MS303-Hydrology and Water Resources

Management

SUBMITTED TO: Dr. Muhammad Usman Rashid

SUBMITTED BY: Muhammad Fahad Israr

ID: F2018132032

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

UNIVERSITY OF MANAGEMENT AND TECHNOLOGY
LAHORE
Question No. 01: Explain in detail “Monsoon and western disturbances” as
cause of rainfall in Pakistan.
Monsoon in Pakistan:
Monsoon season in the country generally lasts between June and August and is a critical
component of Pakistan’s climate, its economy and agriculture. Monsoon rains are also
responsible for some of the largest floods in the country’s history. The primary reason for the
rainfall during the summers is because of temperature differences between land and the ocean.
Rising temperatures in South Asia from April onwards heat up the land areas while the ocean
remains relatively cooler, resulting in the creation of a low-pressure zone over South Asia. The
low-pressure zone then causes the moist air above the ocean to move on to land and results in
rainfall.

Western disturbance:
A western disturbance is an extra-tropical storm starting in the Mediterranean locale that brings
abrupt winter downpour. It is a non-monsoonal precipitation design driven by the westerlies. The
dampness in these tempests generally starts over the Mediterranean Sea, the Caspian Sea and the
Black Sea. Extra-tropical storms are worldwide with dampness normally conveyed in the upper
air, dissimilar to their tropical partners where the dampness is conveyed in the lower air.

Monsoon and western disturbances as cause of rainfall:

Western Disturbances mostly occur during the winter months and cause light to moderate showers
in southern parts of the country while moderate to heavy showers with heavy snowfall in the
northern parts of the country. These westerly waves are robbed of most of the moisture by the time
they reach Pakistan. The strongest western disturbances usually occur in the northern parts of
Pakistan, where flooding is reported number of times during the winter season. Western
disturbances start declining in numbers after winter. Western disturbances are usually associated
with cloudy sky, higher night temperatures and unusual rain. Excessive precipitation due to
western disturbances can cause crop damage, landslides, floods and avalanches. They occasionally
bring cold wave conditions and dense fog. These conditions remain stable until disturbed by
another western disturbance. When western disturbances move across before the onset of
monsoon, a temporary advancement of monsoon current appears over the region. In April and
May, soaring heat absorbed by southern Pakistan (Sindh and south Baluchistan) increases day
temperatures to the plus 40s, and in June, normal maximum temperatures and extreme maximum
temperatures are also reached. CDPC Karachi, Pakistan Meteorological Department. In both
summer and winter, the unusual geological characteristic of the Asian continental landmass causes
intense thermal contrast between land in the north and ocean in the south, which is a critical
element in the most pronounced circulation in this region of the world. Length of monsoon rainy
season in Pakistan is quite limited in comparison with other countries under the influence of the
same monsoon system because Pakistan is situated at the western end of south-west monsoon area.
The location of Pakistan in the Indian summer monsoon region, and depicts the active rainfall
period over Pakistan represented by isohyets. The active period of summer monsoon for Pakistan
is one and a half month as compared to four months in India.

Question No. 02: Explain the term weather station and give a brief overview of
all types of meteorological instruments used for weather forecasting.

Weather station:
A weather station is an office, either ashore or ocean, with instruments and hardware for estimating
environmental conditions to give data to climate gauges and to consider the climate and
environment. The estimations taken incorporate temperature, air pressure, dampness, wind speed,
wind course, and precipitation sums. Manual observations are taken at least once daily, while
automated measurements are taken at least once an hour. Weather conditions out at sea are taken
by ships and buoys, which measure slightly different meteorological quantities such as sea surface
temperature (SST), wave height, and wave period.

Instruments used for weather forecasting:

1. Thermometer:
A thermometer measures the air temperature. Most thermometers are closed glass tubes containing
liquids such as alcohol or mercury. When air around the tube heats the liquid, the liquid expands
and moves up the tube. A scale then shows what the actual temperature is.

2. Barometer:
A barometer is a scientific instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure, also called
barometric pressure. A barometer measures atmospheric pressure in units of measurement called
atmospheres or bars. An atmosphere (atm) is a unit of measurement equal to the average air
pressure at sea level at a temperature of 15 degrees Celsius (59 degrees Fahrenheit). It has
following types:
  Mercury Barometer

 Aneroid Barometer

3. Hygrometer:
Hygrometer, instrument used in meteorological science to measure the humidity, or amount of
water vapors in the air. Hygrometer works on the phenomenon called evaporative cooling. When
water evaporates from any surface, it becomes cool because water molecules take heat energy from
the surface during the evaporation. Due to this cooling effect wet bulb always shows low
temperature than the dry bulb. Several major types of hygrometers are used to measure humidity.
These include:

 Electrical Hygrometers.

 Dew Point Hygrometers.

4. Anemometer:
An anemometer is an instrument that measures wind speed and wind pressure. Anemometers are
important tools for meteorologists, who study weather patterns. The most common type of
anemometer has three or four cups attached to horizontal arms. The arms are attached to
a vertical rod. As the wind blows, the cups rotate, making the rod spin. The stronger the wind
blows, the faster the rod spins. The anemometer counts the number of rotations, or turns, which is
used to calculate wind speed. Because wind speeds are not consistent, there are gusts and lulls
wind speed is usually averaged over a short period of time.

5. Rain Gauge:
A rain gauge is a meteorological instrument to measure the precipitating rain in a given amount of
time per unit area. The instrument consists of a collection container which is placed in an open
area. The precipitation is measured in terms of the height of the precipitated water accumulated in
the container per given time and is expressed in millimeters. Since the same amount of rain
precipitation is assumed to be occurring around the container, the area of collection is not a factor.
However, it should not be too small, neither should it be too large. Due to spatial uniformity of
rainfall, 1 mm of measured precipitation is the equivalent of 1 L of precipitated rain water volume
per meter squared. It has following types:

 Standard rain gauge

 Tipping bucket rain gauge

 Weighing rain gauge

6. Wind sock:
A wind sock is a conical textile tube, which resembles a giant sock, designed to indicate wind
direction and relative wind speed. Wind direction is at the direction in which the windsock is
pointing (note that wind directions are conventionally specified as being the compass point from
which the wind originates; so a windsock pointing due north indicates a southerly wind). Wind
speed is indicated by the windsock's angle relative to the mounting pole; in low winds, the
windsock droops; in high winds it flies horizontally.

7. Wind vane:
A wind vane is an instrument that determines the direction from which the wind is blowing. When
mounted on an elevated shaft or spire, the vane rotates under the influence of the wind such that
its center of pressure rotates to leeward and the vane points into the wind. The wind vane
then points into the wind direction. For example, in a north wind, the wind vane points northward.