.4.3Spring Intakes:

Spring Intake

A spring intake is provided to abstract water from a spring source. It also prevents outside water
and other sources of pollutants from entering into the water supply system. The intake thus protects
the water from getting contaminated.

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Selection basis for location of spring intakes:

 The place should be close to the source.

 The place should be above populated or farming areas.
 The place should be above foot path, cattle watering and washing places.
 Places where surface water run-off during the monsoon can be easily drained off.
 Where the immediate surrounding above the spring is not easily accessible to people and
livestock.

It consists of two chambers as collection chamber and valve chamber. Collection chamber should
be away from the source as far as possible. The base of the collection chamber is made of plain
cement concrete to avoid leakage. All walls are made of stone masonry. The heavy structure is
avoided to avoid its settlement. In order to reduce the backup pressure, the collection chamber
needs to be constructed away from the source. The collection chamber is provided with the wing
walls on both sides which divert the water from the source to the collection chamber. The
collection chamber acts as sedimentation tank, which removes suspended particles and turbidity.
In monsoon, the turbidity of the water is high, so special treatment with sedimentation and filters
are needed. As far as possible the treatment work should be avoided to reduce the cost so a pure
source needs to be selected. The gravel and packing are done in the water-bearing layer upstream
to prevent the coarse material entering the collection chamber. Water-bearing layer is covered with
the plastic sheet and clay filling. The outlet pipe fitted with screens is kept at about 10 to 15 cm
above the floor to screen out the suspended particles to enter into the transmission main of water
supply system. The water contains particle in it which may settle down in the collection chamber
as sediments which should be washed out when it reaches 5 cm of the outlet pipe. The washout
pipe is carried down the slope to allow the sediments to flow into the nearby drainage system. The
overflow pipe is provided in the collection chamber to prevent the backup pressure. The washout
valve is operated when washing of the sediments is done in the collection chamber. Mild steel,
concrete or stone masonry covers are used to cover the collection and the valve chamber. In the
valve chamber, the valves are connected to outlet pipe and washout pipe. During normal operation
outlet valve is opened while washout valves are closed but during washing of the sediments from
the collection is done it is opened. The vent pipe is provided to outlet pipe to release air pressure.
The unions are provided to facilitate the removal of valves during maintenance works.

Protection of spring intakes

 For safe drinking water free of contamination.

 For increasing quality and quantity of water content.
 For prevention of scarcity of water in near future.

Proper drainage should be provided around source to divert the run-off water. Surface run-
off must not be allowed to flow into the catchment of springs.

Elements for protection of spring intake:

 Afforestation
 Surface water drain

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 Plantation (bush)
 Barbed wire fence
 Concrete covers.
 Retaining walls

Afforestation: Tress are planted above the spring sources allow the water to seep rather than as
surface runoff and increase intake water.

Surface water drain: Surface water drain should be 8m above and around the spring to drain the
surface water run off during monsoon. The ditch should be deep, and can be lined with dry stone
masonry.

Plantation (Bush): Plantation of grasses below the barbed wire fence which also allow the water
to seep. Grasses and bushes prevent the surface soil erosion.

Barbed wire fence: There should be no habitant and easy access to animals around springs up to
a distance of 30 m to 90 m to avoid contamination. To prevent trespassing of humans and grazing
animals and contamination of spring water, barbed wire fencing at a distance of 5m from spring
intake.

Concrete Covers: The catchment of a spring source can be roofed over with concrete slab and
buried for further protection.

Retaining walls: If erosion is seen to be a major problem then retaining walls of gabion or dry
stone masonry are built to stabilize land around the intake.

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Protection of Spring Intake

Bibliography:

Kansakar B.R. (2015), Water Supply Engineering, Divine Print Support, Lagan Tole, Kathmandu.

Punmia B.C., Jain A., and JainA. (1998), Water Supply Engineering, Laxmi Publications (P) Ltd.,
New Delhi, India.

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