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PRESTON Sixth Form Physics U2
PRESTON Sixth Form Physics U2
*Ia,[eSimp
CapeUrtit 2
PrestonKissoon
DiplomaEducation,
BSc.(Physics),
DiplomaEngineering(UK
Engineering
Council)
A n y u n a u t h o r i z ecdo p y i n go f t h e
c o n t e n t so f t h i sb o o kw i l l b e i n
v i o l a t i o no f t h e I n t e l l e c t u aPl r o p e r t y
R i g h t sa c t o f T r i n i d a da n dT o b a g o
T o o r d e rc o p i e so f t h i s b o o k ,p l e a s e
c a l l 7 8 7 - 9 1 5 0o r e m a i l:
k p r e s 1 8@
2hotmail.com
Printed201,2
CONTENTS
TOPIC PAGE
E l e c t r o m o t i vfeo r c ea n d P o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
Resistivity
ElectriC
c ircuita
s n dC h a r a c t e r i s t i c s 12
Kirchoff'sLaws 18
Resistance 28
Electrostatics 44
Capacitors 61
M a g n e t i cF i e l d s 78
M a g n e t i cF o r c e s 86
Electromagnetism 93
HallEffect 97.
E l e c t r o m a g n e tIincd u c t i o n 99
Alternating
current 113
Semiconductors 121
O p e r a t i o n aAl m p l i f i e r s I29
D i g i t aE
l lectronics 159
Photoelectricity 185
X-Rays 197
L i n eS p e c t r a 204
AtomicStructure 209
Radioactivity 222
%of,ufe1
tr fectricityanf,%-agnetism
I M P O R T A NFTO R M U L A E
( B ) E L e c t r i .Pco t e n t t a ld u e t o a p o i n t c h a r g e , -
#
( 9 ) C a p a c i t a n c eC - ?
V
eA
( 1 0 ) F o r a p a r a l l e l p l a t e c a p a c t t o r , C-
z
( 1 1 )E n e r gsyt o r e d o r- r y
t na c a p a c i . tW -y -y
222C
(Iz)TlveeCapaci,tors
tn rrrrc, ! - : +: +:
\.r. cI c2 c3
-
(1,3)Threeapaci.torsi"nParallel C7 Cr * Cz* Cz
: -
( 1 4 ) W h e no c a p o c i t o r d i s c h a r g e s Q Q o e - ' l c n; V : Voe-'lcn;I : I o e - t l c n'
ELECTRICITY
A b a s i ce l e c t r i c asly s t e mh a sf o u r ( 4 )m a i np a r t s :
( 1 ) T h es o u r c ee ' g ' b a t t e r y w
- h i c hi s u s e dt o p r o v i d ee l e c t r i c aeln e r g y ;
t h i si s c a l l e da n
ACTIVE D E V I C,Ea si t s u p p l i e es n e r g y .
( 2 ) T h el o a d -e ' g .a r e s i s t o rl-t a b s o r b os r converte s l e c t r i c aeln e r g ya n d i s c a l l e da PASSIVE
DE V I C E .
( 3 ) T h et r a n s m i s s i osny s t e mw - h i c hi s a s e to f c o n n e c t i nign s u l a t e w
d i r e st h a t c o n n e c t tsh e
s o u r c e . t toh e l o a d .
(a) The controlsystem-eg. A switchto controlthe periodsfor whichthe active
device
s u p p l i etsh e p a s s i v d ee v i c e .
I l n t h e c a s eo f a n e l e c t r i cf i e l d ,t h e p . d .b e t w e e nt w o p o i n t si n t h e f i e l d
i s t h e w o r k d o n eo n u n i t
c h a r g ea s i t i s m o v e db y t h e f i e l df r o mo n e p o i n tt o t h e
other)
A n ya c t i v ed e v i c es u c ha sa b a t t e r y h, a si n t e r n arl e s i s t a n c e
t o t h e i n t e r n am l o v e m o not f c h a r g e .
w h e n t h e d e v i c ei s n o t c o n n e c t e tdo a c i r c u i t , , a ntdh u s
d o e sn o t h a v ea c u r r e n t t h r o u g iht , t h e
p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c b
e e t w e e ni t st e r m i n a l si s e q u a lt o i t s e m f .
H o w e v e rw, h e nt h a t d e v i c eh a sa
c u r r e n t h r o u g hi t , t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c b
e e t w e e ni t st e r m i n a l si s l e s st h a n i t s e m f .
T h i si s
becausp e a r to f t h e e m f i s d r o p p e da c r o s st h e i n t e r n a l
resistanca en, dt h e r e s ti s d r o p p e d
a c r o s st h e l o a do r e x t e r n arl e s i s t a n c e .
L e t t h ei n t e r n arl e s i s t a n cbee r a n dt h e e x t e r n arl e s i s t a n coer l o a db e R .l f t h e e m f o f t h e s o u r c e
i s E a n dt h e c u r r e n it n t h e c i r c u i its l , t h e n :
E=lr+lR
l o a da n di s t h e t e r m i n apl . d . a n d i s u s u a l l y
H e r e t, h e q u a n t i t yl R r e p r e s e n t s t hpe. d .a c r o s s t h e
represented by V. The quantity(lr), represents the voltageacrossthe internalresistance of the
battery.
H e n c ew e c a nw r i t e E = V + l r .
lf however,a currentis beingsuppliedto the battery, then V = E + lr. Thiscan occurwhen the
battery in questionis connectedto anotherone of a highere.m.f.
Electriccharge:
l f a c o n s t a nct u r r e n tI ( A )f l o w si n a c i r c u i ft o r a g i v e nt i m e t ( s )i n a c i r c u i tt,h e n t h e q u a n t i t yo f
c h a r g eQ t h a t w o u l dh a v e f l o w e d p a s ta n yp o i n ti n t h e c i r c u i ti,s g i v e nb y Q = I t .
T h eu n i t o f e l e c t r i c h a r g ei s t h e C o u l o m b( C ).
The Coulombis definedas the total chargethat would haveflowed pasta point in a circuit
after one secondif a constantcurrentof 1 Ampereflows throughthat point.
T h eC o u l o m bi s t h e r e f o r ed e f i n e da st h e A m p e r es e c o n d .
i.e.1C= l-As.
Letthe internalresistance be r and the externalresistanceor loadbe R. lf the emf of the source
i s E a n dt h e c u r r e n ti n t h e c i r c u i ti s l , t h e n :
E=lr+lR
l o a da n di s t h e t e r m i n apl . d . a n d i s u s u a l l y
H e r e t, h e q u a n t i t yl R r e p r e s e n t s t hpe. d .a c r o s s t h e
represented by V. Thequantity(lr), represents the voltageacrossthe internalresistance of the
battery.
Hencewe canwrite E = V + lr .
tf however,a currentis beingsuppliedto the battery, then V = E + lr. Thiscan occurwhen the
battery in questionis connectedto anotherone of a highere.m.f.
Electriccharge:
l f a c o n s t a nct u r r e n tI ( A )f l o w si n a c i r c u i ft o r a g i v e nt i m e t ( s )i n a c i r c u i tt,h e nt h e q u a n t i t yo f
c h a r g eQ t h a t w o u l dh a v ef l o w e dp a s ta n yp o i n ti n t h e c i r c u i ti,s g i v e nb y Q = I t .
T h eu n i t o f e l e c t r i c h a r g ei s t h e C o u l o m b( C ).
The Coulombis definedas the total chargethat would haveflowed pasta point in a circuit
after one secondif a constantcurrentof 1 Ampereflows throughthat point.
T h eC o u l o m bi s t h e r e f o r ed e f i n e da st h e A m p e r es e c o n d
i . e .1 C= 1 A s .
PotentialDifference:
T h ev o l t i s d e f i n e da sf o l l o w s :
energy converted W
P otenttal di"ff erence =
char g e a
R e c a lal n d u s et h e f o l l o w i n ge q u a t i o n s :
V : I R , P _ I V , P_ I Z RP
, -+, E _I(r+R)
RESISTIVITY:
RA
0-
T
The unitsof resistivity
are Om. Notethat the resistivity
is a propertyof the materialand is
t h e r e f o r ei n d e p e n d e notf t h e d i m e n s i o n sh,e n c ea 2 c m 3s a m p l eo f c o p p e rh a st h e s a m e
r e s i s t i v i toyf a 5 m 3 s a m p l e .
F r o mt h e e q u a t i o na b o v e t, h e R e s i s t i v i t y w o ubl de e q u a lt o t h e r e s i s t a n ci e
f the length'l'was
L m a n dt h e c r o s ss e c t i o n aal r e aw a s 1 m 2 '
Henceresistivity can be definedasfoilows:
s c o n d u c t oAr B i n t h e c i r c u ist h o w n :
C o n s i d ear p . d .b e i n ga p p l i e da c r o s a
A E+
A n e l e c t r i cf i e l di s E i s s e t u p a c r o s sA B i n t h e d i r e c t i o nf r o m A t o B .
E l e c t r ifci e l d sa r e a l w a y sd i r e c t e df r o m p o s i t i v et o n e g a t i v eT. h ee l e c t r i cf i e l di s a v e c t o r
quantity.
E l e c t r o nisn t h e c o n d u c t oar r et h e n a c c e l e r a t ei dn t h e d i r e c t i o n- E , ( e x p l a i w
n h y ), a n di n t h e i r
) u t t h e y c o n t i n u et o
m o t i o n ,t h e y c o n s t a n t lcyo l l i d ew i t h a t o m s( c a u s i nhge a td i s s i p a t i o n, b
movetowardsA with an avbrasevelocitv calledthe DRIFT VELOCITY.
: h y a r et h e y c o n s i d e r etdo h a v ea n a v e r a g ev e l o c i t y ?
Q u e s t i o nW
A n s w e r: T h e ya r e a c c e l e r a t ebdy t h e e l e c t r i cf i e l d, a n dt h e y c o l l i d ew i t h c o n d u c t oar t o m s ,
w h i c hc a u s e s o m ed e c e l e r a t i o nH.e n c et h e v e l o c i t yi s n o t c o n s t a nbt u t i n s t e a dc o n t i n u o u s l y
i n c r e a s easn d d e c r e a s e s .
Derivati"on of the equation I - nAve
C o n s i d ear s e c t i o no f a u n i f o r ml e n g t ho f c o p p e rw i r e o f c r o s ss e c t i o n aal r e aA , t h r o u g hw h i c ha
c u r r e n tI i s f l o w i n g .
<-- Electronflow
C u r r e n It
T h ev o l u m ep e r s e c o n do f e l e c t r o n p
s a s s i ntgh r o u g ht h e p l a n eA i s e q u a lt o A v .
Vol
_- Av
.s
T h e n u m b e ro f e l e c t r o n p
s e r s e c o n dw i l l b e t h e p r o d u c o
t f t h e n u m b e ro f
e l e c t r o np
s e r u n i tv o l u m ea n dt h e v o l u m ep e r s e c o n d .
H e n c et h e n u m b e ro f e l e c t r o n p
s e r s e c o n dw i l l b e g i v e nb y :
A/
t
T h ec u r r e n tI i s d e f i n e da st h e t o t a lc h a r g ef l o w i n gp e r s e c o n d .
_ T otal cltar g e a Ne
t- - nAve
time t f
L
sheet
TUTORIAL
a c r o s sa 1 . 2 Vs u p p l yw h i c hc a nd e l i v e r1 5 0 0 0 Ci n a o n e h o u r
( 1 ) A c o i lo f w i r e i s c o n n e c t e d
period.
