Country WID Profile

(Nepal)

December 1999

Japan International Cooperation Agency

Planning Department
 Country WID Profile
(Nepal)

Table of Contents

1 Basic Profile
1-1 Socio-Economic Profile 1
1-2 Health Profile 2
1-3 Education Profile 2

2 General Situation of Women and Government Policy on WID/Gender

2-1 General Situation of Women 3

2-2 Government Policy on WID/Gender 5

2-3 National Machinery 5

3 Current Situation of Women by Sector

3-1 Education 7
3-2 Health 10
3-3 Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries 13
3-4 Economic Activities 15

4 WID/ Gender Projects by other Donors 18

5 WID/Gender Information Sources 22

6 References 26
 List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

ABU - Ahmadu Bello University

ADB - African Development Bank
ADP - Agricultural Development Programme
AIDS - Acquired Immune deficiency Syndrome
BI - Bamako Initiative
BLP - Better Life Programme
BPA - Beijing Platform of Action
CBN - Central Bank of Nigeria
CBO - Community Based Organisation
CBPP - Contagious Bovine Plueropneumonia
CEDPA- Centre for Development and Population Activities.
ECOWAS- Economic Community of West African States.
EU - European Union
ECCDE - Early Child Care Development Education
DFRRI - Director of Food Road & Rural Infrastructure.
FAO - Food and Agricultural Organisation
FEAP - Family Economic Advancement Programme.
FGM - Female Genital Mutilation
FGN - Federal Government of Nigeria
FMANR- Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources
FME - Federal Ministry of Education
FMOH - Federal Ministry of Health
FMWASD- Federal Ministry of Women Affairs and Social Development
FMWRD- Federal Ministry of Water and Rural Development
FOS - Federal Office of Statistics
FSP - Family Support Programme
GADA - Gender and Development Action
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
GRDP - Grazing Reserve Development Programme.
HEB - Health Education Branch
HSD - Hospital Service Department
HTD Harmful Traditional Practices
IDC - Industrial Development Centre
IRRRG - International Reproductive Rights Research Group.
IFAD - International Fund for Agriculture Development
ITTA - International Institute for Tropical Agriculture
JICA - Japan International Co-operation Agency
MCH - Maternal/Child Health
NACB - Nigerian Agricultural Cooperative Bank.
NACCIMA- Nigerian Association of Chambers of Commerce Industry, Mines
and Agriculture
NAERLS National Agricultural Extension & Liaison Services
NBP - National Borehole Project
NBTC - National Board of Technical Commission
NCE - National Certificate in Education
NCCE - National Commission of Colleges of Education
NCNE - National Commission of Nomadic Education
NCWD - National Commision of Women Development
NERDC- National Education Research & Development Council
NERFUND- National Economic Reconstruction Fund
NGO - Non-Governmental Organisation
NIDB - Nigeria Industrial Development Bank
NIHORT- National Horticultural Research Fund
NLS - National Livestock Service.
NPA - National Plan of Action
NPC - National Planning Commission
NPEC - National Primary Education
NPI - National Programme on Immunization
NRCI - National Root Crop Institute
NSPQ - National Seeds and Plant Quarantine
NSS - National Seed Service
NUC - National University Commission
PARC - Pan African Rinderpest Campaign
PBN - Peoples Bank of Nigeria
PPA - Participatory Poverty Alleviation
P.T.F - Petroleum Trust Fund
RAIDS - Rural Agro-Industrial Development Scheme
RBDA - River Basin Development Authority
RVF - Rectum Vesico Fistula
STD - Sexuality Transmitted Diseases
SME - Small-Medium Enterprise
SSE - Small-Scale Enterprise
TBA - Tradition Birth Attendant
UBES - Universal Basic Education Scheme
UNDP - United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO- United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation
UNICEF- United Nations Children’s Fund
USAID - United States Agency for International Development.
VVF - Vesico Vagina Fistula
WID - Women In Development
WIN - Women In Nigeria
WB - World Bank
WHO - World Health Organisation.
 Abbreviations
Nepal

BPEP - Basic and Primary Education Planning

BPFA - Beijing Platform for Action
CSW - Commission of Status of Women
CBS - Central Bureau of Statistics
DDC - District Development Committee
GO - Government Organization
GDP - Gross Domestic Product
HIV - Human Immune Virus
ILO - International Labor Organization
MWSW - Ministry of Women and Social Welfare
MMR - Maternal Mortality Rate
MOA - Ministry of Agriculture
NGO - Non-Government Organization
NR - Nepali Rupees
NRB - Nepal Rastra Bank
NPC - National Planning Commission
PCRW - Production Credit for Rural Women
STD - Sexually Transmitted Diseases
UNIDO - United Nations Industrial Development Organization
UNICEF- United Nations Children Fund
VDC - Village Development Committee
WID - Women in Development
2. General Situation of Women and Government Policy on WID/Gender
2-1 General Situation of Women
General Situation of Women in Nepal

Heavy labor is imposed on women and girls and access to health and family planning services is limited.
Access to employment, income, property, land, etc. is also limited for women in comparison with men.
Poverty leads women to choose to work as prostitutes in many cases.
Since almost all marriages are arranged by parents' intermediation, women marry young in general and
nearly 70% of women marry and get pregnant in their teens

In Nepal, more than 80% of the nation is engaged in agriculture and the agricultural sector has the
biggest share of the GDP at 40%.
However, the growth of the agricultural sector has reached the uppermost limit because irrigation
facilities have not been provided for because of the tremendous amount of expenditure required for
the preparation and renovation of infrastructures since 80% of the land is mountainous and hilly areas.
Rural areas are facing into the difficulty of obtaining sufficient food since the population increase
rate has exceeded the agricultural production rate and many men migrate to urban areas or overseas
to work to provide daily bread for their families. Women and children who are left home must take
care of all the farm work by themselves.

Life in Nepal is based on the patriarchal system and there is a strong tendency for preferring sons
rather than daughters. Women and girls are left until last when food is served, on the other hand,
heavy labor is imposed on them and access to health and family planning services is limited. Future
possibility for employment opportunities and so on are closed to many young girls who have to
discontinue schools due to the burden of housework and farm work and do not know how to lay claim
to education and rights. Access to income, property, land, etc. is also limited for women in
comparison with men and also poverty leads them to choose to work as prostitutes in many cases.
In the last 20~30 years, Nepalese women being sold as prostitutes to countries such as India, etc. has
become noticeable and the total number amounts to 5,000~7,000 cases of which 20% are young girls
under the age of 16. Rape, domestic violence, sexual harassment and so on occur frequently due to
women's low standing.

