BIODIVERSITY

*Biodiversity is defined as variety and variability of life forms (plants and animals) existing within the living
world or a particular area.

*biodiversity consist of three fundamental types:

1. Genetic diversity : The genetic differences among population of a single species is called genetic
diversity. IT helps in adaptation to environment and speciation occurs. For eg:more than 50,000
genetically different strain of rice are found in India .

2. Species diversity: The variety of species found within particular geographical area is termed as species
diversity.Total no. of species within a geographical area is called species richness.

3.Ecosystem diversity: Ecosystem is a dynamic complex of living being and non- living environment which
interact as afunctional unit,variety and frequency of distinct ecosystem including the variety of habitats ,
biotic communities and their change in composition and structure over the time is ecosystem diversity.

Faunal diversity in Nepal

Mammals : 185 Fishes : 187

Reptiles : 78 Butterflies : 651

Birds : 874 Moths :2253

Amphibians : 118 Spiders : 175

Five kingdom classification

1. Protista
2. Monera
3. Fungi
4. Plantea
5. Animalia
 Phylum protozoa
It is a greek word . protos means first or primitive and and zoan means animal.
General character of phylum protozoa
1. They are aquatic , found in fresh water and few in marine water . they are also found in
damp places.
2. They are free living organism called solitary. They live in colonial form.they are sedentary
and sessile in nature.
3. They are unicellular , microscopic and asymmetrical.
4. If the outermost covering is pellicle ,then they have regular body shape. If the outermost
covering is plasmalemma then they are irregular in shape.
5. Locomotion takes place by pseudopodia , cilia ,flagella. In some locomotory organ is absent.
6. Skeleton is absent but in few , skeleton is present.
7. Digestion is intracellular (inside the food vacuoles).
8. Nutrition may be halophytic, holozoic , saprotrophic and parasitic.
9. Respiration takes place by general body surface by the process of diffusion. Diffusion flow
(occurs) from higher concentration.
10. Circulatory and nervous system absent.

1
 11. Excreation takes place by contractile vacuoles. Contractile vacuole maintain the amount of
salt and water or salt and ions in the body.this process is called osmoregulation.

12.Two types of reproduction takes place. They are

a. Asexual :

 Tansverse binary fission

 longitudinal binary fission
 Multiple binary fission

b. sexual :

 Conjugation
13. Encysment generally occur for the protection in unfavourable condition for the continuity
of life and dispersal. It is the method of formation of cyst by protozoans.
Cyst : it is the protective layer formed in unfavourable condition to protect the organism or
to resist unfavourable conditions.

Classification of phylum protozoa

on the basis of locomotary organs protozoans are classified into four classes :
protozoa
 Rhizopodea
 Ciliata
 Flagellata
 Sporozoa
Class 1 rhizopodea(sarcodina)
 Body shape is irregular.
 Free living or parasite.
 Locomotary organ is pseudopodia.
 They have holozoic nutrition.
Eg : amoeba , entamoeba
Class 2 ciliata
 Body shape is regular.
 Free living or parasitic.
 Locomotary organ is cilia.
 More than one nucleus is present.

Class 3 flagellata(mastigophora)

 Body shape is regular.

 Free living.
 Locomotary organ is flagella.
 They have autotrophic or helozoic nutrition.

Eg:Euglena , trypanosoma.

Class : 4 sporozoa

 Intracellular parasite.
 Endoparasites.
2
  Locomotary organ is absent
Eg:plasmodium,monocystic.

Paramecium

Kingdom : protista

Phylum : protozoa

Class : ciliata

Genus :paramecium

Species : caudatum

Paramecium is a microscopic ciliata visible to the nacked eyes as a minute elongated organism. The ciliates
are charactersied by presence of fine hair like structure called cilia for locomotion and food capture. They
have two kinds of nuclei. A large macro nucleus which controls the metabolism and a small micro-nucleus
concerned with reproduction.