C a l c lua t e
(i) T h ea v e r a g e b y t h e p o w e rs u p p l y .
c u r r e n td e l i v e r e d
(ii) T h et o t a l c h a r g et h a t w o u l dh a v ef l o w e dt h r o u g ht h e w i r e d u r i n gt h e f i r s t8
m i n u t e sa f t e rt h e s w i t c hi s c l o s e d
(iii) T h et i m e f o r w h i c ht h e s t e a d yc u r r e n tm u s tf l o w i n o r d e rf o r t h e t o t a l e l e c t r i c
c h a r g et o d r a w nf r o m t h e s u p p l yt o b e 2 2 5 C .
;5 4 s e c o n d s )
@ . I 7A ; 2 0 0 0 C
( 2 ) A d r y c e l lh a sa n e m f o f 1 , . 5 2 Vl t st e r m i n a p l . d .d r o p st o z e r ow h e n a c u r r e n to f 2 5 A
p a s s etsh r o u g hi t . W h a t i s i t i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n c e( ?r = 0 . 0 6 1 O )
( 3 ) A d i r e c tc u r r e n tg e n e r a t o rh a sa n e m f o f 1 2 0 V t; h a t i s ,i t st e r m i n avl o l t a g ei s 1 2 0 V
w h e n n o c u r r e n ti s f l o w i n gf r o m i t . A t a n o u t p u to f 2 0 At h e t e r m i n a pl . d .i s 1 1 5 V .( a )
W h a t i s t h e i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n creo f t h e g e n e r a t o r(?b )W h a tw i l l b e t h e t e r m i n a l
voltageat an outputof 40A?
(r=0.250V=110V)
( 4 ) N u m b e r1 0 A l u m i n i u m w i r e h a sa d i a m e t eor f 2 . 5 8 m mH . o wm a n ym e t r e so f
n u m b e r l 0a l u m i n i u mw i r e a r e n e e dt o g i v ea r e s i s t a n coef L O ,i f t h e r e s i s t i v i toyf
i s 2 . 8x 1 0 - B O m(. A N S t = ( 1 8 6 m )
aluminium
(b) A w i r e h a sa r e s i s t a n coef o f 5 0 a n d i s p a s s e dt h r o u g ha n e x t r u d e sr o a st o m a k ei t
. h a ti st h e n e w r e s i s t a n c e ?
i n t o a n e w w i r e t h r e et i m e sa s l o n ga st h e o r i g i n a lW
ANS(r =45O)
( H i n t :T h ev o l u m eo f t h e w i r e i s u n c h a n g e ds ,o t h a t t h e a r e aw i l l c h a n g ef;i n dt h e n e w
a r e ai n t e r m so f t h e o r i g i n aol n e )
10
(6) Threeresistors of 40O,60Q,and1200,areconnected in parallel
andthisparallel
groupisconnected in series
witha 15Oin series
witha 25O.Thewholesystemisthen
connected to.a120Vsource. (a)Thecurrentin the 25O,(b)the p.d.across
Determine
the parallelgroup,(c)the p,d.across
the 25O,(d)thecurrentin the 600, (e)the
currentin the40O.
(2A;4Ov;50V;0.67A;1A.)
(7) Two coilsof wire are madefrom l.0m of wire eachhavinga diameterof 0.05mm.
Oneof the coilsis madeusingcopperwire, while the other is madefrom
aluminiumwire.
Ifthe resistivityofcopperis 1.59x10-8Om and the resistivityof aluminiumis 2.7x
10-80rn,find the resistanceof eachcoil.(Ans:81O;138O)
( 8 ) A l e n g t ho f w i r e h a sa d i a m e t e o r f 0 . 4 5 m ma n da r e s i s t a n coef 4 0 0 0 . F i n dt h e
r e s i s t a n coef t h e s a m el e n g t ho f w i r e i f t h e d i a m e t e irs :
(i) Doubled
(ii) '
T r ip l e d.
(Ans1000; 44.40)
( 9 ) H i g ht e n s i o nc a b l e sh a v ea d i a m e t e o r f 2 c ma n d a 3 0 k ml e n g t hh a sa r e s i s t a n coef - 4 . O .
'
Determine:
(i) T h er e s i s t i v i toyf t h e m a t e r i aul s e di n m a k i n gt h e c a b l e s .
(ii) T h er e s i s t a n coef a n o t h e rc a b l eo f t h e s a m em a t e r i ahl a v i n ga d i a m e t e o
r f 1.5cm
a n d a l e n g t ho f 1 5 0 m .
( A n s4 . I x 1 0 - 8 O m0;. 0 3 6 0 )
(10) O n ep i e c eo f w i r e P h a sa l e n g t hI a n dd i a m e t e d r a n d r e s i s t a n cRe .W h a t i s t h e
r e s i s t a n ci en t e r m so f R f o r a n o t h e rp i e c eo f w i r e Q o f t h e s a m em a t e r i ahl a v i n ga
l e n g t h4 . 5 1a n dd i a m e t e2r . 4 d ( A n s0 . 7 8 R )
TT
ELECTRICAL
CIRCUITS
A g r a p ho f c u r r e n ta g a i n svt o l t a g ef o r a n yp a r t i c u l acro m p o n e n ti ,s n o r m a l l yc a l l e dt h e I - V
c h a r a c t e r i s tfiocr t h a t c o mp o n e n t .
( a ) M e t a l l i c o n d u c t o r s I-V characteristic
for a METALLIC
CONDUCTOR
at constant
( b ) S e m i c o n d u c tD o ri o d e temperature
( c ) F i l a m e nJta m p s .
p.d./v
T h eg r a p hi n d i c a t etsh a t t h e c u r r e n ti s a l w a y sd i r e c t l yp r o p o r t i o n at ol t h e a p p l i e dv o l t a g e
a n dt h a t w h e nt h e v o l t a g ei s r e v e r s e dt h
, e r ei s n o c h a n g ei n t h e b e h a v i oor f t h e m e t a l l i c
c o n d u c t oirn t e r m so f i t s c o n d u c t i o n
T h i st y p e o f c o n d u c t oirs a l s or e f e r r e dt o a sa n O H M I CC O N D U C T OsRi n, c ei t s g r a p h
i n d i c a t etsh a t i t o b e y sO h m ' sL a wa t a l lt i m e s ,P R O V I D ETD
H A TT H ET E M P E R A T Ul R
SE
C O N S T A N Tt .hI ef t e m p e r a t u r e i n c r e a s ehso w e v e rt,h e r e s i s t a n coef t h e c o n d u c t ow r ill
a l s oi n c r e a s ea,n dt h e g r a d i e not f t h e g r a p hw i l l d e c r e a s eT.h i sd e c r e a s ien g r a d i e n its
d u e t o t h e f a c tt h a t t h eg r a d i e n t - :\ / R- :
1.2
I - V characteristic for a FITAMENT LAMP.
p.d./v
T h i sg r a p hs h o w st h a t t h e c u r r e n ti s p r o p o r t i o n a l t toh e a p p l i e dv o l t a g eo n l yw h e nt h e r ei s a
r e l a t i v e lsym a l a
l p p l i e dv o l t a g eF. r o mt h e p o i n t ' a ' t ot h e p o i n t ' b ' ,t h e g r a p hi s l i n e a a
r n dt h e
' a '
f i l a m e n tl a m po b e y sO h m ' sl a w o n l yi n t h e r e g i o nf r o m t o ' b ' .
T h i si n c r e a s ien r e s i s t a n caet t h e h i g h e rc u r r e n t si s e x p l a i n e a
d sf o l l o w sA
: h i g h e rc u r r e n t
m e a n st h a t t h e r ea r e m o r ee l e c t r o nfsl o w i n gp e rs e c o n dw
, h i c hm e a n sm o r ee l e c t r o n cs o l l i d e
w i t h t h e l a t t i c es t r u c t u r eo f t h e t u n g s t e n .
T h en u m b e ro f c o l l i s i o npse r s e c o n di s a l s oa m e a s u r eo f t h e r e s i s t a n coef t h e m a t e r i a l .
A t e a c hc o l l i s i o nt h
, e r ei s a c o n v e r s i oonf s o m eo f t h e k i n e t i ce n e r g yo f t h e e l e c t r o ni n t o h e a t
e n e r g yh, e n c et h e t e m p e r a t u r e
rises.
13
DIODE
for a SEMICONDUCTOR
I-V characteristic
I/mA
T h ec o n d u c t i o cnu r r e n ti n t h e r e v e r s ed i r e c t i o ni s z e r oo r i t m a yb e s o s m a l tl h a t i t i s
c o n s i d e r etdo b e n e g l i g i b l e .
l n t h e f o r w a r dd i r e c t i o nt ,h e c o n d u c t i o cnu r r e n tr e m a i n sa t z e r ou n t i lt h e a p p l i e d
voltagereachesa particularvaluecalledthe SATURATION VOLTAGE whichis
a p p r o x i m a t e 0l y. 6 V .
t h e nt h e a p p l i e dv o l t a g er e a c h e as n d e x c e e dtsh e
T h ed i o d eo n l yb e g i n st o c o n d u c w
s a t u r a t i o vn o l t a g e .
e f t h e i n f i n i t e l yh i g h
T h ed i o d ed o e sn o t c o n d u c itn t h e r e v e r s ed i r e c t i o nb e c a u s o
r e s i s t a n ci en t h e r e v e r s ed i r e c t i o n .
I n t h e f o r w a r dd i r e c t i o nt h e r e s i s t a n ci es i n i t i a l l yi n f i n i t eb u t b r e a k sd o w nt o a v e r yl o w
v a l u ew h e nt h e a p p l i e dp o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c ies i n c r e a s eudn t i lt h e s a t u r a t i o vno l t a g ei s
a t t ai n e d .
t4
THERMISTORS
T h e r m i s t o rasr es p e c i asl o l i dt e m p e r a t u r es e n s o rw
s h o s er e s i s t a n cceh a n g e rsq p i d l ya n d
p r e d i c t a b lwy i t h t e m p e r a t u r eT. h e i rn a m ei s a c o n t r a c t i oonf " t h e r m a l "a n d " r e s i s t o r , , .
There
are basically
two broadtypes,NTC-Negative
Temperature
Coefficient,
usedmostlyin
temperaturesensingand PTC-Positive
Temperature
Coefficient,
usedmosttyin electriccurrent
control.
T h ec o n v e n t i o n as ly m b o fl o r a t h e r m i s t o irs :
/
+
J
A g r a p ho f R e s i s t a n cvee r s u sT e m p e r a t u ries c a l l e da n R - Tc h a r a c t e r i s t i c
R-Tcharacteristic for a
p . t . c .t h e r m i s t o r
R-Tcharacteristic for a
n . t . c t. h e r m i s t o r
15
THERMISTORS
T h e r m i s t o rasr es p e c i asl o l i dt e m p e r a t u r se e n s o r w
s h o s er e s i s t a n cceh a n g e rsq p i d l ya n d
p r e d i c t a b lwy i t h t e m p e r a t u r eT. h e i rn a m ei s a c o n t r a c t i oonf " t h e r m a l "a n d " r e s i s t o r , , .
