3/24/2021 ERROR ANALYSIS

Lab Report

Submitted by:
Ayesha Surryya 332748
Aymen Javaid 352558
Marryam Azhar 346584
Asfand Yar Khan 352784
Submitted to:
Ma’am Afsheen Zahra
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LAB REPORT CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................................................... 2
THEORY ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
PROCEDURE .................................................................................................................................................. 5
OBSERVATIONS ............................................................................................................................................ 6
DATA ANALYSIS ............................................................................................................................................ 7
CONCLUSION .............................................................................................................................................. 10
DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................................ 10
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ABSTRACT

The basic aim of this experiment which is not only performed correctly, keeping in
view the Gross personal errors, systematic errors, lag time, hysteresis,
environmental factors and parallax but also to perform calculative and systematical
analysis on the obtained values. The experiment involves performing calculations
to obtain value along with that error present in the obtained value which is
calculated statistically.

THEORY

The experiment is performed in the manner such that the length and width of the
experiment table is measured multiple times and then mean value of length and
width is calculated by using the respective formulae.
The average deviation of each value is calculated. Then after average deviation we
have to calculate the standard deviation in each value. The standard error is
calculated by its respective formula.
Perimeter and area of the table is calculated by using the mean value of the table’s
length and width. Then the calculations are performed to calculate the errors in
each value. All of the calculations are done by following proper procedure and using
respective formulae.

Error:
It is the measure of the estimated difference between observed or calculated value
of quantity and its actual value.

Uncertanity:
The range of values in which possibly the actual value of the quantity may lie.

Mean value:
It is obtained by calculating multiple values for a quantity by performing an
experiment multiple times (N) (while keeping the conditions same for each
experiment) and dividing the sum of those quantity by the no of experiment.
e.g. if multiple calculated values of single experiments are x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 and as
shown by the values that the experiment is performed 5 times so formula would
be.
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x1+x2+x3+x4+x5
X=
5

Deviation:
It is the amount by which a single measurement differs from a specific value. While
in case of the average deviation it is obtained by subtracting the mean value from
the measured values of a quantity. For N repeated experiments its formula is:

(𝑥1−𝑿)(x2−𝑿)(𝑥3−𝑿)(𝑥4−𝑿)(𝑥5−𝑿)(𝑥𝑁−𝑿)
Average deviation=
𝑁

Standard deviation:
Standard deviation is a measure of how far away individual measurements tend to
be from the mean value of a data set. There is 68% confidence that original value
lies within the standard deviation. Its formula is;

(𝑥1−𝑿)𝟐 (𝑥2−𝑿)𝟐 (𝑥3−𝑋)2 (𝑥4−𝑋)2 (𝑥5−𝑋)2 (𝑥𝑛−𝑋)2

s=√
N−1

Standard error of the mean:

If we have average value of N measurements, the uncertainty we should associate
with this average value is the standard deviation of the mean, often called standard
error (SE).
It is smaller than the standard deviation by factor of 1/√𝑁
Its formula is;
𝑠
𝜎𝑥̅ =
√𝑁

Precision:
Precision refers to closeness of the measured values to each other. it can be
represented by the fractional uncertainty (or relative uncertainty) in a reading.
𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Fractional uncertainty =
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Accuracy:
The degree to which the result of a measurement, calculation, or specification
conforms to the correct value or a standard.
Mathematically, the measure of accuracy can be determined by the relative error.
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒−𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Relative error = ( )
𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
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Percentage uncertainty:
It is the fractional uncertainty expressed as a percentage. The formula is given by
Percentage Uncertainty = Fractional Uncertainty * 100

LAWS OF PROPAGATION OF ERRORS:

1- For addition or subtraction:

For an equation Z=X±Y Δz2=Δ𝑥2+Δ𝑦2

where Δz = The error in Z
Δx = The error in X
Δy = The error in Y

2- For multiplication or division:

For an equation Z=X*Y or Z=X/Y

∆𝑧 2 ∆𝑥 2 ∆𝑦 2
= +
𝑧 𝑥 𝑦

3- For power factor:

For an equation Z=𝑥n

Δz = nXn-1∆x

4- General case for function f(x, y):

∆𝑓 2 ∆𝑓 2
√
∆𝑓 = ( ) (𝜎𝑥)2 + ( ) (𝜎𝑦)2
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
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PROCEDURE

Following steps were followed while performing this experiment:

 Measure the length and width of the table using meter rule.
 Repeat the experiment four times by placing the meter rod at different
positions to minimize the error.
 Calculate the Average Length by the formula:
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
Average Length = 𝑿𝑳=
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑳𝟏+𝑳𝟐+𝑳𝟑+𝑳𝟒
Average Length = 𝑿𝑳=
𝟒
 Calculate the Average Width by the formula:
𝑺𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
Average Width = 𝑿𝒘=
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝑶𝒃𝒔𝒆𝒓𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔
𝑾𝟏+𝑾𝟐+𝑾𝟑+𝑾𝟒
Average Width = 𝑿𝒘=
𝟒
 Calculate the Average Deviation in Length and Width with the help of the
following formula:
σLi = (Li– 𝑿𝑳)
∑σLi = σL1 + σL2+ σL3+ σL4
and
σWi = (Wi – 𝑿𝒘)
∑σWi = σW1 + σW2+ σW3+ σW4
 Calculate the Standard Deviation in Length and Width by using the
following formula:
(𝛔𝑳𝟏)𝟐 +(𝛔𝑳𝟐)𝟐 +(𝛔𝑳𝟑)𝟐 +(𝛔𝑳𝟒)𝟐
S. D=SL=√
𝑵−𝟏

(𝛔𝑾𝟏)𝟐 +(𝛔𝑾𝟐)𝟐 +(𝛔𝑾𝟑)𝟐 +(𝛔𝑾𝟒)𝟐

S. D=Sw=√
𝑵−𝟏

 To Calculate the Standard Error in Length and Width, we use the formula:
𝑺.𝑫𝒍
S. EL=
√𝑵
and
𝑺.𝑫𝒘
S. Ew=
√𝑵
 To find the Area of the table we use the following formula:
Area = Length*Width
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𝑿𝑳*𝑿𝒘
 To find the Perimeter of the table we use the following formula:
Perimeter=2xLength+2xWidth
 Relative Uncertainty in Area is calculated as:
𝛛𝐀 𝛛𝐀 𝟐
σA=√( )𝟐 (𝛔𝐋)𝟐 + ( ) (𝛔𝐖)𝟐
𝛛𝐋 𝛛𝐖
 Relative Uncertainty in Perimeter is calculated as:
𝛛𝐏 𝛛𝐏 𝟐
σP=√( )𝟐 (𝛔𝐋)𝟐 + ( ) (𝛔𝐖)𝟐 .
𝛛𝐋 𝛛𝐖

OBSERVATIONS

The Following data was calculated from the performed experiment:

LENGTH
Sr. Symbol Measured Value/cm

1. L1 183.0

2. L2 183.4

3. L3 183.0

4. L4 182.9

WIDTH
Sr. Symbol Measured Value/cm

1. W1 76.2

2. W2 76.3

3. W3 76.2

4 W4 76.2
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DATA ANALYSIS

Following calculations were performed on the observed data obtained from

the experiments. The Calculations performed were used to calculate the
relative uncertainty in the measurements.

Average:
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Average Length = 𝑋𝐿=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝐿1+𝐿2+𝐿3+𝐿4
Average Length = 𝑋𝐿=
4
183.0+183.4+183.0+182.9
Average Length = 𝑋𝐿= = 𝟏𝟖𝟑. 𝟎𝟕𝟓𝒄𝒎
4
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Average Width = 𝑋𝑤=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑏𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
𝑊1+𝑊2+𝑊3+𝑊4
Average Width = 𝑋𝑤=
4
76.2+76.3+76.2+76.2
Average Width = 𝑋𝑤 = = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟐𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
4

Average Deviation:

In Length:
σL1 = (L1 – 𝑋𝐿) = (183.0-183.075) = -0.075cm
σL2 = (L2 – 𝑋𝐿) = (183.4-183.075) = 0.325cm
σL3 = (L3 – 𝑋𝐿) = (183.0-183.075) = -0.075cm
σL4 = (L4 – 𝑋𝐿) = (182.9-183.075) = -0.175cm
∑σLi = σL1 + σL2+ σL3+ σL4 = -0.075+0.325-0.075-0.175 = 0cm

In Width:
σW1 = (W1 – 𝑋𝑤) = (76.2-76.225) = -0.025cm
σW2 = (W2 – 𝑋𝑤) = (76.2-76.225) = 0.075cm
σW3 = (W3 – 𝑋𝑤) = (76.2-76.225) = -0.025cm
σW4 = (W4 – 𝑋𝑤) = (76.2-76.225) = -0.025cm
∑ σWi = σW1 + σW2+ σW3+ σW4 = -0.025+0.075-0.025-0.025= 0cm

Standard Deviation:
In Length:
(σ𝐿1)2 +(σ𝐿2)2 +(σ𝐿3)2 +(σ𝐿4)2
S. D=SL=√
𝑁−1
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(−0.075)2 +(0.325)2 +(−0.075)2 +(−0.175)2