The new constitution established in 1992 expressly stipulates the abolishment of all discrimination
based on sex, religion and caste and the equal opportunities for the both sexes in voting right and also
wages and promotion at places of work. However, in actuality, there are many enterprises which give
priority to the employment of men due to the prejudice toward women and there even exist types of
jobs which are intended only for men. Opportunities for vocational training and employment,
therefore, are limited for women and they often have been obliged to losing their jobs or take low
wages for jobs which do not require high skills. Although this situation is a serious problem for
female householders who have no other labor force to rely on, the number of women are also very
limited at the level of policy decision making and this is one of the reasons why women's needs have
3
not been reflected in policies.

Cultural and Social Background

Almost close to 90% of the people in Nepal believe in Hinduism and it is thought that every man and
woman should marry. Legal marriageable age stipulated in the marital law is 16 years old for girls
and 18 years for boys with parents' consent and 18 and 21 respectively without their consent.
Although marriage is prohibited when there is an age difference of more than 20 years, only a penalty
is imposed when a violation is detected and the marriage is not invalidated and, therefore, infantile
marriages have been practiced for a long time. In traditional Hindu society, parents must pay a dowry
(cash or furniture and effects for betrothal) when their daughter gets marry in addition to a tilak (a
certain amount of money payable to the bridegroom's family). The daughter is thought to be more
innocent if she is still young and the parents can settle with a smaller amount of tilak/dowry. It is
believed among the high level castes that parents can accumulate virtue in the world to come if their
daughter marries before menarche. Since almost all marriages are effected through parents'
intermediation with these kinds of customs in the background, women marry young in general and
nearly 70% of women marry and get pregnant in their teens.

Polygamy, marriage of minors, castes, etc. were abolished in the civil law (Mulki Ain) which was
amended in 1963, but bigamy still remains when no boy heir can be produced, as well as caste
distinctions in living customs which heavily influence social lives.
Women cannot inherit their parents' property until they reach to 35 years old without getting married
but lose if they marry. Although wives are given a part of the property (Pewa) from husbands after
marriage, they are not able to use it without the consent of their grown up sons and also lose the
property by divorce.

4
2-2 Government Policy on WID/Gender
Government Policy on WID/Gender

In the Eighth Five-Year Plan, the importance of women's equal participation in the development
processes was emphasized. Also, the strategies to achieve women’s significant participation was
discussed.

[WID/Gender Policy]
It was in the Sixth Five-Year Plan (1980~85) when the importance of women's participation in
the development processes was expressed clearly for the first time in national programs and the
importance of women's equal and significant participation in the development processes has been
emphasized in the
Eighth Five-Year Plan.
Strategies for this are the following seven points: 1) Encouragement of women's participation
in both traditional sectors and nontraditional sectors, 2) Encouragement of women's access to formal
and informal education, 3) Securing for regular female staffs for employment and training programs,
4) Improvement of women's access to health service facilities, especially facilities related to family
planning/health services for mothers and children, 5) Improvement of women's access to financing,
technology, programs to support plans to start new businesses, markets, employment opportunities,
6) Introduction of new technologies to lighten the burden for collecting firewood and fodder, water
drawing, and housework to rural areas, and 7) Revision of laws which are biased against women.

2-3 National Machinery

Federal Ministry of Women, Children and Social Welfare

Reflecting the government's strategy to promote involvement in WID, the Ministry of Women,
Children, and Social Welfare was newly established in 1995.
Although WID Sections are also located in several ministries, their power of influence in the ministries
is not yet strong in general.

The Women Development Agency was founded under the Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare in
1988 and the Children and Women Development Section was founded in June 1993 in the National
Planning Commission as a focal point of all activities relating to the development of women.
Recently, reflecting the strengthening of the government's involvement in WID, the Ministry of
Women and Social Welfare was newly founded and the role of the Children and Women
Development Section, National Planning Commission, is gradually being transferred to the above-
mentioned Ministry. The Ministry is still in the formation stage at present and a summary book to
show its final target, purpose, and activity range is being prepared.
Although WID Sections are located in several ministries, their ways and progress for coping with
WID/Gender are varied depending on budgets, human resources, and priority matters and their power
5
of influence in the ministries is not strong yet in general.

Name: Ministry of Women, Children and Social Welfare

Established Year: Sept. 1995
Number of Staff:
Role and Function:
1) Supports WID program in other Ministries
2) Coordinates, monitors, and evaluates WID program by the government or
NGO.
Goal:
Elimination of sexual discrimination. Promotion of women’s participation in
the national development process through empowerment.

[Other Relevant Organization]

Government Ministries Implementing Women-related Activities

Ministry
Ministry of Health
Ministry of Education
Ministry of Agriculture
Ministry of Rural Development
• Financial program for women working in agriculture.
Ministry of Forestry and Soil •
Conservation
Activities/ Programs
• Allocation of health personnel to sub health posts, and
women volunteers to villages.
• Building health posts to improve health service to women.
• Monitoring regional health volunteer work and TBA
activities, with support from Mother/Women groups
• Providing school materials for children in 1-3 grades in
primary schools. Set up of scholarship program.
• Providing support fund, uniform, and food for girls from
families with low income. Free education for girls in
Secondary school (1990-).
• Allocation of at least one female teacher to each school.
Scholarship program in universities to increase female
teachers in rural area.
• Female teachers to visit girls’ family once a week to
communicate importance of continued attendance for
girls.
• Established Women Farmers Development Division in the
Ministry of Agriculture.
• Providing basic development training to 38,000 women,
and vocational training to 22,000 women.
Providing forest management training to women. Many
women participate in the afforestation program.

6
3. Current Situation of Women by Sector
3-1 Education
Education

Adult literacy rates are 14% for women and 41% for men.
There is a big gap between the primary education enrollment rates for girls in rural areas(22%) and in
urban areas(48%)
Only one quarter of nepali girls enter secondary education.
Females, as a percentage of primary school teachers increased to 23 percent in 1997.

[General Situation]
The school system in Nepal started in the 1950s. In the 1970s, authorities concerned introduced a
new curriculum under a national education system program and tried to improve the enrollment rate
by making educational expenses primary education) and textbooks, etc.
(1~3 grades) free of charge and offering incentives to teachers who worked in depopulated areas, etc.
However, , considerably low compared with the average of late starting developing countries (38%
for women and 59% for men). The elementary school enrollment rate is higher than the average of
the late starting developing countries but the percentage of pupils attending the 5th grade is 52%,
which is lower than the 57% average of the late starting developing countries (State of the World
Children, 1977).