There
are basically
two broadtypes,NTC-Negative
Temperature
Coefficient,
usedmostlyin
temperaturesensingand PTC-Positive
Temperature
Coefficient,
usedmostlyin electriccurrent
control
T h ec o n v e n t i o n as ly m b o fl o r a t h e r m i s t o irs :
/
+
-J
A g r a p ho f R e s i s t a n cvee r s u sT e m p e r a t u ries c a l l e da n R - Tc h a r a c t e r i s t i c
R-Tcharacteristic
for a
p.t.c.thermistor
R-Tcharacteristic for a
n . t . c t. h e r m i s t o r
15
Typesof NTCThermistors:
T h e m o s tc o m m o nf o r m o f t h e t h e r m i s t oirs a b e a dw i t h t w o w i r e sa t t a c h e dT. h eb e a d
d i a m e t ecr a nr a n g ef r o m a b o u t0 . 5 m m( 0 . 0 2 "t)o 5 m m ( 0 . 2 " ) .
Lii::;*t lfifii
Ti-r*l-f-rii::;[t:if ,r'y'i
!"h
t-ll;3.1"i,:":l-t
E il,:-:;::.f:.,:j
T h ep l o t i n t h e d i a g r a ms h o w st h e
impactof a 2200ohm resistorin
5 :l thernri,:tut'',tiiIrErlrri.llEl
parallelwith a 2252ohm (at 25'C)
rl ._._, !l[tt_lrt re:ri*tr]r
-:r t-
rl'
thermistor
'=
qr
+] =\=\_
1
ii
iL'
|I l'-
10 ill
fiJ
TernPer+tr.tre
1.6
(2) DiscThermistors:
A t h i c kf i l m e l e c t r o d em a t e r i a lt,y p i c a l l ys i l v e ri,s a p p l i e dt o t h e o p p o s i t es i d e so f t h e d i s ct o
p r o v i d et h e c o n t a c t fso r t h e a t t a c h m e not f l e a dw i r e s .A c o a t i n go f e p o x y p , h e n o l i co, r g l a s s
i s a p p l i e dt o e a c hd e v i c et o p r o v i d ep r o t e c t i o n
f r o m m e c h a n i c a ln de n v i r o n m e n t a l
s t r e s s eT s .y p i c aul n c o a t e d i s cs i z e sr a n g ef r o m 0 . 0 5i n .t o 0 . 1 0i n .( 1 . 3m m t o 2 . 5m m ) i n
d i a . ;c o a t e dd i s c t h e r m i s t ogr e
s n e r a l lm
y e a s u r 0e . 1 0i n .t o 0 . 1 5i n . ( 2 . 5m m t o 3 . 8m m ) i n
di a .
-\'
H- h= F ;*ri
.LJ*
(3) Rod-shapedthermistors:
R o d - s h a p et h
d e r m i s t o ras r e m a d eb y e x t r u d i n g
a viscouo
s x i d e - b i n d emr i x t u r et h r o u g ha d i e ,
h e a t - t r e a t i ni gt t o f o r m a c e r a m i cm a t e r i a la, p p l y i n g
e l e c t r o d e sa,n d a t t a c h i n gl e a d sR. od
t h e r m i s t o rasr e u s e dp r i m a r i l yf o r a p p l i c a t i o nr se q u i r i n vg e r yh i g hr e s i s t a n caen d / o rh i g hp o w e r
di s s i p a t i o n .
17
LAWS
KIRCHOFF'S
Kirchoff's FirstLaw :
T h i si s n o r m a l l yc a l l e dt h e j u n c t i o nr u l e ,a n d i t s t a t e st h a t t h e a l g e b r a iscu mo f t h e c u r r e n t sa t a
j u n c t i o ni s z e r o .T h i sm e a n st h a t t h e s u mo f t h e c u r r e n t se n t e r i n ga j u n c t i o n ,i s e q u a lt o t h e
thejunction.
s u mo f t h e c u r r e n t sl e a v i n g
Sincethe law refersto the algebraic sum of the currents,then the signs(positive or negative)of
t h e c u r r e n t sm u s tb e t a k e ni n t o c o n s i d e r a t i oC n .u r r e n t es n t e r i n gt h e j u n c t i o na r eg i v e na
p o s i t i v es i g n w t h e j u n c t i o na r eg i v e na n e g a t i v e
, h i l ec u r r e n t sl e a v i n g sign.
H e n c ei n t h e a b o v ej u n c t i o n, t h e f o l l o w i n ge q u a t i o nc a nb e a p p l i e d :
1 ,+ I s -I +- I s - l r = 0 o r 1 , + I s = I ++ I : + l r
18
Kirchoff'sSecondlaw
Kirchoff's
2nd Lawstates:
In any closedloop of a circuit,the algebraicsum of the emf's of the sourcesis equalto the
algebraicsum of the potentialdifferencesof the loads;ORthe algebraicsum of all the
voltagesin the loop is zero.
T h ea l g e b r a iscu mo f t h e e m f ' s i s ( E 1- E z ) .T h em i n u ss i g ni s u s e da s t h ec e l l so p p o s ee a c h
other.
o r ( E t - E r ) = I R r + 1 P 2+ I R a
T h es e c o n dl a w i n d i c a t etsh a t t h e t o t a le n e r g ys u p p l i e db y t h e s o u r c e si s e q u a lt o t h e t o t a l
energyconvertedby the loads.
I n m o s tq u e s t i o n sb,o t h l a w sm u s tb e a p p l i e ds i m u l t a n e o u st loy s o l v eu n k n o w nc u r r e n t s .
19
W o r k e de x a m p l e s
U n k n o w nc u r r e n t sa n d p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c ei sn a c i r c u i ct o n t a i n i n g t w o r m o r el o o p sc a nb e
s o l v e db y K i r c h o f f 'lsa w su s i n ga t e c h n i q u e
c a l l e dM E S HA N A L Y S I S .
( 1 ) F i n dt h e c u r r e n t h r o u g he a c hr e s i s t oirn t h e f o l l o w i n gc i r c u i t :
a
6V
s r E P( 1 ):
S T E P( 2 ) ,
S T E P[ 3 ) '
Solvefor Ir andIz.
20
OV
- 7 l t - 4 - 6= 0 > - 7 l r : 1 0 ; t ' : # . 4 H e n c et , :
T A (anti.clockwi.se)
For loop 2, startingfrom b to d to c and backto b and movingin the direction
of lr*"
get :
The minus sign for Ir indicatesthat the wrong directionwas assignedto it,
and hence
its correctdirectionshouldhavebeen anticlockwisein the loop.
2I
what happensif we reversethe assumedcurrentsIr and Iz:
Investigate
F o rl o o p( 1 ), i n g o i n g f r o ma t o b t o c a n db a c k t oa :
- 7 h + 6 + 4 = 0 ; H e n c e- 7 l r - - 1 0 D 1 r - | A
22
Considernow the casewherewe assumeIr to be clockwise,and lztobe anticlockwise
initiallv
F o r l o o p[ 1 J , w eg e t - 7 h - 4 - 6 - 0 ; H e n c e T l l _ - 1 0 , s o t h a t I t :
]e.
Rememberthat the minr, ,ign is used as we drop from a high potential to a low a potential.
Thismeansthat Ir :
I e(anti"clockwi.se)
-1")
F o rl o o p( 2 ) , w eg e t- 5 I z- 4 - B= 0 ; H e n c e- 5 / , - t 2 , s o t h a t I z :
;A
23
SHEET
TUTORIAL
(1)
I r =0 . 7 5 A ;
1,1,4
Iz =
rS
-T-
BV
||l
tl
(2)
I r =0 . 7 5 4; b : *A
9
lz:lz-2sA
12V
( 3 ) D e t e r m i n teh e c u r r e n ti n e a c hr e s i s t o r :
S o l u t i o no n p g 2 6
12V
24
(4)
2
,I E
_
O-g A(anttclockwise)
1,1,
/rso : (clockwi"se)
4SA
7
1so: (upwards)
1,SA
(s)
24
I:cr: clockwtse
BA
lrso : 1rca0.29Aclockwise
1so: 0'27A
(6)
Izsa
'10Q : 0.37 7A(anticlo ckwise)
lrso : lrocr
- 0.1 37Aanttclockwi.se
lscr: O.24Aupwards
25
f o r q u e s t i o n( 3 )
Solution
12V
F o r l o o p [ 1 J ' - 2 0 1 r- 1 0 l 1+ 1 0 1 2- 1 2 = 0 ; - 3 0 1 r+ 1 0 l z= 1 ' 2- t ( 1 )
F o r l o o p [ 2 ) - 2 5 1 2 ' + 6 - 1 , 0+1120 l r - 0 ; - 3 5 1 2+ 1 0 l r = - 6 - s ( 2 )
Solvingsimultaneouslygives:
R e w r i t i n g[ 1 ) : - 3 0 h + 1 0 1 2= L 2 t1)
26
lroo : Izoa: 0.21A anttclockwi"se
l r s o : / s o : 0 . 0 1 7 Ac l o c k w i s e
I z s a: 0 ' 2 2 7A
(8)
I +e : I oa : 0'77A anttclockwise
1 r s 0: 1 s o: 0 . 2 1 Ac l o c k w i s e
It aa : It+a : 0.0066Aclockwise
27
RESISTANCE
S E R I ECSO M B I N A T I O N :
R1
A current Ir leavesthe battery and enters into resistor R1.The current that leavesRL i s I r
and this is equal to Ir by Kirchoff s first law. [The current enteringa componentmust b e
equalto the current leavingit by the principle of conservationof charge)
Kirchoff'sF i r s t
Hencein the seriescircuit,all of the resistorshavethe SAMECURRENT.[By
Law)
By Kirchoff s secondLaw, the e.m.f.of the battery is equalto the algebraicsum of the
voltagesacrosseachof the resistors.
H e n c eE = V t + V z + V : a n d V r = I t R r = l r R r ; V z= l z R z= l r R z ; V : = I : R : = I r R :
By Ohm'slaw, E = IrRr where Ir and Rr representthe total current and total resistance
respectively.
IrRr = IrRr+lrRz+lrR:
28
PARALTELCOMBINATION:
T h ed i f f e r e n lto o p sa r e i d e n t i f i e d
w i t ht h e n u m b e r s
h a v i n ga n o v a ls h a p ea r o u n dt h e m .H e n c et h e r ea r e 3
loops.
C o n s i d et h
r e p o i n ta .
T h ec u r r e n te n t e r i n ga i s e q u a lt o I r a n d t h e t o t a l
currentleavinga is equalto
h + Iz+ I: .
Ir=lr+lz+l:
l f K i r c h o f f 'sse c o n dL a wi s n o w a p p l i e dt o L o o p1 , t h e nw e g e t E = I r R i
A p p l y i n gK i r c h o f f ss e c o n dl a w t o l o o p z , w e g e t 0 = I r R r - I z R z ;I r R r = I z R z= E
By Ohm'sLaw, ,VtE
It: -V:2_- E ,
-J : _V :E_ E
and T, ,R:T
E
&: ^'t'- R2 R2' R3 R3
Sincelr=lt+lz+
-E+E E- + - ' R 3
E
Rr R1 R2
And hence
1,1,1,I
'R3
Rr Rl R2
29
DLI V I D E R
T H EP O T E N T I A
A n dt h e v o l t a g eV r t h a t i s t a p p e do f f i s e q u a lt o :
ERt
Vt : IrRt:
Rr*R2+R3
s i m i l a r l yi ,n c i r c u i t( 2 )t h e v o l t a g eV zt h a t i s t a p p e do f f i s e q u a lt o :
. E [ R 1+ R 2 ]
Vz: It(Rt * Rr) :
R;- &
s u c ha sV r a n d
T i r . .s S o v ee x a m p l es h o w st h a t w h i l et h e s o u r c eh a sa v o l t a g eE ,s m a l l evr o l t a g e
V 2c d nb e o b t a i n e df r o m i t .