S. D=SL=√
3
S. D=SL= 0.202cm
In Width:

(σ𝑊1)2 +(σ𝑊2)2 +(σ𝑊3)2 +(σ𝑊4)2

S. D=Sw=√
𝑁−1

(−0.025)2 +(0.075)2 +(−0.025)2 +(−0.025)2

S. D=Sw=√
3
S. D=Sw= 0.05cm

Standard Error:

In Length:
𝑺.𝑫𝒍 𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟐 𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟐
S. EL= = = = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝒄𝒎
√𝑵 √𝟒 𝟐
In Width:
𝑺.𝑫𝒘 𝟎.𝟎𝟓 𝟎.𝟎𝟓
S. Ew= = = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟓𝒄𝒎
√𝑵 √𝟒 𝟐

Perimeter:
Formula: Perimeter=2xLength+2xWidth
2xLength=2L=2*𝑋𝐿=2*183.075=366.15cm
2xWidth=2w=2* 𝑋𝑤=2*76.225=152.45cm
Perimeter=P=2L+2W=366.15+152.45=518.6cm

Area:
Formula: Area=Length*Width
Area=A=𝑋𝐿*𝑋𝑤=183.075*76.225=13954.89cm2

Propagation of Uncertanity:
To propagate the uncertainty in the measurements of area and perimeter of the
workstation. We have to do partial differentiation of the variables involved in
calculating the values.

In Perimeter:
∂P ∂
= ( ) (2𝐿 + 2𝑊) = 2
∂L ∂L
∂P ∂
∂W
=(
∂W
) (2𝐿 + 2𝑊) = 2
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In Area:
∂A ∂
= ( ) (𝐿 ∗ 𝑊) = W = 76.225
∂L ∂L
∂A ∂
∂W
=(
∂W
) (𝐿 ∗ 𝑊) = L = 183.075

Calculation for Perimeter:

∂P ∂P 2
σP=√( )2 (σL)2 + ( ) (σW)2
∂L ∂W

σP=√(2)2 (0.101)2 + (2)2 (0.025)2

σP= ±0.208cm
Calculation for Area:

∂A ∂A 2
σA=√( )2 (σL)2 + ( ) (σW)2
∂L ∂W

σA=√(76.225)2 (0.101)2 + (183.075)2 (0.025)2

σA= ±8.956cm2

Relative Uncertanity:

In Perimeter:
P’=P±σP
P’=518.6±0.208cm
𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
Rel. Uncertainty= ( ) ∗ 100
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝟎.𝟐𝟎𝟖
= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟎𝟏%
𝟓𝟏𝟖.𝟔
In Area:
A’=A±σA
A’=13954.89±8.956 cm2
𝑈𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
Rel. Uncertainty= ( ) ∗ 100
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
𝟖.𝟗𝟓𝟔
= ∗ 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟒𝟐%
𝟏𝟑𝟗𝟓𝟒.𝟖𝟗
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CONCLUSION

We took four values of length and width in order to minimize the error in
calculation. Average of length and width was accurately calculated which was
183.075cm in case of length and 76.225cm in case of width. Average deviation from
original observed values and average value was 0cm for length and 0cm for width.
Standard deviation was calculated for length and width, by formula, which were
0.202cm and 0.05cm respectively. Standard error was also calculated to be used in
calculation of uncertainty.
Original values of Area=13954.89cm^2 and Perimeter=518.6 cm were calculated
by average values. We did partial differentiation to propagate uncertainty in the
calculated values. Uncertainty in case of perimeter was ±0.208cm and for area it
was ± 8.956cm^2. Relative uncertainty in Perimeter and Area, which is calculated
above, is 0.0401% and 0.0642% respectively.

DISCUSSION

During the experiment, attempts were made to avoid unnecessary sources of error.
We made sure that our line of sight remain perpendicular to the meter rule in order
to avoid the parallax error. In addition, the end of the meter rule was damaged
away and the 0cm mark was unclear therefore all readings were made from the
2cm mark with a correction factor of -2cm which was applied to all readings to
counter the 2cm increase in readings. In addition, taking multiple readings and
averaging to get a mean value further reduced the error in the value of length and
width used, therefore reducing the error in area and perimeter. As a result, we
calculated that the value of area and perimeter has a small relative uncertainty (a
percentage uncertainty of about 0.0642% and the perimeter has a percentage
uncertainty of about 0.0401%). It is calculated that the true value of area lies in
the range of 13954.89±8.956cm2 and the true value of perimeter lies in the range
518.6±0.208cm.