Mandatory education is free of charge for the 5 years of primary education which starts at the age of 6. The
lagging behind in the education of girls is especially a problem in Nepal and the government has made the
reduction of the gender gap in the literacy rate and enrollment rate priority items. The authorities concerned
are trying to increase the number of female teachers (1/6 of all teachers at present) as promoters of female
education. Secondary education (2 years for the first period and 3 years for the second period) was not free
of charge and the number of girls to advance to secondary education is half of that of boys and, therefore, the
government has made secondary education free of charge since 1990.
The education budget of the government in the 1996/1997 fiscal year increased 28% from the previous year
and accounted for 13.5% of the total budget of the government. The government is implementing an
"Education for all people" program, distributing 64% of the budget for primary and secondary education and
providing opportunities for education to 1,500,000 girls.

[Primary Education, Secondary Education and Higher Education]

The total enrollment rate in primary education was 87% for girls and 130% for boys in 1997 and had
increased remarkably compared with that of 7% for girls and 35% for boys in 1972. However, it is
thought that girls who complete primary education are about 30%, those who go on to the first period
of secondary education decrease to 23% for girls and 46% for boys and those who go to as far as the
second period of secondary education further decrease (enrollment rate is 20% for girls and 44% for
boys). Girls in rural areas have far less opportunities to receive an education. The primary education

7
enrollment rate of 6~9 year old girls is 22% in rural areas compared with 48% in urban areas (1991)
and there is a big gap between cities and towns and farming village areas than for boys (53% in urban
areas and 35% in rural areas, 1991). The literacy rate of 10~14 year old girls (1991) has been
improved up to 49% (76% for boys) since the government introduced a program to make education
expenses free since 1971 and also girls who receive school education and out-of-school education
have increased lately. However, the literacy rate of women more than 40 years old is extremely low,
less than 10%, resulting in the decline of the literacy rate of adult women.

In spite of the fact that equal opportunity in education is guaranteed by law, the enrollment rate and
literacy rate of women are actually held down to lower than those of men even now. Reasons for
women's low enrollment rate are listed as follows: 1) Parents put the priority on the education of boys
due to poverty, 2) Girls have less access to technical education and vocational training which are
directly related to future jobs, 3) Opportunities for getting jobs are limited for girls, 4) They have the
burden of housework, 5) Commuting to school is difficult, 6) Health and nutritional conditions are
not good, 7) There is a lack of female teachers who have received training for promoting girls' school
attendance, 8) They marry young, 9) There is a public prejudice toward girls receiving education, and
so on.

[Teachers]
As of 1993, the number of teachers in Nepal was 106,000 and that of female teachers was about
16,000 or 15% of the total. The percentage of female teachers among elementary school teachers was
8.2% in 1975, but it was increased to 23% of all the teachers in 1997 as a result of the strategy to
increase female teachers in order to heighten the participation of women in education after the Nairobi
Conference in 1985. At present, the government is aiming to post at least one female teacher in
22,000 elementary schools all over the country. Moreover, since the percentage of trained teachers
is low, 46% of all and 39% of female teachers, the government is scheduled to give a special
incentive to female teachers and to provide on-the-job training to all teachers by the year 2000.

[Literacy Education]
In order to achieve the government's target to decrease the illiteracy rate to half, the government and
domestic and overseas NGOs are carrying out activities to hold literacy classes in areas where the
literacy rate is less than half of the average. The Ministry of Education is operating basic literacy
classes as much as possible in 40 districts. Literacy classes were held in 2 districts in the past and are
being held at present in 7 districts. The WORD project is holding similar classes in 30 districts.
There are literacy classes held by other organizations and the number of female participants is
exceeding that of male in these literacy classes.

[Vocational and Technical Training]

The Ministry of Labour, the Ministry of Local Development and the Ministry of Industry are
implementing vocational training and programs for creating income. Moreover, they are focusing on

8
female education which will be linked with jobs in their literacy rate improvement campaign.

Table1 : Female Ratio in Enrollment

1975 1985 1991
Female Female Female
Total Ratio Total Ratio Total Ratio
(%) (%) (%)
Primary 458,516 20.0 1,812,098 30.0 2,884,274 37.2
Education
Secondary 174,143 17.3 254,354 25.0 378,478 31.5
Education
(First Half)
Secondary 67,214 16.9 242,467 23.0 395,330 28.7
Education
(Second Half)
Higher NA NA NA NA NA NA
Education
Source: Ministry of Education and Culture

Table2 : Trend of Female Teachers

1975 1985 1993
Female Female Female
Total Total Total
Ratio Ratio Ratio
Number Number Number
(%) (%) (%)
Primary 1,706 8.21 5,469 10.29 10,206 16.0
Education
Secondary 700 8.80 1,217 9.71 1,485 13.00
Education
(First Half)
Secondary 355 10.50 795 8.59 938 10.00
Education
(Second Half)
Source: Ministry of Education, Culture and Social Welfare, 1994

9
3-2 Health
Health

Nepal is the only country where life expectancy for women (53yrs) is lower than that for men(54yrs).
Pregnancy at young age, short interval between pregnancy, and delivery at home are the 3 main causes
for the high maternal mortality rate in Nepal
Health status has not improved for the past decade due to lack of manpower, budget, and medication.

[General Information]
The number of hospitals, (sub-) health posts and health centers which provide health and medical
services in Nepal has greatly increased during 1980 to 1992. However, there is a lack of both human
resources and indispensable medical supplies due to financial difficulties in health posts which
assume responsibility for medical services in farming villages and, therefore, access to appropriate
health and hygiene services is still not good. The principle that beneficiaries of medical supplies
should pay a part of the expenses was introduced but its implementation is difficult since the
agreement of the people cannot be obtained. The trend of diseases has not improved compared with
a few dozen years ago and the main diseases are contagious diseases and worms which are caused
by an unhygienic environment and malnutrition, and the infantile mortality rate has become higher
than the average for developing countries.

Looking after even from the world point of view, the mortality rate of pregnant women and nursing
mothers is the worst and it is the only country in the world where the average life expectancy at birth
of women is less than that of men (State of the World Children, 1997). The birthrate of premature
babies and babies with a low birth weight is high since the mothers are physically exhausted due to
repeated childbirth and the percentage of malnutritioned children is higher than Bangladesh and India.