30
THEPOTENTIOMETER
A st h e s l i d i n gc o n t a c it s m o v e d a l o n gA B ,
t h e r e s i s t a n ci en c r e a s ef sr o m A t o B a n d
hencethe tappedoff voltageincreases
s i n c eV = l R ,w i t h t h e c u r r e n tI b e i n g
c o n s t a ntth r o u g h o utth e e n t i r el e n g t ho f
resistor.
D r i v e rc e l l
\.
T h ew h o l er e s i s t ocr a nb e c o n s i d e r eadsa n
i n f i n i t en u m b e ro f t i n y r e s i s t o rasl t
connectedin series,so that the current
t h r o u g ht h e m i s c o n s t a n t .
W h e na s l i d ew i r e i s u s e da s i n t h e a b o v ea p p l i c a t i o nt h, e p o t e n t i adl i v i d e ri s r e f e r r e dt o a sa
POTENTIOMETER.
T h e b a t t e r yo r c e l lt h a t i s a p p l i e da c r o s st h e e n t i r el e n g t ho f t h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e , i s c a l l e d
the
.D R I V E R CELL
D r i v e rc e l l
S t a n d a r cde l l
31
ONFT H EP O T E N T I O M E T E R
APPLICATIO
( 1 ) M e a s u r e m e not f e . m . f .
i f a n o t h e rc e l l
O n eo f t h e p r i m a r yu s e so f t h e p o t e n t i o m e t eirs i n t h e m e a s u r e m e notf t h e e . m . f .o f a c e l l
c e l l )i s a v a i l a b l e
o f k n o w ne . m . f .( c a l l e da s t a n d a r d
c e l l . S a fyo r e x a m p l et h e s t a n d a r cd e l lh a sa n e . m ' f
l e n g t hi s f o u n df o r t h e s t a n d a r d
F i r s t l yt ,h e b a l a n c e
o f 1 . 1 5 Va, n dt h e b a l a n c ep o i n tw a sf o u n dt o b e 3 6 c m .
the
T h e s t a n d a r dc e l li s t h e n t a k e no u t o f t h e c i r c u i ta n d r e p l a c e db y t h e c e l lo f u n k n o w ne . m . f .a n d
b a l a n c ep o i n ti s a g a i nf o u n d .S a yf o r e x a m p l ea g a i n t, h e b a l a n c ep o i n tw a sf o u n dt o b e 5 4 c m .
D r i v e rc e l l D r i v e rc e l l
S t a n d a r cd e l l C e l lo f u n k n o w n
e.m.f.
T h ec a l c u l a t i ofno r t h e u n k n o w ne . m . f .i s a sf o l l o w s :
l e n g t ho f 3 6 c m .
s a balance
1 . 1 5 Vc o r r e s p o n dt o
1.15
H e n c e1 c m w i l l h a v ea n e q u i v a l e nvt o l t a g eo f E ;
1.15
5 4 c m w i l l h a v ea n e q u i v a l e nvt o l t a g eo f E x 54 =1,.725V
H e n c et h e e . m .f . o f t h e u n k n o w nc e l li s 1 ' . 7 2 5 V
32
( 2 1 M e a s u r e m e not f t h e i n t e r n a lr e s i s t a n c oe f a c e l l :
T h eb a l a n c el e n g t ho f t h e e . m . f .o f t h e c e l li s f i r s tf o u n dw h e nt h e c e l li s o n o p e nc i r c u i ti,. e .n o
l e n g t hi s 6 8 c m
s c o n n e c t etdo i t . S a yf o r e x a m p l et ,h i sb a l a n c e
e x t e r n arl e s i s t a n ci e
D r i v e rc e l l
E
T h e n e x ts t e pi s t o i n s e r ta K n o w nr e s i s t a n cien s e r i e sw i t h t h e c e l lo f e . m . f .E .U s ef o r
e x a m p l ea 2 0 Or e s i s t o rT.h en e w b a l a n c el e n g t hw i l l d e c r e a steo s a y4 6 c m ,f o r t h e
n e w v o l t a g eV
D r i v e rc e l l
T h e e . m . f .E o f t h e c e l ln e e d
not be known in this case
E
R e c a ltlh e f o r mu l aV : 1 R - - R
R*r
VR46
Hence-: :- i
E R*r 68
68R=46R+46r
33
THEWHEATSTONE
BRIDGE
T h i sb r i d g ec i r c u i w
t a sd e s i g n e tdo p r o d u c ea v e r ya c c u r a t em e a n so f m e a s u r i nrge s i s t a n c e .
I n n o r m a l a b o r a t o r py r a c t i c e
t h e r e s i s t a n coef a c o m p o n e nits d e t e r m i n e d
byapplying
a
p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c a
e c r o s si t , m e a s u r i n g t hceu r r e n t t h r o u g iht , a n dt h e n a p p l y i n gR - y .
T h eW h e a t s t o n eB r i d g eu s e sa n u l lm e t h o d w, h i c hm e a n st h a t t w o o p p o s i n g c u r r e n t sa r e
p r o d u c e dw h o s em a g n i t u d easr e a d j u s t e du n t i lt h e y b a l a n c e a c ho t h e r ,s o t h a t t h e r e s u l t a n t
c u r r e n ti s Z E R Oa, n d a t t h i s p o i n t ,a n u n k n o w nr e s i s t a n ci en t h e c i r c u i ct a nb e d e t e r m i n e d .
AB
CD
I
I
I If the rraluesof three of the resistancesare known, then the fourth one can be calculated.
I
I
34
BRIDGE
T H EM E T R E
e r i d g ea, n d i t i s u s e dt o m e a s u r e
T h em e t r eb r i d g ei s a m o d i f i e dv e r s i o no f t h e W h e a t s t o n B
u n k n o w nr e s i s t a n c ewsi t h m u c hm o r ee a s et h a nt h e W h e a t s t o n vee r s i o n .
I t o p e r a t e sa s a D O U B L P DLI V I D E R .
EO T E N T I A
e r i d g et,w o r e s i s t o rasn da
I n s t e a do f u s i n g f o u r e s i s t o rass i n t h e c a s eo f t h e W h e a t s t o n b
metreof resistance wire are used.
M
M is a knownresistance, and N is
lz
t h e u n k n o w no n e .
T h es l i d ew i r ef r o m t h e
g a l v a n o m e t ei sr m o v e da l o n gt h e
r e s i s t a n cwei r e A B u n t i la b a l a n c e
p o i n ti s o b t a i n e d .
CM
dAl
'c' 'd'
and are measuredlengthson the resistance wire while M is a known resistance,
henceN can be calculated.
35
TUTORIAL
on CurrentElectricity
( 1 ) A b a t t e r yo f e m f 6 V a n d i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n c1e. 8 Oi s c o n n e c t e a
d c r o s sa 1 2 Or e s i s t o r .
C a l c u l a t eh e t e r m i n apl . d .o f t h e b a t t e r y . ( H i nTth: et e r m i n apl . d .i s t h e v o l t a g ea c r o s s
t h e e x t e r n arl e s i s t a n cie. e .a c r o s st h e 1 2 Or e s i s t o r )
(s.22V)
( 2 ) W h e na b a t t e r yo f e m f E a n d i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n cre i s c o n n e c t e a d c r o s sa 6 O r e s i s t o rt ,h e
t e r m i n ap l . d .i s 8 . 4 4 V . l ft h e 6 Q r e s i s t oirs n o w r e p l a c e d
b y a 1 0 Or e s i s t o rt ,h e t e r m i n a l
p . d .i s n o w 8 . 6 5V . D e t e r m i n teh e e m f a n dt h e i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n coef t h e b a t t e r y .
( H i n t :D r a w2 s e p a r a t cei r c u i t as n da p p l yt h e e q u a t i o nE =V + l r f o r b o t ho f t h e m ;t h e n
u s et h e s i m u l t a n e o uesq u a t i o ntso f i n dt h e r e q u i r e d
quantities)
( r =0 . 3 9 Q E
, =9V)
( 3 ) A b a t t e r yo f e . m . f .1 - 8 V
a n d i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n crei s c o n n e c t e tdo a n e t w o r ko f r e s i s t o r s
h a v i n gt w o r e s i s t o rish p a r a l l e(l8 Oa n d 1 2 O) i n s e r i e sw i t h a 6 0 r e s i s t oar ss h o w n :
l f t h e c u r r e n it n t h e 8 O r e s i s t oirs 0 . 4 A c, a l c u l a t e :
(i) T h ec u r r e n ti n t h e 1 2 Or e s i s t o r ( Y of iur s tn e e dt o f i n d t h e p . d .a c r o s st h e
l 2 Q r e s i s t owr h i c hi s t h e s a m ep . d .a c r o s st h e 8 O r e s i s t o r )
(ii) T h ec u r r e n ti n t h e 6 e r e s i s t o r
(iii) T h ei n t e r n arl e s i s t a n coef t h e b a t t e r y
A n s .0 . 2 6 7
A , 0 . 6 6 7 A1, , 6 . 2 Q ., Z
7V
36
(41A b a t t e r yP o f e . m . f . 1 , 2 Va n di n t e r n arl e s i s t a n c4eO i s c o n n e c t e idn s e r i e sw i t h a b a t t e r y
Q o f e . m . f .8 V a n di n t e r n arl e s i s t a n c90,
e with a 20Oresistorconnectedacrossthe
c o m b i n a t i oans ' s h o w n :
L 2 V , 4n x
V, 9Q
|l l - |
r-l
I
200
C a l c u l a t eh e t e r m i n apl . d .o f e a c hb a t t e r y .
A n s :9 . 5 8 V1 , 3.45V)
( Ad e t a i l e ds o l u t i o ni s g i v e no n p a g e3 5 )
( 5 ) D e t e r m i nteh e
below:
24V
s Yi st h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e 8 O m i n u st h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e r z r ) )
( T h ep . d .a c r o s X
s o l u t i o ni s g i v e no n p a g e3 5 )
( A n s 0: V )( A d e t a i l e d
(Ans.3.2V)
Determine thevoltmeter
r e a d i n gi n t h e g i v e n rzv 20v
c i r c ui t .
A ns :1 5. 2 V
( S e ep a g e 3 6 )
37
(7) In the followingcircuit,a voltmeterof resistance
8000 is firstlyconnectedacrossthe
6000 resistorand then acrossthe 2200O resistorseparately.
F i n dt h e r e a d i n go n t h e v o l t m e t e ri n e a c hc a s e .
12V
A n s1. 6 2 V ; 5 . 9 3 V
I
I
I
L__O_-,
18V
A n s1 1 . 0 8 V 1
; .38V
r__o-,
38
FORQUESTION
SOLUTION 4:
1,2V, 4A
8V, 9C)
200
S i n c et h e b a t t e r i e sh a v et h e i r e m f ' si n t h e s a m ed i r e c t i o nt ,h e n e t e m f i n t h e c i r c u i ti s 1 2 V+ 8 V =
20v
T h e 1 2 V b a t t e r yh a sa g r e a t e re m f t h a n t h e 8 V b a t t e r ys o t h a t a c u r r e n tl e a v e st h e 1 2 V a n d
entersthe 8V battery.