 Species of paramecium: P .aurelia , p .bursaria , p .micromultinucleota

 General character
1. They are free living or solitary in nature.
2. They are found in aquatic habitat mostly in stagnant water where more organic food(bacteria) is
found.
3. It is regular shaped and is called supper animalcule.
4. Nearly dorsoventrally flattened.
Dorsal side : aboral side which is slightly convex.
Ventral side : oral side which is slightly concave.
5. Anterior side is blunt and posterior side is pointed.
6. Size of paramecium is 0.15 – 0.33 mm in length.
7. Holozoic type of nutrition.
8. Locomotion takes place by cilia.
9. Paramecium reproduces asexually by transverse binary fission and sexually by conjugation.
10. It is covered by an outer layer called pellicle.
11. Cytoplasm is differentiated into outer ectoplasm and inner endoplasm.
12. Two contractile vacuoles are present , one at anterior end and another at posterior end. These help
in osmoregulation.
13. It has two nuclei : a) large : macronucleus
b) small : micronucleus

Structure
1. Body end : The paramecium has two end of the body i.e anterior end and posterior end. The
posterior end is pointed and anterior end is more or less blunt.
2. Surface of body : paramecium has two surface of the body , one is dorsal surface and another is
ventral surface. The surface which has oral groove is ventral surface and other is dorsal surface.

3
 3. Cilia : The whole body of paramecium is covered by hair like projection called cilia. Cilia is used for
locomotion and capturing the food. They are uniform in size in whole body except in oral groove and
caudal tuft.
4. Pellicle : The body of paramecium is covered by thin membrane called pellicle . It makes the
paramecium fixed in shape . The shape is slipper like, thus It is commonly known as slipper –
animalcule.
5. Trichocyst : just below the pellicle there are tubular structure known as trichocyst. Trichocyst secrete
a chemical substance called trichinin. The main function of trichocyst is affence, defence and
attachment.
6. Contractile vacuole : there are two contractile vacuoles in paramecium. One is anterior contractile
vacuole and other is posterior contractile vacuole. The main function of contractile vacuole is
osmoregulation and excreation.
7. Cytoplasm : cytoplasm is of two type in paramecium i.e ectoplasm and endoplasm . cytoplasm
present in outer surface of the body is ectoplasm and is non motile or fixed in nature. The inner
cytoplasm is endoplasm, which moves in rotatory motion. This process of cytoplasmic movement
with the food vacuole is called cyclosis. Cyclosis helps in digestion and absorption of food materials.
8. Nucleus : the paramecium caudatum is dinucleated.
i) Macronucleus : it is also known as meganucleus. It is situated near oral groove. It is bean or
kidney shaped in structure. It divides amitotically and controls all metabolic activities except
reproduction .
ii) Micronucleus : it is situated in the groove of macro-nucleus. It is round or spherical or oval in
shape. It controls reproductive activities of body. It divides mitotically.
9. Oral groove : on the ventral surface of paramecium there is wide gap like structure called oral
groove. The food enters into the oral groove by cilia and reach at vestibule. From the vestibule the
food is passed into cytosome which leads to the cytopharynx. From cytopharynx food is changed into
food vacuoles and enter into endoplasm. In endoplasm the food moves within two hours. After it the
food vacuole is digested by digestive enzymes. After digestion , the undigested materials are
removed through cytopyge.
 Reproduction

It is a process of production of young ones of their own kind to continue the generation or race.

In paramecium , there are two main type of reproduction. They are :

1. Transverse binary fission ( asexual reproduction)

2. Conjugation (sexual reproduction)
Asexual and sexual reproduction are commonly found whereas other types such as endomixis ,
hemixis , cytogamy , autogamy etc are found only in few species.
 Transverse binary fission

It is an asexual type of reproduction which occurs in favourable condition. The favourable condition is 15-
20 c temperature of water bodies. Enough supply of food etc.

Transverse binary fission is the process of division of one mother paramecium into two daughter
paramecium.