It also is a problem when drawing up the development plans for the health and medical service field
that it is difficult to grasp the accurate number of births and deaths since there is no system for
registering birth and death, many people deliver at home, people who use medical care facilities are
few and so on. Incidentally, the mortality rate of pregnant women and nursing mothers is 515 (the
same, 1991) according to the report of the Nepalese Government which is a third of the UNICEF
Report.

[Child and Maternal Health]

Mortality rate of pregnant women and nursing mothers in Nepal is extremely high at 1,500 (per
100,000 births, 1990) and the second highest in Asia, next to Bhutan (1,600, the same). Average
marital age is young, 18 years old, and heavy physical burdens are being imposed on the mothers
since an average of 5.2 children are delivered at short childbirth intervals. Moreover, in spite of the
many pregnant women and nursing mothers suffer from complications during (details unknown)
originating from an unhygienic environment, no care system for pregnant women and nursing
mothers has been established yet and pregnant women who have medical examinations before
10
childbirth are 15%, those who have medical examinations after childbirth are 10% and those who
have medical examinations until right before childbirth are only 1.8%. Deliveries at home account
for 96% of the whole due to lack of both childbirth facilities and midwives and almost all are
deliveries attended by a female relative. Deliveries with a health nurse in attendance are the lowest in
the world, only 7% (State of the World Children, 1997).

On the other hand, premature infants, babies with a low birth weight, diarrhea, acute infectious
diseases of the respiratory organs and malnutrition are named as the causes for infantile mortality and
malnutrition due to difficulties in obtaining food, inadequate health and hygiene related facilities and
unhygienic environment lie at the root of health difficulties. Judging from an estimation, the female
infantile mortality rate (101 per 1,000 births) is higher than that of males (94, the same) in 1994.

[Family Planning]
The birthrate for Nepalese women per capita decreased from 6.3 to 5.1 in the 20 years from 1971 to
1991. Vital statistics of the government show that the number of children which is considered to be
the ideal for married women decreased from 4.0 to 3.1 and, especially, there are more women who
think it is ideal to have less children in urban areas than rural areas, in the plain areas (Terai) than
mountainous areas and also women with higher education levels.
Implementation ratio of modern contraception increased from 2.9% in 1976 to 24.1% in 1991. The
contraceptive method which is utilized the most is sterilization for women and accounts for 12.1%
of the whole, far higher than that for men, the second highest which accounts for 7.5%. Other
contraceptive devices being used are inoculations, pills, condoms, norplant and IUD. Implementation
ratio of family planning is, similar to the ideal number of children, twice higher in urban areas than
rural areas and also twice as high with women who received secondary education than with
uneducated women.

[AIDS]
The number of person who were infected with HIV/AIDS in Nepal is 188 in total as of November,
1993 and, although the scale is not large, cases which are reported are increasing year by year.
Especially, many female cases have been reported since 1992 but actual cases are presumed to be more than
those reported since no registration system has been established yet. Data of the Ministry of Health shows that
the number of female HIV cases confirmed through 1997 was 245 persons and that of AIDS cases among them
increased to 53 persons. Although it is known in general that patients of sexually transmitted diseases (STD)
are apt to contract HIV, the risk of being infected with HIV is on the rise in Nepal, since there are many
patients who do not recognize the disease, even though they are contracted STD, due to the lack of information,
or many patients who do not receive treatment because of being ashamed of having contracted STD. On the
other hand, there are only a few health care personnel who have received training for specifying and treating
STD on the medical care side.

[Anemia]

11
It is said that a third of the women in Nepal are anemic. Frequent deliveries at short childbirth
intervals, inappropriate childbirth without being attended by health care personnel, and lack of care
during puerperium are the main causes. When a pregnant woman suffers from heavy anemic, there
is a possibility of the mother's life being endangered even if it is a normal childbirth. Nutritional
education for pregnant women and appropriate care before and after childbirth have become
immediate tasks in Nepal because of the high mortality rate of pregnant women and nursing mothers.

12
3-3 Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries
Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries

90% of the female labor force population is engaged in the agricultural, forestry and fisheries industries.
Women engage in activities in groups to create income and earn 50% of the household
Time spent daily for economic and housekeeping labor for women in a day is longer than that of men
The primary factors which barriers women's participation in agricultural training are timing and location
(distance from home) of the program.

[General Information]
In Nepal, 90% of the total population is living in rural areas and 80% of the total labor force
population is engaged in agriculture, as the main industry, and they are making their living by
producing rice, wheat, maize, etc. Cultivated lands were expanded in the past several dozen years
and even small land areas in mountainous and hilly areas are being utilized. Farmland covers 240
hectares or 92% of the land which is being utilized, forests cover 109,000 hectares (4.2%) and other
land cover the remaining 96,000 hectares. Only 12,000 hectares (less than 1% of the land which is
being used) of land which has not been developed or utilized but is possible to cultivate is left.
Agricultural productivity has decreased due to the excessive use of limited cultivated land and it has
become impossible to live only by farming and, as a result of this, there is the tendency that the
population of both men and women engaging in agriculture has been decreasing in the past 30 years.
Even now, 90% of the female labor force population and 75% of the male labor force population is engaged
in the agricultural, forestry and fisheries industries.

The main crop in hilly areas and in Terai plains is paddy rice which is planted in the beginning of the
monsoon. Most land is used for one crop a year but some land also raise lentils, linseed, wheat, rape,
etc. as double-cropping. Maize, wheat, potatoes, etc. are cultivated in high altitude land. Barley and
millet are cultivated utilizing narrow steep slopes. Livestock are also bred in addition to the
cultivation of crops and their excrement is used as the main fertilizer.

[Land-ownership]
There is not very much reliable data and information related to landownership in Nepal. National
Agricultural Sample Survey (1991~ 1992) reports that men own 95.5% of the entire land area and
women own only 115,000 hectares which corresponds to 4.5% of all the land.
The number of women who own land is 6% (176,000 persons) of all the landowners and the area owned per
capita is 0.65 hectares for women against 0.97 hectares for men and the area of land owned by woman is
smaller (ESCAP, 1996).

[Agriculture]
Women are responsible for 57% of agricultural activities in Nepal and actually earn 50% of the
household income (men earn 45%). Time spent daily for economic and housekeeping labor in a day
is 10.9 hours on average for women, which is longer than that of men, 7.5 hours on average (ESCAP,
13
1996). Following, mainly, the guidance by the Women Farmers Development Division (WFDD)
under the Ministry of Agriculture, women farmers are encouraged to form groups and engage in
activities to create income. In general, their activities are cultivation and processing of vegetables
and fruits, sericulture, beekeeping, fish farming, breeding of livestock (ducks, chickens, goats, pigs,
rabbits), etc. Marketing training for women farmers is also being implemented by the Department
of Food and Agricultural Marketing Services (DFAMS).