20
The total resi-stancels 330, and the current i"s
TA
T h e t e r m t n a l p . d . o f t h e I z V b a t t e r y t s o b t a t n e df r o m t h e e q n V t : E - I r
v:rz-2fn>:e.sBV
55
T h ec u r r e net n t e r st h e 8 Vb a t t e r ys ot h a ti t st e r m i n apl . d .i sg i v e nb yV 2 =E+ l r
Vz:B+*(9):1,3.45V
55
FORQUESTTON
soLUTroN 5:
T h e r ea r e2 p a r a l l ebl r a n c h e s o t h a t t h e p . d .a c r o s se - a c h
b r a n c hi s 1 2 V .
T h e c u r r e n ti n t h e t o p b r a n c hi s g i v e nb y :
t' R: 2Y4 - 1 2 : 0 . 5 ^ 4
H e n c et h e v o l t a g ea c r o s st h e 8 Q r e s i s t o irs g i v e nb y
V : I R : 0 . 5 x B - 4 V ; H e n c eV e v: l V
N o w t h e n o t a t i o nV a ym e a n st h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
a c r o s sA Y ,
-
that is, VA Vy 4 :
T h ec u r r e n ti n t h e l o w e rb r a n c hi s g i v e nb y :
T h e p o t e n t i aal t A i s e q u a lt o t h e p o t e n t i aal t B s i n c et h e y a r e
, _v _ 6 _1 n
- 3r 2
connectedto eachother by a conductoronly;Va- Vn
T h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
a c r o s st h e 1 2 O H e n c eV A - V x : 4 a n d V A - V v : 4
r e s i s t o irs V s xa n d i s : F r o mt h e s et w o e q u a t i o n sw, e g e t :
1
Vsx:lR:;X12:4V Vx-Vy:0,soVyy:0
J
VB-v,r::4
39
S O L U T I OF
NO RQ U E S T I O5N:
T h ev o l t m e t e r e a d i n gi s
t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
acrose
s i t h e rt h e b r a n c h 1,2V
c o n t a i n i ntgh e 1 2 Vb a t t e r y
t o g e t h e rw i t h t h e 4 0
r e s i s t oor r t h e b r a n c h
c o n t a i n i ntgh e 2 0 Vb a t t e r y
withthe 60 resistor.
C o n s i d ef ri r s tt h e b r a n c hw i t h t h e j _ 2 Vb a t t e r y .
T h en e t e m f i s 8 V a n dt h e c u r r e n tw o u l db e
VB
I-R:10:o'BA
V : E t I r : 1 , 2 +( 0 . 8x 4 ) : I 5 . 2 V
I f w e u s e dt h e b r a n c h
w i t ht h e2 0 Vb a t t e r yw, e w o u l dg e t :
V:E-lr
V -20 -(0.8x6):I5.2V
Remember
that whencurrententersthe battery,we use
V=E+lr, andwhencurrentleaves
the batterywe use
V =E - l r
40
WorkedExamples
on Potentiometerand Metre Bridge
( 1 ) T h ee m f o f a b a t t e r yX i s b a l a n c e d b y a l e n g t ho f 5 8 c mo n a p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e w h i l s ta
s t a n d a r dc e l lo f e m f 1 . 0 4 Vi s b a l a n c e bd y a l e n g t ho f 4 6 c m .
(i) D e t e r m i nteh e e m f o f X
(ii) T h ec e l lX h a sa n i n t e r n arl e s i s t a n coef 4 C ) , a n ids c o n n e c t e d
i n s e r i e s t oa l - 2 O
r e s i s t o rC. a l c u l a tteh e n e w b a l a n c el e n g t h .
( A n s .1 , . 5 4 V ; 5 0 . 9 c m
Solution: ( i i )T h ec i r c u i th a sa c e l lo f e m f 1 . 5 4 Vi n s e r i e s
(i)1.04h
Va sa b a l a n c lee n g t ho f 4 6 c m . w i t h a 4 Q r e s i s t oar n da 1 2 Or e s i s t o r .
1,.04 T h ev o l t a g ea c r o s st h e 1 2 Or e s i s t oirs t h e
Lcm correspondsto a p. d. of
46 t e r m i n apl . d .o f t h e b a t t e r ya n d i s e q u a tl o :
6 8 c mh a sa n e q u i v a l e npt. d .o f
1,2
68xry-Ls4v
+6
1,.54, 1,.1,5V
tO-
T h eb a l a n cpeo i n tc o r r e s p o n d itnogl - . 1 , 5i V
s
g i v e nb y :
( 2 )A s t a n d a r dc e l lo f e m f 1 . 3 4 Vi s b a l a n c e b
d y t h e p . d .a c r o s sa r e s i s t a n coef 2 8 0 0 0i n s e r i e sw i t h a
1 - ml e n g t ho f p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e P Qh a v i n ga r e s i s t a n coef 6 0 . A t h e r m o c o u p l e
p r o d u c i n ga n e m f o f
1 . 2 m Vi s n o w c o n n e c t e idn s e r i e st o t h e s t a n d a r d
c e l la s s h o w n C
. a l c u l a tteh e l e n g t hP Ro n t h e
p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r et h a t p r o d u c etsh e n e w b a l a n c e
point.
Thetotal resistance
i s e q u a lt o 2 8 0 6 0 .
T h ep . d .a c r o s tsh e
1 m o f w i r ei s
a6
x 1.34
2806
- 1,.6mV
1 . 6 m Vh a sa l e n g t h
1..34V
of 100cm
l - . 2 m Vw i l l h a v ea
lengthof
loox
1.2:75cm
1..6
41,
on the Potentiometerand the metre bridge
TUTORIAL
( 1 ) T h e e m f o f a b a t t e r y X i s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t h o f 4 4 c m o n a p o t e n t i o m e t e r w i r e w h i l s t a
s t a n d a r dc e l l o f e m f 1 . 2 0 Vi s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t ho f 2 8 c m .
(iii) D e t e r m i n et h e e m f o f X
(iv) T h e c e l l X h a s a n i n t e r n a lr e s i s t a n c eo f 2 C ) , a n di s c o n n e c t e di n s e r i e s t o a l - 8 O
resistorC : h e c kw o r k e d e x a m p l e )
. a l c u l a t et h e n e w b a l a n c el e n g t h . ( H i n tC
( A n s1 . 8 9 V ; 3 9 . 6 c m )
( 2 ) T h e e m f o f a b a t t e r yZ i s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t ho f 7 4 c m o n a p o t e n t i o m e t e rw i r e w h i l s t a
standard.ceo l l f e m f 1 . t z V i s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t ho f 3 8 c m .
(v) D e t e r m i n et h e e m f o f Z
(vi) T h e c e l l Z h a s a n i n t e r n a lr e s i s t a n c eo f 6 0 , a n d i s c o n n e c t e di n s e r i e st o a 4 4 O
resistorC . a l c u l a t et h e n e w b a l a n c el e n g t h .
(Ans2 : .18V;65.2cm)
( 3 ) T h e e m f o f a b a t t e r y . Yi s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t ho f 8 8 c m o n a p o t e n t i o m e t e rw i r e w h i l s t a
s t a n d a r dc e l l o f e m f 0 . 9 6 Vi s b a l a n c e db y a l e n g t ho f 3 6 c m .
(vii) D e t e r m i n et h e e m f o f Y
( v i i i ) T h e c e l l Y h a s a n i n t e r n a lr e s i s t a n c eo f I . 2 Q , a n d i s c o n n e c t e di n s e r i e s t o a 3 6 O
resistorC . a l c u l a t et h e n e w b a l a n c el e n g t h
( A n s2 . 3 5 V 8
; 5cm
( 4 ) T h e d r i v e rc e l lo f a p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa n e . m . f .o f 1 . 8 Va n d n e g l i g i b l ien t e r n a rl e s i s t a n c e .
T h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa r e s i s t a n coef 6 0 . C a l c u l a tteh e r e s i s t a n cteh a t i s n e e d e di n s e r i e s
w i t h t h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e i f a p . d .o f 2 5 0 m Vi s r e q u i r e da c r o s st h e w h o l e l e n g t ho f t h e
p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e .
( H i n t :D r a wa c i r c u i td i a g r a mo f t w o r e s i s t o r isn s e r i e sw i t h t h e d r i v e rc e l l ,t h e n f i n d t h e p . d
a c r o s st h e e x t r ar e s i s t a n c et h, e n u s eV = l Rt o d e t e r m i n eR , r e m e m b e r i ntgh a t f o r r e s i s t a n c ei n
s
s e r i e st,h e c u r r e n ti s t h e s a m e . () A n s 3: 7.2O)
- ( 5 ) T h ed r i v e rc e l lo f a p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa n e . m . f o
. f 4 . 0 Va n d n e g l i g i b lien t e r n arl e s i s t a n c e .
T h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa r e s i s t a n coef 2 0 . C a l c u l a tteh e r e s i s t a n cteh a t i s n e e d e di n s e r i e s
w i t h t h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e i f a p . d .o f 1 2 m Vi s r e q u i r e da c r o s st h e w h o l el e n g t ho f t h e
p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e
(Ans6
: 650)
( 6 ) T h e d r i v e rc e l !. r f a p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa n e . m . f .o f 6 V a n d n e g l i g i b l ien t e r n a rl e s i s t a n c e
T.h e
p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e h a sa r e s i s t a n coef 3 . 5 O .C a l c u l a tteh e r e s i s t a n cteh a t i s n e e d e di n s e r i e s
w i t h t h e p o t e n t i o m e t ewr i r e i f a p . d .o f 8 m V i s r e q u i r e da c r o s st h e w h o l el e n g t ho f t h e
wire.(Ans:26220)
potentiorneter
42
( 7 ) I nt h e c i r c u i b
t e l o wt h e b a l a n c ep o i n ti s o b t a i n e df o r t h e l e n g t h si n d i c a t e od n t h e d i a g r a mF. i n d
t h e r e s i s t a n coef R .( A n s3 2 . 6 O )
20o.
(8)
I n t h e a b o v ed i a g r a mc, a l c u l a tteh e b a l a n c el e n g t h sc a n d d .
( A n s :c = 2 7. 5 c m ,d = 7 2 . 5 c m \
43
ELECTROSTATICS
E l e c t r o s t a tpi ch e n o m e n a
i n c l u d em a n ye x a m p l eas ss i m p l ea st h e a t t r a c t i o no f t h e p l a s t i cw r a p
t o y o u r h a n da f t e ry o u r e m o v ei t f r o m a p a c k a g et o, t h e a p p a r e n t lsyp o n t a n e o uesx p l o s i o on f
g r a i ns i l o st,o d a m a g eo f e l e c t r o n ic o m p o n e n tdsu r i n gm a n u f a c t u r i ntgo, t h e o p e r a t i o no f
photocopiers.
E l e c t r o s t a t iicnsv o l v etsh e b u i l d u po f c h a r g eo n t h e s u r f a c eo f o b j e c t sd u et o c o n t a c w
t ithother
s u r f a c e sA. l t h o u g hc h a r g ee x c h a n g h
ea p p e nw
s h e n e v ear n y t w o s u r f a c ecso n t a c a
t n ds e p a r a t e ,
t h e e f f e c t so f c h a r g ee x c h a n g ae r e u s u a l l yo n l yn o t i c e dw h e na t l e a s to n e o f t h e s u r f a c ehs a sa
h i g hr e s i s t a n cteo e l e c t r i c af l o w .T h i si s b e c a u s teh e c h a r g e tsh a t t r a n s f e tro o r f r o m t h e h i g h l y
r e s i s t i v seu r f a c ea r e m o r eo r l e s st r a p p e dt h e r ef o r a l o n ge n o u g ht i m e f o r t h e i re f f e c t st o b e
o b s e r v e dT. h e s ec h a r g e tsh e n r e m a i no n t h e o b j e c tu n t i l t h e ye i t h e rb l e e do f f t o g r o u n do r a r e
q u i c k l yn e u t r a l i z ebdy a d i s c h a r g e : e . tgh. e, f a m i l i a pr h e n o m e n oonf a s t a t i c ' s h o c k 'ci sa u s e db y
t h e n e u t r a l i z a t i oonf c h a r g eb u i l tu p i n t h e b o d yf r o m c o n t a c w
t i t h n o n c o n d u c t i vseu r f a c e s .