1. Firstly in transverse binary fission , the oral groove disappeard (closed) and the feeding stops.
2. Then,macronucleus enlarge and divides amitotically into two.
3. Micronucleus change in spindle shape and divides mitotically into two.
4. In between nucleus transverse grooves appear and becomes deeper and deeper till it seperates.
5. Anterior end is called porter and posterior end is called opisthe.
6. Anterior end contains anterior contractile vacuoles and posterior one has posterior contractile
vacuole.
4
 7. Oral groove as well as other cell organells also form in the separated cells.
8. Two daughter paramecia are formed within 20 min and again getting full size they divide and
redivide.
9. In a day , in a favourable condition 3-4 times reproduction can takes place with the formation of 18-
16 daughter paramecia.
A paramecium can divide upto 300 times asexually .Then it becomes old. There is no natural death
in protozoans.
Clone: Group of daughter paramecia formed from a single mother by asexual reproduction is
known as clone. They are generally alike.

2.Conjugation(Sexual reproduction):

Sexual reproduction of paramecium takes place in unfavourable condition. After 300 times sexual
repeoduction, it becomes old as natural death does not occur in Paramecium it goes for sexual
reproduction.

Conjugation is the sexual type of reproduction in Paramecium in which temporary union

two sexes of same animal or species for exchange of genetic materials occurs.

The conjugation reproduction is completed in the following steps:

1. Two Paramecium come to lie attached by

ventral surface (conjugants). A common cytoplasmic bridge is formed by joining of two oral groove
of conjugants.
2. Mega or micronucleus of both conjugants are lost leaving micronucleus only.
3. The micronucleus divides by the process of meosis forming four micronuclei.
4. Out of 4 micronuclei , 3 micrinuclei are lost or degenerated.
5. Remaining 1 micronucleus divides unequally producing male and female pro-nucleus.
Male pronucleus is small active and mobile in nature but female pronucleus large inactive
and non mobile in nature.
6. exchange of male pro-nucleus through common bridge takes place.
7. fusion of male and female pro nucleus forming zygote nucleus(2n)
8. Two conjugants are separated and form ex-conjugants.
9. Zygote nucleus of each nucleus divides 3 times forming 8 nucleus.
10. out of 8 nuclei 4 becomes micro nucleui.
11. out of 4 micronucleui 3 micro nucleui are lost.
12. Remaining one micronucleui divides forming two micronuclei.
13. Each ex-conjugants divides ferming 4 daughters Paramecium with 2 macronuclei and one micro
nuclei.
14. Again paramecium divides forming 8 daughter Paramecium with one macro and one
micronucleus.
 Significance of conjugation
1. The paramecium always becomes young which is termed as rejuvenation.
2. Mutual transfer of heredity materials bring the new daughters nuclei with vigour and vital,
3. Daughter Paramecium becomes more suited to new environment.
4. The new normal macronucleus is capable of controlling the metabolic activities.
5. Eight daughter Paramecium is produced from a pair of paramecium.
5
 6. Formation of small active male pronucleus and large passive female pronucleus indicates the
begening of sex determination in paramecium at nuclear level.
Other types of reproduction
1. Endomixis
2. Hemixis
3. Cytogamy
4. Autogamy
1. Endomixis :
It occurs in paramecium Aurelia which is bimicronucleate species. It is smilar to conjugation but it
takes place in a single individual. The new macro nucleus is produced without formation of
synkaryon. micro nucleus divides twice only by mitosis.
2. Hemixis :
It is found in paramecium caudatum and p . Aurelia. In this process fragmentation and division of
macronucleus takes place without any activity of micronucles.
3. Cytogamy :
The another sexual reproduction found in p . caudatum. It resemble to conjugation but there is no
exchange of nucleus material. It differs from autogamy as these are two individual taking part in it.
4. Autogamy :
It occur in p . Aurelia and takes place in single individual. Nuclei are formed by division of micro
nucleus as conjugation. These two pro nuclei fuse to form zygote. Macronucleus is formed from
micronucleus material. It is the modified form of self fertilization.
 Plasmodium
Plasmodium is a sporozoan digenetic intracellular pathogenic protozoan parasites found in
liver and RBSs of man and in the stomach and salivary glands of female anopheles mosquito.
Classification:
Kingdom: protista
Phylum: protozoa
Class: sporozoa
Genus: plasmodium
Species: vivax
Other species:
p.malarioe
p.taleiparum
p.ovale

Habit and Habitat

1. Plasmodium is endoparasite of vertibates.

2. It lives in liver and RBCs of human beings insentine as well as salivery gland of female
anopheles mosquito.
3. Plasmodium infects the human beings and causes the disease malaria .
4. There are four species of plasmodium causing the malaria fever in human beings.They are
plasmodium vivex , plasmodium falaporum, plasmodium ovale , plasmodium malaria.