[Agricultural Extension]
Agricultural extension activities consist of extension worker visits and demonstrations, mass meetings,
farmer's day(s), training, etc. and 25% of participants are to be women. Training of trainers is
conducted by each agency in charge in the Ministry of Agriculture. Participants for the training are also
decided by the agency in charge and living expenses during their stay for the training and incentives are borne
by the agency in charge. Each agency has prepared their training programs for women farmers and women's
participation rate is high in training subjects such as preservation and care of crops, preservation and
processing of vegetables and fruits, cultivation of vegetables in slack farming seasons, mushroom growing,
etc. However, in many cases, men account for more than 80% of the participants in agriculture/livestock
training programs which are held in regional agriculture/livestock training centers and even in training
programs for women farmers, male participants (61%) exceed female participants (39%) in actuality. It is
pointed out that the primary factors which affect women's participation are time and place (distance from
home) of training.

[Access to Micro Financing]

The main programs for assisting small scale businesses for women are Women Farmers Program of
the Ministry of Agriculture, Small Farmer Development Program of the Agricultural Development
Bank, Production Activity Financing for Women Farmers of the Ministry of Local Development,
Small Scale Financing Project for Women of MCPW, etc. These programs also implement training
for women such as process for bank financing, practical knowledge for implementing an activity, self-
development. Technical training is being implemented at the district level through organizations of
the district government.

[Forestry]
Although Nepal is a country where employment of women for development fields in afforestation,
preservation of soil and water areas, etc. was started late, 750 women workers, a third of the total
workers in the country, have participated in seed-plot preparation and afforestation programs.
Women workers in every level such as from personnel for packing and dispatching to clerical
assistants, administrative personnel and survey personnel are participating in programs. Many women
farmers are members of Community Forestry User Group.

[Fisheries]
Women are responsible for the labor of more than 50% in fisheries. The survey on the genders

14
conducted in 1996, for the first time, by the Fishery Development Division reports that activities such
as breeding, cultivation, cleaning, sales, etc. were opened also to women. It is mandatory that more
than 50% of the participants are to be women in the training. Women have formed groups for
activities in the fisheries field. Problems here are that there is no land for activities because women
normally do not own land. A few groups have been borrowing and using land owned by the
government for as long as 10~15 years.

Table1: Women Landowner

Number of Female Landowner in the country 176,000
(Ratio in total land area) (6%)
Land area owned by women (ha) 115,000
(Ratio in total area) (4%)
Average land area per landowner (ha) Male: 0.97
Female : 0.6
(Source: Women of Nepal : A Country Report, 1991 (ESCAP))

3-4 Economic Activities

Economic Activities

The rate of the women's labor force participation is far smaller than that of men.
the rate of the girl's labor force participation exceeds that of boys in the age group of 10~14 years old.
Women’s labor are limited to agricultural area
Main barriers for women’s employment are social prejudice, low education level, limited training area.

[Summary]
Nepal is behind other countries in the development of industries since it is not blessed with energy
resources such as oil and industrial resources such as iron ore and most of its economy is under the
control of their big neighboring country, India, through monetary agreements and trade agreements.
More than 80% of the labor force population engages in agriculture, 10% of the remaining 20% in
public services and other 10% in the manufacturing industry, commerce and other industries.
Industries such as manufacturing, commercial, transportation, financial and so on are concentrated
in rural areas and most of the jobs are held by men.

The government has improved the labor environment in order to promote economic development and
set forth the policy to train especially engineers. In order to do so, it enacted laws (Labour Act 1992
and Labour Rule 1993) to stipulate freedom, equality, pension, insurance, bonus, medical service
facilities, vacations and holidays, maximum working hours, minimum wages, etc. of laborers, and
guaranteed the equality of the sexes in employment opportunities and working sites. However, the
15
figures of the rate of the labor force participation and average wage, etc. of women are still far less
than those of men owing to the difficulty of access to technical and vocational training and social
prejudice.

[Labor Situation]
The rate of the women's labor force participation is 45% of the whole and there is a difference of
more than 23% between that of men, 68%. The difference is greater for the ages of 20s~50s and the
rate of the women's labor force participation is 30~40% lower than that of men. It is especially low
in urban areas and its proportion to the rate of the men's labor force participation in urban areas is a
third while the difference in rural areas is about two thirds. For the reasons for this, few opportunities
for women's employment except in the agricultural sector, social prejudice for women working in a
factory, etc. to support the household finances is considered something which is done by a person in
low standing, and social prejudice that women are inferior to men can be pointed out.

On the other hand, the rate of the girl's labor force participation exceeds that of boys by 10% in the
age group of 10~14 years old. Women are not blessed with employment opportunities in comparison
with boys and, therefore, many parents discontinue girls studies and send them outside of the home
for work in order to assist the household finances. However, their low education level is linked with
narrowing the possibility for getting a job in the future and low wages and is reducing the rate of the
women's labor force participation and average wage. Moreover, agricultural work is considered, in
many cases, to be unpaid household labor and this also is causing the decrease in the women's average
wage.

[Employment Labor]
If the rate of labor force participation is compared by gender and by industrial sector, women's rate
of labor force participation is lower than that of men in every sector with the smallest gap of 10% in
the agricultural sector, 50% in the service industry, 55% in the sales industry, 62% in the
manufacturing industry and the gap is largest for the professional and technical personnel with a
difference of 70%. This difference of the rate of employment labor participation is associated with
the level of education obtained.

For example, higher education and skills of high degree are not required in most cases in the
agricultural sector but such qualification is frequently required for white-collar work. Women's
enrollment rate in higher education is lower than that of men and, therefore, are at a disadvantage in
obtaining jobs and 89% of women who have not received school education are working in the
agricultural sector.

Wage comparison between men and women and by industrial sectors shows women's average wage
in the agricultural sector is a little more than 1/2 of that of men. The industry where there is the
highest gap is the construction industry with women's wage at a fifth of men's, and women's wage in

16
the mining and manufacturing industries is a quarter of men. The main reasons why many women
are engaging in nonprofessional work with low wages are that 1) the educational level which women
obtained is low and 2) there is a prejudice for women's engaging in certain types of vocation. The
types of occupations where employers tend to be partial to using women are those which require a
delicate touch but paying low wages such as sewing, spinning of yarn, weaving, dressmaking, nursing,
packing, tea picking, etc.