Coulomb'sLaw:
.
T h ee l e c t r o s t a tfi oc r c eo f a t t r a c t i o no r r e p u l s i o a
n c t i n go n e a c ho f t w o s t a t i o n a rpy o i n t
c h a r g e si s, d i r e c t l yp r o p o r t i o n at ol t h e p r o d u c to f t h e c h a r g e sa,n d i n v e r s e lpy r o p o r t i o n at ol t h e
s q u a r eo f t h e i rd i s t a n c oe f s e p a r a t i o n .
i . e .l f t w o p o i n tc h a r g eQ
s l a n de z a r ep l a c e da t a d i s t a n c rea p a r t t, h e nt h e f o r c ea c t i n go n e a c h '
o f t h e c h a r g e si s g i v e nb y ;
- QtQz
l:x -
Thiscanbe re-written
as F : !3+
Byexperiment, of proportionality
the constant wasfoundto U"
fr, sothatthefinalformulais
g i v e nb y :
QrQz
F-
4nesrz
w h e r ee i s c a l l e dt h e p e r m i t t i v i t oy f t h e m e d i u mi n w h i c ht h e c h a r g e e . h ep e r m i t t i v i t iys a
s x i s tT
p h y s i c apl r o p e r t yo f t h e r n e d i u mM . o s tq u e s t i o n isn v o l v et h e m e d i u mb e i n ga v a c u u ma n dt h e
permittivityis writtehds rs where ro=8.85x !0-t2c2N-tm-2.
1
T n e. , ' , ' r roef _ i s n o r m a l l tya k e na s9 x 1 0 ' N m ' C -.'
4ne.
44
I
Suppose
we want to find the resultantforceactingon B
A
8cm 30sC
7.
20;rC @+
I n t h i se x a m p l ea, l l
c h a r g e sa r e
positive.
1,2cm
va
50uC
T h ef i r s ts t e pi s t o f i n dt h e f o r c ea c t i n go n B D U ET o A o N L y .
T h i si s d o n eb y a p p l y i n tgh e c o u l o m b ' L
s a wF o r m u l a
i.e.
5 0 x 1 0 - 6x 3 0 x 1 0 - 6x 9 x 1 0 e
ttrc - : 937.5N
0.1,22
45
T h et w o f o r c e sc a nb e d r a w no n a v e c t o rd i a g r a ma sf o l l o w s :
F" - 937.5N
Fn : 843.75N
forcesis 663+843.75=1506.75N
Sothe total of the horizontal
S o n o w w e h a v ea v e r t i c aflt r c e o f 6 6 3 Nc o m b i n i n w l r c eo f 1 5 0 6 . 7 5 N .
g i t h a h o r i z o n t af o
a nb e u s e dt o g i v ea r e s u l t a n t f o r coef 1 6 4 6 N .
P y t h a g o r a s ' t h e o r ecm
H e n c et h e r e s u l t a nfto r c eo n B i s 1 6 4 6 N
46
ELECTRIC
FIELD
STRENGTH
(AlsocalledElectricfield Intensityor simplyElectricField):
T h eE l e c t r i F
c i e l dS t r e n g t ha t a p o i n ti s d e f i n e da s t h ef o r c ea c t i n gp e r u n i t p o s i t i v ec h a r g e
p l a c e da t t h a t p o i n t .
E l e c t r ifci e l ds t r e n g t hi s a v e c t o rq u a n t i t ya n da s s u c h ,i t s d i r e c t i o nm u s tb e c o n s i d e r e d
in any
calculation.
F r o mt h e d e f i n i t i o n ,
Force
Electrtc Field Strength - , h e n c et h e u n i t sa r e N C - 1
Charge
l f a p o i n tc h a r g eh a sa m a g n i t u d e
o f c h a r g ee , t h e n a t a d i s t a n c er f r o m e t h e e l e c t r i cf i e l d
strengthis givenby :
E-
4nes rz
A p a r tf r o m t h e e l e c t r i cf i e l dd u e a p o i n tc h a r g ee, l e c t r i cf i e l d sa l s oe x i s ti n t h e s p a c eb e t w e e n
t w o o p p o s i t e lcyh a r g e dp a r a l l epl l a t e s N
. o t et h a t t h e f i e l di s u n i f o r mb e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s
m e a n i n g t h a t t h eF I E L D
S T R E N G Ti sHc o n s t a nitn t h e s p a c eb e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s .A n o t h e r
i m p o r t a nfte a t u r eo f t h e f i e l di s t h a t t h e f i e l dl i n e sa r e c u r v e da t t h e e n d so f t h e p l a t e s .
++++++ +++
C o n s i d et rw o p a r a l l em
l e t a lp l a t e ss e p a r a t e b
dy a d i s t a n c e
d a n d h a v i n ga p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
V b e t w e e nt h e m .
Ti'i. ,-'iectric
fieldstrengthbetweentheseplatesis givenby
47
V
E- a
V
Thisquantity ,talsocalledthe Potential (Unitsarevm-l)
Gradient.
i
for the parallel
Hencethe potentialgradientis numericallyequalto the electricfield strength
platearrangement.
4nesrz
CHARGEONLY
FIELDSTRENGTHFORA STATIONARYELECTRIC
ELECTRIC
i st h a t :
A n o t h e rv e r yI M P O R T A NFTO R M U L A
on
Whenevera chargee is placedin a field that hasa field strengthE,the force
that chargeis givenbY:
p= EQ
Hencefor a pair of parallelplatesthat are separatedby a distanced, and
havinga potentialdifferenceV acrossthe plates,the force on a chargeQ
that is placedin the spacebetweenthe platesis givenby:
VQ
F:
d
48
ELECTRIC
POTENTIAL
:
c o t e n t i aal t a p o i n ti s d e f i n e da st h e w o r k d o n ei n b r i n g i n ga u n i t p o s i t i v ec h a r g e
T h eE l e c t r i P
f r o m i n f i n i t yt o t h a t p o i n t .
A t i n f i n i t yt ,h e e l e c t r i p
c o t e n t i ai ls z e r os i n c et h e c h a r g ei s n o t u n d e r t h ei n f l u e n coef a n y f i e l d .
C o n s i d e r au n i t p o s i t i v ec h a r g eb e i n gp l a c e di n t h e f i e l do f a n o t h e rp o s i t i v ec h a r g ea ss h o w n :
A s t h e p o s i t i v ec h a r g ei s m o v e df r o m p o i n tB w h i c hi s c o n s i d e r etdo b e a t i n f i n i t yt,o a p o i n tA i n
t h e f i e l d ,w o r k h a st o b e d o n eo n t h e p o s i t i v e( + 1 C c) h a r g et o o v e r c o m e
t h e f o r c eo f r e p u l s i o n
b y t h e o t h e rp o s i t i v ec h a r g eQ + .
T h i sw o r k d o n eo n t h e l - Cc h a r g ec a u s e a i n i t s e l e c t r i cp o t e n t i ael n e r g yi n m o v i n g
s nincrease
from infinityto A.
i n p o t e n t i ael n e r g yi s a s s i g n ead p o s i t i v ev a l u e .
T h i si n c r e a s e
O n t h e o t h e rh a n d ,i f Q w a sa n e g a t i v e
c h a r g et,h e n t h e i n c o m i n g+ 1 Cc h a r g ew o u l db e
attractedto it, and it would loseits own electricpotentialenergyas it fallsfrom infinitytowards
a.
i n e l e c t r i cp o t e n t i ael n e r g yi s a s s i g n ead n e g a t i v ev a l u e .
T h i sd e c r e a s e
49
Hence,at all pointsin the fieldof a positivecharge,the potentialis positive;and at all pointsin
the fieldof a negativecharge,the potentialis negative.
Let Potential= V
V- + f or an isolated.charge
*TEtsT
50
ELECTROSTATTCS
TUTORTAL (1)
SHEET
( 1 ) A h e l i u mn u c l e u s . h aasc h a r g eo f + 2 e a n da n e o nn u c l e u sh a sa c h a r g eo f + 1 0 e ,w h e r ee i s
electroniccharge(1.6x 10 1eC) Findthe repulsive forceexertedon one by the otherwhen
t h e y a r e3 n m a p a r ti n a v a c u u m (. A n s5 . 1 2 x 1 0 - 1 0 N )
( 5 ) T h r e ep o i n tc h a r r " , a r e p l a c e do n t h e x a x i sa ss h o w n .F i n dt h e n e t f o r c eo n t h e - 5 U C
c h a r g ed u et o t h e o t h e rt w o . ( A n s . 0 . 6 2 5 N ) . ( HFi ni nt :dt h e f o r c ed u et o e a c hc h a r g e
s e p a r a t e ltyh e n f i n d r e s u l t a n t )
-5uc 8pc
3uc
ooo
20cm 30cm
( A n s : 1 . 4 x 1 0 sN C - 1 ' t o w a r dtsh e l e f t ; 5 . 6 x t o 3 l v; )
51
chargeis placed50cmawayfrom a 60prC
(7) A 20prC chargeas shown.
50cm
(3<- +€
20PrC 60PtC
D e t e r m i n et h e e l e c t r i cf i e l d s t r e n g t ht o g e t h e rw i t h i t s d i r e c t i o na t t h e f o l l o w i n gp o i n t s :
( S ) A - 4 0 n C c h a r g e i s p l a c e d a t a d i s t aonf cl ,e2 c m a w a y f r o m a + 5 0 n C c h a r g e a s s h o w n .
1'2cm
*.- +g
-40nC +50nC
D e t e r m i n teh e e l e c t r i cf i e l ds t r e n g t ht o g e t h e rw i t h i t s d i r e c t i o na t t h e f o l l o w i n gp o i n t s :
(i) M i d w a yb e t w e e nt h e t w o c h a r g e s
(ii) 5 c mt o t h e l e f t o f t h e - 4 0 n Cc h a r g e
(iii) 8 c mt o t h e r i g h to f t h e + 5 0 n Cc h a r g e
( 9 . I) n t h e f o l l o w i n gd i a g r a mt,h e p o i n tA r e p r e s e n t sh e r e g i o nw h e r et h e r e s u l t a nfti e l d
s t r e n g t hi s z e r o .D e t e r m i n teh e p o s i t i o no f p o i n tA r e l a t i v et o t h e - 2 0 p t C
c h a r g e(.5 . 5 c m )
-10uC + 60;rC
52
ELECTROSTATTCS
TUTORTAL (2)
SHEET
( 1 ) T w o i d e n t i c am
l e t a l b a l l sh a v ec h a r g e Q
s l a n dq 2 T h er e p u l s i v e f o r ct h
e a t o n e e x e r t so n
t h e o t h e r w h e nt h e y a r e 2 0c m a p a r ti s 1 . 3 5x L 0 - 4N . l f t h e c h a r g eo n < i n eb a l ti s 3 . 2x
L 0 6 c ,d e t e r m i n et h e c h a r g eo n t h e o t h e ro n e . ( A N 1
S, . g 7 s x1 0 - 1 0 c )
( 2 ) W h a t i st h e m a g n i t u d o
e f t h e c h a r g eo n e a c ho f t w o m e t a ls p h e r e si f t h e y h a v et h e
s a m em a g n i t u d e
o f c h a r g ea n d e x e r ta f o r c eo f a t t r a c t i o no f 1 . 9 8x L 0 - 4 N
o n e a c ho t h e r
w h e n t h e y a r es e p a r a t e b
dy a d i s t a n c e
o f 2 . 5c m . ( A N S
3nc)
( 3 ) T w o c h a r g e dm e t a lp l a t e si n a v a c u u ma r e 1 5 c m a p a r t .T h ep o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e nt h e p l a t e si s 2 0 0 V A . n e l e c t r o n( m a s s= 9 . i -x 1 0 - 3 1 kagn dc h a r g e1 . 6x L 0 - 1 e)C
is
r e l e a s e fdr o m r e s ta t t h e s u r f a c eo f t h e n e g a t i v e plate.