6
 5. These species of plasmodium are transmitted from one individual to another by female
anopheles mosquito.
6. Plasmodium is digenetic parasite because its lifecycle is completed host(Human beings and
female mosquito).

Structure of plasmodium (fig)

Plasmodium is minute organism of 10-14 micron on size.The shape and size of plasmodium
is seen variable .Among them,a sporozoite is micro-scopic ,slender and uninucleated
organism ,tapering in both ends.The body is covered by elastic membrane called
pellicle.Pellicle consists of micro-tubules and convoluted tubules for wriggling movement.At
the anterior end or region of saprozoite present one opening called micropyle .This opening
discharge the enzyme calle ‘lytic enzyme’.It is used to dissolve the cell membrane to
penetrate inside the cell.
Plasmodium is found in two stages trophozoite and sporozoite . A fully grown parasite is
amoebold and uninucleate called the trophozoite .Its body is covered with plasma
membrane.
*cytoplasm bears a distinct nucleus along with E.R mitochondria , gogli bodies etc.
*saprophytes are small ,sickle shaped ,uninuclecite and motile forms.

Life cycle
The lifecycle of plasmodium vivex is completed in two hosts so,it is a digenetic parasite.The
primary host in which sexual cycle occurs is female anopheles mosquitoes and the
secondary host in which asexual cycle occurs in human body.

Asexual life cycle(in human beings):

When an infected female anopheles mosquitoes bites ,it injects the saliva into blood .Along
with the saliva thousands of sporozites are also inoculated (entered) into human blood.
Then , asexual cycle of plasmodium starts which includes two schizogony.
I. Liver(hepatic) schizogony.
II. Erythrocytic (RBC) schizogony.

Schizogony : it is an asexual reproduction in which multiple fission occurs.

 Liver (hepatic) schizogony

7
When infected mosquito bites a healthy person, sporozoites enters into blood. They circulate in blood
within few 2 hrs. after few 2 hours they disappear from blood and enter into the liver cell. Then , liver
schizogony starts in liver which includes three different phases.

a) Pre- erythrocytic
b) Exo – erythrocytic
c) Post – erythrocytic
a. Pre-erythrocytic phase
The sporozoite enter into the parenchyma cell of liver. Inside the liver cell they start to eat the
nutrient stored as glycogen and amino acid. After eating t, the sporozoite changes into spherical
structure called as schizont. The schizont nucleus divides mitotically forming many nuclei. Each
nucleus develops into new individual called as cryptomerozoites. The fully matured
cryptomerozoites liberate out by breaking of that liver cell in sinusoids. This stage of asexual
reproduction is called pre- erythrocytic schizogony. It is completed in about 8-10 days.
b. Exo-erythrocytic phase :
The cryptomerozoites again enter into the new liver cells where it feed cytoplasm and nutrient
(glycogen and amino acid),grow and became schizont. The schizont nucleus divides mitotically
forming many nuclei. Each nucleus develops into new individual called as metacryptozoites. The
fully matures metacrayptozoites liberate out by breaking of that liver cell. Some of again attact the
new fresh liver cell to contineue the liver schizogony or enter into the RBCs upto this stage it is
called as exo-erythocytic phase. The metacrytozoites divides to form metacryptomerozoites.
c. Post – erythrocytic phase :
Some times erythrocytic merozoites may go from blood stream to liver cell in order to carry the
liver schizogony. This is known as post erythrocytic phase.
The pre-erythrocytic and exo-erythrocytic phase is called schizogeny of liver . The period to
complete complete its(10-14 days) is called pre-patient period because it does not show any
symptoms .Also known as incubation period (reproduction stage) because this stage and area is
safe for reproduction and drugs doesn’t effect when the parasite is in the liver cell in this period.