Social prejudices toward certain occupations is reflected in the vocational training programs being
implemented by the government and courses where the number of female trainees exceeds that of
male trainees are fashion and accessories, basket making, weaving, sewing, etc. It is important to
increase women's participation in training programs in other fields in order to widen their
occupational selection.

[Informal Sector]
The proportion of women who work less than 6 months out of a year exceeds that of men showing
that there are many women who work in positions other than as regular employees. Of course this
means the women do not keep on work the whole year but that they are treated as temporary
employees with low wages. Two thirds of the women who are not considered to be officially doing
any economic activity, are home workers. On the other hand, two thirds of the men who are not
deemed officially doing any economic activity are students and home workers are only 12%. This
also indicates the situation is such where men have good access to education and women are tied to
the home.

Typical industrial fields in the informal sector are carpet manufacturing, weaving, manufacturing of
agriculture related products and many women are working in these fields. However, it has been
pointed out that wages are low, for example 300~1,500 rupees for 3~15 days' work in carpet weaving,
and there are big problems in regard to labor health care.

Table1 Employment Ratio by Gender / Sector / Region (%)

Urban Rural Total
Female Male Total Female Male Total Female Male Total
Agriculture 38.2 19.6 24.1 92.8 80.4 85.5 90.5 74.9 81.2
Mining Industry - 0.3 0.2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Manufacturing 10.6 8.7 9.1 0.7 2.1 1.5 1.2 2.6 2.0
Electronic, Gas, 0.8 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.0 0.3 0.2
Water 0.8 2.6 2.1 0.1 0.6 0.4 0.1 0.7 0.5
Construction 14.6 20.9 19.4 1.5 2.8 2.3 2.0 4.5 3.5
Commerce 0.8 4.8 3.9 0.0 0.8 0.5 0.1 1.1 0.7
Transportation 1.6 2.3 2.1 0.0 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.4 0.3
Finance 30 35.7 34.6 4.3 11.4 8.4 5.3 13.6 10.3
Service 2.4 4.1 3.7 0.5 1.6 1.2 0.7 1.8 1.4
Others
Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
(Source: Central Bureau of Statistics, Population Census, 1991(ESCAP))

17
 . WID/Gender Projects by Other Donor
TITLE Implementing Agency Donor Duration Budget Content
'000 US$
General
General network and DidiBahini 1997-1998 Provide institutional
training gender support for integrating
advocacy gender perspective.
Rural Infra structure Asian Development 1996 Improve women’s
Development project Bank(ADB) participation in the
development activities.
Social,Equity in Swiss Development Cater to women’s both
project and program Bank(SDC) practical and physical
benefits needs.
Gender Netherlands 1996-1999 Gender strategy to focus
strategy,policy and Development on specific target groups.
action plan Corporation
(SNV)
Advisory group of United mission to Increase gender focus in
Gender experts. Nepal(UMN) its program.
Poverty alleviation German Technical Ministry of 1997-2012 Motivate, mobilize and
through self-help Corporation Local undertake self-help
promotion (GTZ) Development activities to government
groups.
Micro-Environmental Center for Motivate and enable the
action project Environmental and community women to
Agricultural policy undertake solid waste
and Research management.
Extension and
Development
(CEAPRED)
Water supply and Nepal for Water and Water Aid 1999 Deliver services to men
sanitation(WSS) Health (NEWAH) and women in
communities.

18
Greenery promotion His Majesty’s His Majesty’s 1998-1999 Long term goal to
co-operation project Government, His Government, improve the natural
Majesty’s Japan Overseas environment and land
Government, Cooperation productivity.
Volunteers
Education
Secondary education DFID/UK Girls enrollment and
project funding of Off-School
classes for drop out girls.
Mobile training 1992-1997 Create self-employment
opportunities for
employed and
unemployed youth at the
local level.
Poverty alleviation Educate the importance of
vitamin A and increase the
consumption of the
vitamin A rich vegetables
Gender awareness Water-Aid Aug- Ensure about the
training Sep1999 awareness of the
importance of the gender
issue.
Community, MANUSHI WFP 1998-2000 Government strategy for
motivation training primary school teacher,
program country leaders and
parents for improving
school for the far west.
Urban hygiene and German Technical Ministry of Raise awareness and skill
environmental Cooperation Health in the environment.
education program (GTZ)
Training packages DidiBahini Assist women learn to
make their choices.
Unsafe abortion Family Planning IPPF 1995-2000 Active counseling on
Association of Nepal family planning to avoid
unwanted pregnancy.
Basic and primary Ministry of World Bank/ Provision for scholarships
education Education(MOE) DANIDA/ to girls.
Non-formal Ministry of UNFPA 1998-2001 Promote gender equality,
population and Education equity and empowerment
family life education of women within the
program context of population and
sustainable development.
Agriculture/Forestry

19
Third live stock Asian Development 1996 Involves specific
development project Bank women’s group and joint
membership in farmers
group.
Churai forest GTZ Ministry of 1999-2001 Supports both men and
development project forest and soil women to sustainable
conservation manage community lease
hold and religious forests.
Urban development GTZ Ministry of 1998-2001 Strengthen in the field of
forest Local Urban management.
Development
Community Japan International Ministry of 1998-1999 Improve the natural
development and Cooperation forests and soil environment in the hills of
forest/watershed Agency(JICA) conservation, Nepal through
conservation project Japan Overseas establishing sustainable
Cooperation development and
Volunteers conservation of
community resources.
Annapurna King Mahendra Trust His Majesty’s On-Going Women should be equally
Conservation Area for Nature and Government involved in the
Project Conservation King Mahendra conservation efforts.
Trust for Nature
and
Conservation
Economic
Women awareness HELVETAS 1991 Raise the income and
center social status of the
women.
Strategic Gender Nepal For Water and 2000 Opportunity for
needs Health(NEWAH) technical and paid
project jobs.
Micro-Credit project Asian Development 1994-2000 7.9million Direct primarily to
for women. Bank(ADB) provide credit to
women.
Income generating CEAPRED DANIDA 1999-2001 Involve to generate
project for women additional income.
farmers
Micro-Credit project Ministry for local Asian Technical assistance
for women Development Development and business constancy
Bank(ADB) for women
entrepreneurs.
Manaslu Eco-tourism King Mahendra Trust His Majesty’s 1997-1998 Maximize the benefits
project for Nature and Government, to the local community
Conservation King Mahendra for economic
Trust for Nature development and
and awareness raising for
Conservation conservation.
Health/Medicine
Gender Perspective Nepal Water and 2000 Participate in health
Health education and
Sanitation.
Strengthening the World Health Women’s play
health system and Organization primary role in the
development of (WHO) family health care.
human resource for
primary health care
Safe motherhood DFID/Ministry of Asian 1998-2001 Strengthen health and
project Health Development reduce MMR.