F i n d( a )T h e E l e c t r ifci e l dt h e e l e c t r o ni s s u b j e c t e tdo .
( b )T h ea c c e l e r a t i bonf t h e e l e c t r o n
( c )T h et i m e t a k e nt o r e a c ht h e o t h e rp l a t e
( d ) T h es p e e do f t h e e l e c t r o nj u s t b e f o r ei t h i t st h e p o s i t i v ep l a t e .
( A n s ( a1) . 3 3x L 0 3 V mt ( u )2 . 3 4x 1 0 1 a m s('. ) 3 . 5x 1 - 0 - 8(sd;)g . 3 g xl - o 6 m 1s )
( a ) W h a t i s t h e f o r c ee x p e r i e n c ebdy a p r o t o n( c h a r g e 1
= . 6x 1 0 - 1 e C
w1h e n i t i s i n t h e s p a c e
b e t w e e nt w o p a r a l l epl l a t e ss e p a r a t e b
dy a d i s t a n c e
o f 2 5 m ma n d h a v i n ga p . d .o f 5 0 O V
b e t w e e nt h e m (. A N S3 . 2x 1 0 1 s N ;
( 5 ) T w o i d e n t i c at li n y m e t a lb a l l sc a r r yc h a r g e o
s f + 3 n C a n d- 1 , 2 n CT.h e ya r e 3 c ma p a r t .
C a l c u l a tteh e f o r c eo f a t t r a c t i o n(.A N S3 . 6x L 0 - 4 N )
( b )T h eb a l l sa r e n o w t o u c h e dt o g e t h e ra n dt h e n s e p a r a t etdo 3 c m .D e t e r m i n teh e f o r c e
o n e a c hb a l ln o w . (H i n t ;W h e nt h e b a l l sa r e n o w t o u c h e dt o g e t h e rt,h e y a c q u i r et h e
s a m ec h a r g ei . e . t o t acl h a r g ei s c o n s e r v e d )
( A n s ( a ) 3 . 6 x1 0 o w( U )2 . 0 2 5 x1 0 4 Nr e p u l s i o n ) .
( 6 ) T w o i d e n t i c asl p h e r e sh a v ec h a r g e q
s 1a n d q z . W. h e nt h e y a r e2 0 c m a p a r t ,t h e r e p u l s i v e
f o r c eb e t w e e nt h e m i s 1 . 3 5 x1 0 4 N .
A f t e rt h e ya r et o u c h e dt o g e t h e ra, n ds e p a r a t e d
o n c ea g a i nt o 2 0 c m ,t h e r e p u l s i vfeo r c eb e t w e e nt h e m i s 1 . 4 0 6x 1 0 - o N F .
i n dQ l a n d
q z( A n s 2: 0 n C , 3 0 n CS. )E ES O L U T I OONN p G5 4 .
53
Solutionfor question3:
V 200v -7
(t)V:200V;d:L\cm- 0 . 15 m ; E - : l-.33x 1.03Vm
d 0.1-5m
(tf.)Accelerati"on-
Force EQ (L\9: 200 x L . 6 x 10-1e
- 2 . 3 4x l g t a ^ r - z
MASS MASS \d/ m 0.15x9.1 x10-31
1."8t : -
(ttt) Use the equatton .s_ ut l|or';1r e-
: 0 hencs
tot";t JT x 1014
- 3 . 5x 1 0 - 8 s
54
for question6:
Solution
H e n c e Q t Q z- 6 x 1g-togz -(1)
W h e n t h e s p h e r e sa r e t o u c h e dt o g e t h e rt h e c h a r g e sa r e r e - d i s t r i b u t e db u t t h e t o t a l c h a r g ei s
c o n s t a n ta n d e q u a lt o q r + Q z
A f t e r t h e s p h e r e sa r e s e p a r a t e d e, a c h o n e w i l l a c q u i r ea c h a r g eo f
Qr*Qz
2'
(Since
t h e s p h e r e sa r e i d e n t i c a tl h
, e r ei s n o t e n d e n c yf o r o n et o g a i na g r e a t e rc h a r g et h a nt h e
other.)
T h ef o r c ea c t i n go n e a c hc h a r g en o w i s g i v e nb y
(ry)'rexloe
- 1 . 4 0 6x 1 0 - a
(0.2)'
( q r + Q ) 2 - 2 . 5 x 1 0 - 1 s ; l t e n c e( q r + e z ) = 5 x 1 0 - B C -Q)
F r o me q u a t i o n( 2 ) Q r =5 x l - 0 - 8g-z . S u b s t i t u t i n g t hi n
i se q u a t i o n( 1 )g i v e s
(5xL0-8 -a)Qz:6x10-16
Q z z- ( 5 x 1 0 - B )e z * ( 6 x t o - t o ) - 0
S o l v i n tgh i sq u a d r a t i g
cives;
5x1o-B+( )
Qz: -3xl-0-BC:30nC;
l f t h i sv a l u eo f q z i s s u b s t i t u t e idn e i t h e re q u a t i o n( 1 )o r ( 2 ) ,q 1w o u l db e f o u n dt o b e 2 0 n C .
55
Tutorialsheet(3)
Electrostatics
( T h ec h a r g eo f a n e l e c t r o ni s - 1 . 6 x1 0 - 1 e C )
( 1 ) F o rt w o c h a r g e dm e t a lp l a t e sA a n d B ,s e p a r a t e bd y a d i s t a n c e o f 5 m m ,t h e p . d .
b e t w e e nt h e p l a t e si s 4 0 V .P l a t eA i s c o n n e c t e tdo a p o s i t i v p
e o t e n t i aal n d p l a t eB t o a
. a l c u l a tteh e w o r k d o n ei n m o v i n ga + 3 Cc h a r g ef r o m ( a )B t o A , ( b )
n e g a t i v ep o t e n t i a l C
A to B. | 120J; -120J1
( 2 ) H o w m u c hw o r k i s d o n e t o c a r r ya n e l e c t r o nf r o m t h e p o s i t i v e t e r m i n o a fl a t 2 V b a t t e r y
t o t h e n e g a t i v tee r m i n a l .T h ec h a r g eo f t h e e l e c t r o ni s - 1 . 6 x1 0 - 1 s (
C A
. n s 1 . 9 x1 0 - 1 8 J 1
( 3 ) A n e l e c t r o ns t a r t sf r o m r e s ta n df a l l st h r o u g ha p o t e n t i arl i s eo f 8 0 V .C a l c u l a tiet sf i n a l
1 ) { H i n tt :h e c h a n g ei n
s p e e dT. h e m a s so f t h e e l e c t r o ni s 9 . 1 - 1 x g - 3 1(kAsn s 5. . 3 x1 0 6 m s
P . E=. c h a n g ei n K . E . )
( 4 ) T w o p a r a l l em l e t a lp l a t e sa r es e p a r a t e bdy a d i s t a n c eo f 4 . 5 f f i f f i ,a n d a p . d o f 1 2 0 0 V i s
-1.6x 10-1sc)
a p p l i e da c r o s tsh e r i r .( m a s so f e l e c t r o n= 9 . 1 - x1 . 0 - 3 1 kcgh, a r g e=
(i) W h a t i s t h e v a l u eo f t h e e l e c t r i cf i e l db e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s ?
(ii) l f a n e l e c t r o nt h a t i s h e l da t r e s ta t t h e n e g a t i v ep l a t ei s s u d d e n l rye l e a s e dw, h a t
w o u l db e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e e l e c t r o n 'as c c e l e r a t i o n ?
(iii) W h a tw o u l db e t h e c h a n g ei n t h e e l e c t r o n ' ps o t e n t i ael n e r g y ?
(iv) W h a tw i l l b e t h e e l e c t r o n 'ssp e e da s i t h i t st h e p o s i t i v ep l a t e ?
(v) H o w l o n gw o u l dt h e e l e c t r o nh a v et a k e nt o c r o s sf o r m o n e p l a t et o t h e o t h e r ?
1; ; 8 x1 0 - 1 0 s .
( A n s :z . O l x l g s v m 4 . 6 8 x1 0 1 6 m s; I-.29 2 x 1 0 - 1 62J.;O Sx L O T m s -41. 3
( 5 ) T w o p r o t o n sa r e h e l da t r e s ta t a s e p a r a t i oonf 3 x 1 0 - 1 2 m a p a r t .W h e nt h e y a r e r e l e a s e d ,
t h e y r e p e le a c ho t h e ra n d m o v ea p a r t .H o wf a s tw i l l t h e y b e m o v i n gw h e nt h e y a r e
( i )8 m m a p a r t
( i i )a p m a p a r t ,
(iii)5pa mp a r t .
= 1.6x101eC; 27kg'
Protoncharge mass= !.67x10
s e p a r a t i oann dt h e n a t t h e 8 m m
H i n t y: o un e e dt o f i n dt h ep o t e n t i af ilr s t l ya t t h e3 x L 0 - 1 2 m
e f t h e s et w o p o t e n t i a liss t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c b
s e p a r a t i o nT.h ed i f f e r e n c o ee t w e e n
t h e s et w o p o i n t .T h e nf i n d t h e c h a n g ei n P . E . ( W = Q a Vn) d e q u a t et h i st o K . E >t o f i n d
speed.
r;
( A n s 2 . I 4 x 1 0 s m s 1 ' . 0 x7 l O s m s - 1 ; 1 . 3 5l -60xs m s - 1 )
56
( 6 ) T w o p o i n t sA a n d B a r e a t L 0 0 c ma p a r t .A c h a r g eq r = 2 0 0 p ci s p l a c e da t A w h i l e a
c h a r g eQ z =- 1 0 0 p Ci s p l a c e da t B . P o i n tC i s o n t h e l i n eA B a n d i s 2 0 c m a w a yf r o m B a n d
p o i n t D i s a l s oo. n A B a n d i s 2 0 c m a w a yf r o m A . ( a )F i n dt h e p o t e n t i a l as t C a n d a t D . ( b )
How muchwork must be doneto transfera -5001.rC chargefrom C to D
( A n s .-:2 . 2 5 V; 7 . 8 7 5 V ;- 5 . 1 xl - 0 - 3 J )
Q z =- 1 0 O P C
Qr=2ooPC
2Ocm 20cm
nrr-D
^\J- _____+B
c<#*r
100cm
( 9 ) F o u re q u a lp o i n tc h a r g e +
s3prC
a r e p l a c e da t t h e f o u r c o r n e r so f a s q u a r et h a t i s 4 0 t m o n
a s i d e .F i n dt h e f o r c eo n a n yo n e o f t h e c h a r g e ds u et o t h e o t h e rt h r e e .( A n s 0
: .97N
o u t w a r da l o n ga d i a g o n a H e s i n t h e p r e v i o uqs u e s t i o n
l ) i n tu s et h e s a m et e c h n i q u a
57
l f t h e + 3 Cc h a r g eh a st o b e m o v e df r o m B t o A , i t m u s tb e
f o r q u e s t i o n1 :
Solution
f r o m t h e p o s i t i v ec h a r g e
p u s h e da g a i n stth e f o r c eo f r e p u l s i o n
+++++++++++++++ o n p l a t eA . T h i sm e a n st h e nt h a t w o r k m u s tb e d o n eO Nt h e
c h a r g ea s i t i s m o v e df r o m B t o A .