8
  Erythrocytic schizogony :

The metacryptomerozoites attack RBC of the blood. They start to feed on haemoglobin of the RBC. At that
period , the parasite decompose the haemoglobin into amino acid and hematin. The amino acid is used as
food by plasmodium and changes into round or spherical shape called as trophozoite.

After tropozoite stage in the parasite vacuole is appeared in the centre and the nucleus is shifted in one
side and it looks like a ring. This stage is known as signet ring stage.

After signet ring stage vacuole is disappeared and pseudopodia like structure are seen in parasite. This
stage is known as amoeboid stage. With the help of this pseudiopodia like structure it gains its full size.
This stage is known as schizont stage.which means mature stage.

The unused haematin from the toxic substance called haemozoin , which is straw coloured pigment.

Then in the schizont stage yellowish granules or dots are appeared inside the parasite or RBC. Such
yellowish granules or dots are called schuffner’s granules. These are antigen produced by the parasite.

After sometime the schizont nucleus divides forming many nuclei. Each nucleus divides forming many
nuclei. Each nucleus develops into new individual called as merozoites. The merozoites are arranged like
the petals of rose. This stage is called as rosette stage.

The fully matured merozoites liberate out by breaking of that RBC. some of them again attack on new
RBC to continue the erythrocytic schizogony. Some of the merozoites may go to the liver cell and some of
them change into gametocytes i.e macrogametocytes and microgametocytes. The gametocytes are free
flowing in the blood. They donot develop further till they enter into the mosquito body.

Sexual cycle of plasmodium in female anopheles mosquito

The gametocytes are unable to develop further in human blood. They degenerate or die if they are not
taken by female anopheles mosquito within a day. When the mosquito suck the infected blood,the
gametocytes enters into the stomach of mosquito. Then, the sexual cycle of plasmodium starts which is
completed in two phases.

A. Gametogony
B. Sporogony

9
a) Gametogony :
The male gamet develops from the microgametocytes by the process of spermatogenesis. In this
process the nucleus of microgametocyte divides by meiosis to form 6-8 haploid nucleus. The
cytoplasm forms flagella like structure known as ex-flagella. Each nucleus enters into ex-flagella and
get detached out as microgamete or male gamet. This process is called as ex-flagellation.
In other hand , the female gamets develops from macrogametocyte by the oogenesis. In this
process , the macrogametocytes increases in size and develops the in-flagellation to receive male
gamet that is known as cone of reception.
Now fertilization occurs, after fertilization there is formed a worm like structure called zygote. The
zygote is called ookinate or vermicule.
b) Sporogony :
The ookinate secrets a chemical from its front side which is called lytic enzyme. By the help of
which the zygote dissolve the wall of stomach and penetrate to reach the haemocoelom. The
zygote starts to form a cyst like structure which is known as oocyst. The nucleus of oocyst is also
called sporant. Sporant divides repeteadly by mitosis forming many nuclei. The nuclei are the spore
like structure so, they are also called as sporant. These bodies are enclosed inside by a membrane
called as sporoblast. After some time, each nucleus acquires the cytoplasm and develops into
spindle shaped body known as sporozoites.
The fully matured sporozoites liberated out by breaking of sporoblast. They remains in salivary
gland with eating the saliva and salivary juice.
In this way sexual cycle of plasmodium vivax is completed.
Malaria and its control
Malaria is the disease caused by the intracellular protozoan parasite known as plasmodium. The
word malaria is derived from two greek words i.e ‘mal’ means bad and aria means air. The parasite
is recorded from RBC, liver, spleen and bone marrow. It is transfered by female anopheles
mosquitoes.
The malaria fever is charactersied by alternate fever, sweating sensation and chilling sensation.
Generally the patients becomes weak. Tongue may be quickly coated. The patient also feels
headache, muscular pain and sometimes nausea and vomiting.
Control measures of mosquitoes
The following general methods may be used for the control of mosquitoes
1. Control of mosquitoes
a. Elimination of breeding places
b. Destruction of larva and pupae
c. Biological control
d. Destruction of adult mosquitoes
2. Prevention from infection
a. Personal protection
b. Use of prophylactic drugs
3. Treatment of patient
Medicine quanine, chloroquinane, camoquine, arabin, comaprima etc can be used to treat.

10