20
 Bank/World
bank
Primary health care GTZ Ministry of 1998-2001 Improvement of primary
Project Health health care services.
Reproductive health GTZ Ministry of 1998-2001 Enable men, women and
project Health/World adolescent to practice
Health preventives basic and
Organization/F curative reproductive
amily Planning health care.
and
Association of
Nepal/Nepal
Red Cross
Society/DFID
Community health CEAPRED Canadian 1998-2000 Modifying/Improving
initiatives project Center for the health and sanitation
International related habits and
studies and co- enhancing their
operatives preventive behaviour.
Sexual and Family planning and International 2000
Reproductive health Association of Nepal Planned
Parenthood
Federation
(IPPF)
Strengthening Ministry of Health United Nation 1997-2000 Technical support for
reproductive health Population health system
service Fund management and
(UNFPA) improvement in quality.
Legal Aid
Helvetas 1991 Raise the income and
Women Awareness social status of the
Center women.
The women’s right Legal Aid and Encourage and prepare
helpline Consultancy women to play a leading
Center(LACC) role in social and
economic development
Women’s United State Agency Ministry of 1997 10.00 Women’s group
Empowerment for International Social focusing on economic
Project Development Welfare/Asia activities, covers
(USAID) Foundation, literacy,rights and
Other US based advocacy.
NGO’s
Free legal service to Convention on 1997-1998 protect and promotion of
poor and destitute Elimination of women rights
women all forms of
Discrimination
Against
Women
(CEDAW)

21
5. WID/Gender Information Sources
5-1 List of International Organizations and NGOs related to WID/Gender

Contracted Consultants
Name Position Address
Ms. Milu Shakya Gender Co-Ordinater/Public Relation Officer-GTZ
Ms. Michelle Moffatt Gender and Poverty Consultant-Water Aid
Ms. Jeannette D.Gurung Forestery/Gender development Specialist-ICIMOD
Ms. Meena Joshi Sr.Program Officer of Mountain Development-
KMTNC
Mr. Pralhad Kumar Dhakal Research and Development Officer-Safe The Children
Fund
Ms. Julie Shrestha Human Resource and Development Managenemt-
Action Aid
Dr. Trilokya N.Shrestha Director-CEAPRED
Mr. Aroop Rajouria Director of Programs-KMTNC
Ms. Bina Thapa Project Co-Ordinator-FPAN
Ms. Kamala Thapa Executive Director-Sunaulo Parivar Nepal
Mr. Adhir Sharma Sr.Program Officer-HELVETAS
Mr. Kiran Man Singh Program Manager-REDP
Ms. Saloni Singh President-Didi Bahini
Ms. Jaya Shakya Gender Co-ordinator – CCO
Mr. Devendra Raj Sharma Legal advisor-Manushi
Ms. Anjana Sakya Coordinator-Beijing + 5 Committee
Ms. Sapna Malla Forum of Women
Dr. Shanta Thapaliya President – LACC
Ms. Sudha Pant Program Officer – UNFPA
Ms. Bharati Silwal Gender Officer – UNDP
Ms. Samjhana Thapa NGO Specialist World Bank

22
Interviewed Organization
Name of the Contact person Results Reports/Writers Contact Address
Organization (Speciality) (project content (Published year)
year, related
organizations)
Multi-Lateral United Nation Ms. Bharati 1997 Gender UNDP,
Development Silwal Reference Guide P.O. Box: 107
Program Kathmandu
Multi-Lateral The World Bank Ms. Samjhana 1999 Enhancing The World Bank
Thapa women P.O. Box: 798
participation in Durbarmarg,
economic Kathmandu
development
Bi-Lateral USAID Ms. Anita Mamet 1998 Breaking new USAID,
ground (A case Ravi Bhawan
study of women P.O.Box: 5653
empowerment) Kathmandu
Bi-Lateral Canadian Mr. Prabin 1997 Gender Equality CCO,
Cooperation Manandhar of Women P.O.Box: 4574
Empowerment Lazimpat,
(National Kathmandu
Workshop)
NGO FPAN Mr. Hari Khanal Bi-Monthly Family Planning FPAN
Association of P.O. Box: 486
Nepal, Pulchowk,
Newsletter Kathmandu
NGO Manushi Ms. Prabha Bi-Monthly WODEN Manushi,
Thacker Newsletter P.O. Box: 2682
Kathmandu
Govt. Ministry of 1997 Women HMG
Women and Development
Social Welfare Progress Report
Multi-Lateral Rural Energy Mr. Kiran Man Bi-Monthly URJA UNDP/REDP,
Development Singh P.O. Box: 107
Project Pulchowk,
Lalitpur
German Ms. Nilu Maskey 1999 GTZ in Nepal GTZ,
Technical Neer Bhawan,
Cooperation P.O. Box: 1457
Sanepa, Lalitpur
Action-Aid Ms. Julie 1997 Strategy paper Action-Aid,
Shrestha P.O. Box: 6257
Kathmandu

23
5-2 List of Reports and References related to WID/Gender

Title Writer Year Where Available

Published
General
Gender Equality and Empowerment of Acharya, Meena 1997 UNFPA,
women Kathmandu
'Gender' Destruction of Women Pauline O'Dea UNICEF
'Gender' equality of Women 1997 HMG/Canadian
Empowerment (National Workshop) Corporation Office
Beyond Beijing mid-decade meet in Presenter-Anjana Shakya 1999 INHURED
South Asia
Shadow Report on the Initial Report of UNICEF country office 1999 Forum of Women and Law
the Government of Nepal on the Development
convention on the elimination of all
forms of discrimination Against Women
(CEDAW)
Gender strategy World Bank 1999 World Bank

South Asia Regional Gender Action Plan World Bank 1997 World Bank
Country Assistance Strategy The World Bank 1999 World Bank

