MS303-Hydrology and Water Resources

Management

SUBMITTED TO: Dr. Muhammad Usman Rashid

SUBMITTED BY: Muhammad Fahad Israr

ID: F2018132032

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT AND
TECHNOLOGY LAHORE
Question No. 01: Explain in detail “Monsoon and western disturbances” as
cause of rainfall in Pakistan.
Monsoon in Pakistan:
Monsoon season in the country generally lasts between June and August and is a critical
component of Pakistan’s climate, its economy and agriculture. Monsoon rains are also
responsible for some of the largest floods in the country’s history. The primary reason for the
rainfall during the summers is because of temperature differences between land and the ocean.
Rising temperatures in South Asia from April onwards heat up the land areas while the ocean
remains relatively cooler, resulting in the creation of a low-pressure zone over South Asia. The
low-pressure zone then causes the moist air above the ocean to move on to land and results in
rainfall.

Western disturbance:
A western disturbance is an extra-tropical storm starting in the Mediterranean locale that brings
abrupt winter downpour. It is a non-monsoonal precipitation design driven by the westerlies.
The dampness in these tempests generally starts over the Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian Sea
and the Black Sea. Extra-tropical storms are worldwide with dampness normally conveyed in
the upper air, dissimilar to their tropical partners where the dampness is conveyed in the lower
air.

Monsoon and western disturbances as cause of rainfall:

Western Disturbances mostly occur during the winter months and cause light to moderate
showers in southern parts of the country while moderate to heavy showers with heavy snowfall
in the northern parts of the country. These westerly waves are robbed of most of the moisture by
the time they reach Pakistan. The strongest western disturbances usually occur in the northern
parts of Pakistan, where flooding is reported number of times during the winter season. Western
disturbances start declining in numbers after winter. Western disturbances are usually associated
with cloudy sky, higher night temperatures and unusual rain. Excessive precipitation due to
western disturbances can cause crop damage, landslides, floods and avalanches. They
occasionally bring cold wave conditions and dense fog. These conditions remain stable until
disturbed by another western disturbance. When western disturbances move across before the
onset of monsoon, a temporary advancement of monsoon current appears over the region. In
April and May, soaring heat absorbed by southern Pakistan (Sindh and south Baluchistan)
increases day temperatures to the plus 40s, and in June, normal maximum temperatures and
extreme maximum temperatures are also reached. CDPC Karachi, Pakistan Meteorological
Department. In both summer and winter, the unusual geological characteristic of the Asian
continental landmass causes intense thermal contrast between land in the north and ocean in the
south, which is a critical element in the most pronounced circulation in this region of the world.
Length of monsoon rainy season in Pakistan is quite limited in comparison with other countries
under the influence of the same monsoon system because Pakistan is situated at the western end
of south-west monsoon area. The location of Pakistan in the Indian summer monsoon region, and
depicts the active rainfall period over Pakistan represented by isohyets. The active period of
summer monsoon for Pakistan is one and a half month as compared to four months in India.

Question No. 02: Explain the term weather station and give a brief overview
of all types of meteorological instruments used for weather forecasting.

Weather station:
A weather station is an office, either ashore or ocean, with instruments and hardware for
estimating environmental conditions to give data to climate gauges and to consider the climate
and environment. The estimations taken incorporate temperature, air pressure, dampness, wind
speed, wind course, and precipitation sums. Manual observations are taken at least once daily,
while automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at sea are
taken by ships and buoys, which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea
surface temperature (SST), wave height, and wave period.
Instruments used for weather forecasting:
1. Thermometer:
A thermometer measures the air temperature. Most thermometers are closed glass tubes
containing liquids such as alcohol or mercury. When air around the tube heats the liquid, the
liquid expands and moves up the tube. A scale then shows what the actual temperature is.

2. Barometer:
A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure, also called
barometric pressure. A barometer measures atmospheric pressure in units of measurement called
atmospheres or bars. An atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measurement equal to the average air
pressure at sea level at a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit). It has
following types:

 Mercury Barometer

 Aneroid Barometer

3. Hygrometer:
Hygrometer, instrument used in meteorological science to measure the humidity, or amount of
water vapors in the air. Hygrometer works on the phenomenon called evaporative cooling. When
water evaporates from any surface, it becomes cool because water molecules take heat energy
from the surface during the evaporation. Due to this cooling effect wet bulb always shows low
temperature than the dry bulb. Several major types of hygrometers are used to measure humidity.
These include:

 Electrical Hygrometers.

 Dew Point Hygrometers.

4. Anemometer:
An anemometer is an instrument that measures wind speed and wind pressure. Anemometers are
important tools for meteorologists, who study weather patterns. The most common type of
anemometer has three or four cups attached to horizontal arms. The arms are attached to
a vertical rod. As the wind blows, the cups rotate, making the rod spin. The stronger the wind
blows, the faster the rod spins. The anemometer counts the number of rotations, or turns, which
is used to calculate wind speed. Because wind speeds are not consistent, there are gusts and lulls
wind speed is usually averaged over a short period of time.

5. Rain Gauge:
A rain gauge is a meteorological instrument to measure the precipitating rain in a given amount
of time per unit area. The instrument consists of a collection container which is placed in an open
area. The precipitation is measured in terms of the height of the precipitated water accumulated
in the container per given time and is expressed in millimeters. Since the same amount of rain
precipitation is assumed to be occurring around the container, the area of collection is not a
factor. However, it should not be too small, neither should it be too large. Due to spatial
uniformity of rainfall, 1 mm of measured precipitation is the equivalent of 1 L of precipitated
rain water volume per meter squared. It has following types:

 Standard rain gauge

 Tipping bucket rain gauge

 Weighing rain gauge

6. Wind sock:
A wind sock is a conical textile tube, which resembles a giant sock, designed to indicate wind
direction and relative wind speed. Wind direction is at the direction in which the windsock is
pointing (note that wind directions are conventionally specified as being the compass point from
which the wind originates; so a windsock pointing due north indicates a southerly wind). Wind
speed is indicated by the windsock's angle relative to the mounting pole; in low winds, the
windsock droops; in high winds it flies horizontally.

7. Wind vane:
A wind vane is an instrument that determines the direction from which the wind is
blowing.  When mounted on an elevated shaft or spire, the vane rotates under the influence of
the wind such that its center of pressure rotates to leeward and the vane points into
the wind. The wind vane then points into the wind direction. For example, in a north wind,
the wind vane points northward.