Proposed Gender Strategy Dr. Meena Acharya 1998 Asian Development Bank
The National Action Plan on Area of Ministry of Women and Social Welfare 1997 Ministry of Women and
Women and Health social Welfare
The United Nations Convention on the His Majesty's Government of Nepal 1997 UNICEF
Elimination of all forms of Women Development Division Ministry
Discrimination Against Women of Labour and Social Welfare
Agriculture/Forestry
Gender Issues in Irrigation 1996 German Technical
Cooperation
Acknowledging the role of gender in the 1996-ongoing German Technical
Agriculture Research Extension Cooperation
Women in Development and Plant German Technical
Production Cooperation
Economic Activities
Enhancing Women's Participation in 1996 The World Bank
Economic Development
World Bank Gender Strategy Program 1999 The World Bank
Proposed Gender Strategy for Asian Meena Acharya 1998 Asian Development Bank
Development Bank
Economic Policies for Sustainable M. Baskota 1990 ICIMOD

24
Development
Social/Gender/Analysis
Women Entrepreneurs awareness 1997 IEDI, FNCCI
workshop
AN Analysis of the Key Issue on NPC 1998 National Planning
Gender, Women Employment Initiatives Commission
and Challenges that Lie Ahead
Integration of Women in Basic Needs CEDA
Activities and Co-operation
Development of Nepal
Women's Development Program 1997 Ministry of Women and
Social Welfare
Nepalese Women Towards a Sustainable
and

25
6. References

1) Acharya M. The Statistical Profile of Nepalese Women: An Update in the Policy Context, Kathmandu,
IIDS, 1994
2) Acharya M. The Status of Women in Nepal 1981
3) Bennett, Lynn Tradition and Change in the Legal Status of Nepalese women in status of women in Nepal
vol. 1974
4) Beyond Beijing Mid-Decade Meet in South Asia, Country Report, Kathmandu, Beyond Beijing Committee,
Aug., 1999
5) Beyond Beijing Mid-Decade Meet in South Asia, Sub-Regional Report, Kathmandu, August 11 – 14, 1999
6) Human Development in South Asia 1999, (The Crisis of Governance), The Muhbub ul Haq Human
Development Centre, 1999
7) Human Development report 1999, New York UNDP, 1999
8) New Era, A situation Analysis of Sex Work and Trafficking in Nepal with Respect to Children 1997.
9) NPC/HMG Statistical Profile of Women and Children in Nepal Ktm. 1997
10) National Planning Commission, The Approach Paper to Ninth Plan (Nepali), Kathmandu, 1997
11) Rana, M. et. al. Role of Women in Nepal's Industrial Development: Status, Constraints, Opportunities and
Prospects; Volume: 1 & 2 1987.
12) World Bank, Aide Memoir Implementation Completion Mission, Kathmandu, June 1999
13) Nepal Rastra Bank, Income and Employment Generation from tourism in Nepal, Kathmandu 1989.
14) World Bank, Country Assuistance strategy, Kathmandu, 1999-2001
15) World Bank Nepal: Relieving Poverty in a Resource Scarce Economy. World Bank 1990
16) The United Nation convention on the Elimination of all forms discrimination against women.

26
Reports Referred in Report

17) Acharya, M., et. al. Proposed Gender Strategy for Asian Development Bank in Nepal Asian Development
Bank April 20, 1998
18) Baskota, M. et. al. Economic Policies for Sustainable Development in Nepal, Kathmandu ICIMOD May
1990
19) Bhattarai, M. Integration of Gender Perspective in the Ninth Plan, Kathmandu, Ministry of Women and
Social Welfare January 1996
20) Beijing Plus five, Country Report, His Majesty's Government of Nepal Ministry of Women and Social
Welfare Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, October 1999.
21) CBS Demographic Sample Survey, Kathmandu, Central Bureau of Statistics, 1986/87
22) CBS Population Monograph of Nepal, Kathmandu, Central Bureau of Statistics, 1995
23) CBS/NPC/HMG, Nepal Living Standards Survey (Main Findings, Volume 1 & 2), Kathmandu, 1996
24) HMG/N; UNDP/UNIFEM/UNICEF/WFP/World Bank.
25) Ministry of Health/HMG, Second Long Term Health Plan (Volume 9), Kathmandu, MOA, 1997
26) National Planning Commission Secretariat. The Gender Challenge: Equal Opportunities for Women - An
Analysis of the Key Issues on Gender, Women Employment Initiatives, and the Challenges that Lie ahead
Kathmandu Nepal NPC, December 1998
27) Nepal Family Planning/Maternal and Child Health Project Nepal Fertility and Family Planning Survey
Report, Kathmandu, FPMCH 1987.
28) Primary School Feeding Program, Mission Appraisal Report, Kathmandu, WFP, 1997
29) Planning & Consultation Workshop on Convention on the Elimination of the forms of Discrimination
Against Women (CEDAW), Kathmandu, Jointly Org. by: HMG\Nepal &
UNDP/UNIFEM/UNICEF/WFP/World Bank. Nov., 1999
30) UNDP\HMG Planning and Consultation Workshop on CEDAW Nov 23 – 24, 1999. Kathmandu
31) RDF/NEPAL, State of Women And Child Rights in Nepal (Human Rights Perspectives), Kathmandu,
Rural Development Foundation Nepal (RDF/Nepal) May 1999
32) Shadow Report on the Initial Report of the Government of Nepal on the Convention on Elimination of All
Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) Kathmandu, FWLD June 1999.
33) Stenson, B. et. al. Performance Assessment of IPPF: Policy and Effectiveness at Country and Regional
Level, An Assessment of the Family Planning Association of Nepal, OPTIONS Consultancy Services
Limited 1998
34) Shadow Report on Initial Report of Government of Nepal on CEDAW, Briefing of Initial Report and
Concluding Comments, Kathmandu, Forum for Women, Law and Development 1999

27
35) Singh, S. L., (Ph.D.-Eco) et. al., The Informal Sector in Nepal, Kathmandu, A report prepared for USAID
December 1990.
36) Thacker, P. Country Report: Nepal Study of NGOs in Nepal, Kathmandu, A report prepared for USAID
December 1990.
37) Thacker, P. Technology: Women's Work and Status (The Case of Carpet Industry in Nepal), Mountain
Population and Employment, Discussion Paper Series, Kathmandu ICIMOD 1993.
38) MWSIA The United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against
Women, HMG/ Nepal Women Development Division Ministry of Labor and Social Welfare & UNICEF
Nepal
39) UNIFEM South Asia in the 1990's: Gender Perspectives A Regional Overview, Commemorating Beijing
South Asia Regional Meeting, Kathmandu, UNIFEM, 9-10 September 1998

28