5mm R e c a ltlh a t w o r k d o n e= Q V
W = 3 Cx 4 0 V = 1 2 0 J .
l f t h e c h a r g el s m o v e df r o m A t o B ,t h e n n o e n e r g yn e e d st o b e
a d d e dt o t h e c h a r g eI.n t h i ss i t u a t i o nt,h e c h a r g el o s e si t s o w n
E l e c t r i c aplo t e n t i ael n e r g ya s i t i s a t t r a c t e dt o p l a t eB .T h i sl o s s
o f P Ei s g i v e na n e g a t i v es i g ns o t h e w o r k d o n ef r o m A t o B i s -
t20J.
Solutionfor question4:
(i) E - \ :d #
4 .-5:x 1 0 -
2 . 6 7x 1 0 sV m - 1
,
F o rc e- Eq - vq - L2aoxL.6x1o-1e
(ii) ac c el e ra tto n - : 4 . 6 8x ! 0 1 6 m s - 2
d xmass 4 . Sx 1 0 - 3 x 9 . 1 x 1 0 - 1 e
lex 16J
(iii) A P E =Q V =1 . 6x 1 0 1 2 0 0 =I . 9 2 x L 0
(iv) -!^u';v
T h el o s si n P E =i n c r e a sien K E ;H e n c e1 , . 9 2 x 1 0 - 1 6 : 2 . 0 5 x 1 0 7 m s1
(v) UsetheequationofmotionV=u*dt,t-,+-ffi=4'38x].0-1os
58
S o l u t i o nf o r q u e s t i o n5 :
I n t h i sq u e s t i o nu s et h e f a c tt h a t t h e l o s so f P E= G a i no f K E .W h e nt h e p r o t o n sa r e 3 x 1 0 - 1 2 m
a p a r t ,t h e
P o t e n t i ael n e r g yo f t h e S Y S T E M i s g i v e n0 V , f f i . I n t h i s c d s eQ 1= Q 2 =1 . 6x 1 0 - 1 s C .
= (t u'11 'llx(r'axro-'n)
-: -i ' 6 8 x 1 ' 0 - 1 7 J
HencePEof system +n'o*z'to-
( 1 . 6x 1 0 - 1 e )x ( 1 . 6x 1 0 - 1 e )
PE2 - = Z . B Bx 1 , 0 - 2 6 J
4nesxBx10-3
l i l l i o nt i m e sl e s st h a nt h e o r i g i n aPl Ea n d h e n c et h e c h a n g ei n P Ew h i c hc a n
N o t et h a t t h i sn e w P Ei s s e v e r am
17J
be lvrittenas Af E=PE1-PE2= 7.68x LO
F r o mt h e c o n s e r v a t i oonf e n e r g yt h e l o s so f P E= G a i no f K E , b u t t h i st o t a l K Ei s s h a r e de q u a l l ya m o n gt h e
t w o p r o t o n ss i n c et h e y h a v ei d e n t i c am
l a s sa n d c h a r g e .
S ow e c a nw r i t e , ) m v ' + ) m u 2 = 7 . 6 8 x t 0 - 1 7J o r m v 2 : 7 . 6 8 x 1 0 - 1 7
a
7.68 x 1,0-17 7.68 x L0-17
,r2 - : 4 . 5 8x 1 0 1 o
L . 6 7 x ! 0 - 2 7k g
4 . 5 8x 1 0 1 0: 2 . ! 4 x 1 0 s m s - 1
T h es a m em e t h o di s e m p l o y e df o r p a r t s( i i )a n d ( i i i )
S o l u t i o nf o r q u e s t i o n6 :
Q z =- 1 0 0 P C
Qr=200PC 2ocm
20cm
nA{#n
ALJj-- n C n
B
100cm
F i n d i n tgh e p o t e n t i aal t D :
'Firstly
f i n d t h e p o t e n t i aal t D u et o t h e c h a r g ea t A O N L Y :
200x1.0-12x9x1-0e
t/-h-
' :9V
4tegr1 0.2
l t D d u e t o t h e c h a r g ea t B o n l y :
The Potentiaa
-100x1,0-12x9x10e
Qz : -1,.725V
vz:
4rcesr2 0.8
T h ep o t e n t i aal t D i s : h e nf o u n db y a d d i n gV 1a n dV 2; V1 *V2= 9 V + ( - 1 . 1 2 5 V )7=. 8 7 5 V
59
T h ep o t e n t i aal t C i s f o u n di n a s i m i l aw
r a y ,i . e .
( P o t e n t i aal t C d u e t o t h e 2 0 0 p Cc h a r g eo n l y) + ( P o t e n t i a l aCt d u et o - 1 0 0 p Cc h a r g eo n l y ) .
2.25V
0.8 02
( i i i )l n t r a n s f e r r i nag - 5 0 0; r Cc h a r g ef r o m C t o D , i t i s n e c e s s a rt yo f i r s tf i n dt h e P O T E N T I A L
differencb e e t w e e nC a n d D ,
V D- V c : 7 . 8 7 5 V- ( - 2 , 2 5 V ) : 1 0 . 1 2 5 V
V i s g i v e nb y W = Q V ;
T h ew o r k d o n e ' w h e na c h a r g eQ m o v e st h r o u g ha p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
H e n c eW - - 5 0 0 x 1 0 b x ( 1 0 . 1 2 5 V ) =5-. 0 6x 1 0 3 JT .
h e n e g a t i v es i g ni n d i c a t etsh a t t h e - 5 0 0 p Cc h a r g el o s e s
P Ea s i t g o e sf r o m a n e g a t i v ep o t e n t i atlo a p o s i t i v ep o t e n t i a
30cm
1 h i,s d i s t a n c ei s f r 5 2 + 1 5 2 -
U s i n gP y t h a g o r a s ' T h e o r etm
^,l4so- 2r.zcm.
J T h e p o t e n t i adl u e t o E A C Hc h a r g ei s t h e n f o u n df r o m
60
CAPACITORS
A c a p a c i t oirs a d e v i c et h a t i s u s e dt o s t o r ee l e c t r i c h a r g eT. h i ss t o r e dc h a r g e
c a nt h e n b e u s e d
w h e na r e l a t i v e llya r g eb u r s to f c h a r g ei s r e q u i r e de . g . t o s t a r ta m o t o r . t, o a c t i v a t e
a camera
flasho , r t o s w i t c ho n a f l u o r e s c e nt u t be.
T h es t o r e dc h a r g ec a na l s ob e a l l o w e dt o b e r e l e a s e sdl o w l y t h r o u g ah r e s i s t o r
in a smoothing
c i r c u i ta, n dt h i s h a sp r a c t i c aal p p l i c a t i o ni n
s c o n v e r t i n ag r e c t i f i e da l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n ti n t oa n
a l m o s tc o n s t a ndt i r e c tc u r r e n t .
T h ew h o l ea r r a n g e m e notf t h e m e t a ls h e e t sw i t h t h e d i e l e c t r iicn b e t w e e n ,i s
t h e n r o l l e di n t o a
s m a l tl i g h tc y l i n d ear n ds e a l e di n a c a s ew i t h t w o t e r m i n a les x t e n d i nogu t .
T h eC A P A C I T A N C
o fEa c a p a c i t oirs g i v e nb y t h e e q u a t i o nc _
3
W h e r eQ i s t h e c h a r g es t o r 6 da n dV i s t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c b
e e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s .
Capacitance
is definedas the chargerequiredto causeunit changein potentialdifference
betweenthe plates.
T h eu n i t o f c a p a c i t a n ci set h e F a r a d( F ).
T h e F a r a di s d e f i n e da st h e c a p a c i t a n coef a c a p a c i t oirf a c h a r g eo f 1 Cc a u s e s
a c h a n g eo f 1 V
b e t w e e nt h e p l a t e s .
T h ef a r a di s a n e x t r e m e l yl a r g ec a p a c i t a n caen, dt y p i c a cl a p a c i t o risn h o u s e h o l d
a p p l i a n c easr e
r a t e di n m i l l i - f a r a d(sm F )o r m i c r o - f a r a c i s ( p F ) .
6I
CAPACITANCE:
AFFECTING
FACTORS
d the
F o rt w o p a r a l l epl l a t e sh a v i n ga n a r e ao f o v e r l a pA a n d s e p a r a t e bd y a d i s t a n c e
c a p a c i t a n coef t h e p a r a l l epl l a t ec a p a c i t oirs g i v e nb y : C : 4 d
T h ec a p a c i t a n ci n l yh e nt h e s p a c eb e t w e e nt h e p l a t e si s f i l l e dw i t h
e c r e a s essi g n i f i c a n tw
g a t e r i asl u c ha s p o l y s t y r e noer g l a s so r p o l y t h e n e .
i n s u l a t i nm
is determinedby 3 factorsi.e
Hencethe maghitudeof the Capacitance
( i i ) T h eA r e ao f o v e r l a po f t h e p l a t e sa n d
(iii)The o f s e p a r a t i oonf t h e p l a t e s .
distance
62
DIELECTRICS
RelativePermitivity:
T h i si s t h e r a t i oo f t h e c a p a c i t a n cwei t h a n dw i t h o u t t h ed i e l e c t r ibc e t w e e n
the plates.
T h e r e l a t i v ep e r m i t t i v i t iys d e n o t e db y t h e s y m b o le , . a n di s g i v e nb y t h e
equation:
or ca
tr:;
T h ef o l l o w i n gt a b l eg i v e s6 o m et y p i c a dl i e l e c t r i ct so g e t h e rw i t h t h e i r
c o r r e s p o n d i nr g
elative
p e r m i t i v i t i easn d d i e l e c t r isct r e n g t h sw
, h i c hy o u M U S TL E A R N .
63
lmportanceof the Dielectric
D i e l e c t r i ccsa nw i t h s t a n dm u c hh i g h e re l e c t r i cf i e l d st h a n a i r b e f o r ea n yc o n d u c t i o cna n
t a k ep l a c eb e t w e e nt h e p l a t e si.. e .t h e d i e l e c t r i chsa v ea m u c hh i g h e rb r e a k d o w n
v o l t a g et h a nt h a t o f a i r .
c o l e c u l e as c q u i r ea p o s i t i v ec h a r g eo n
S i n c et h e d i e l e c t r i m
o n e e n d a n d a n e g a t i v ec h a r g eo n t h e o t h e re n d ,i t i s s a i dt o
bepolarized.
T h ec h a r g e so n t h e s u r f a c e . ot h f e d i e l e c t r i ca,d j a c e ntto t h e
p l a t e sa r e o f o p p o s i t es i g nt o t h o s eo n t h e p l a t e sa, n d a s a
h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e nt h e
r e s u l t h e y R E D U CtE
plates.
F r o mt h e f o r m u l a :
64
Capacitors
in Series:
Vr V2 V3
-olo -lo
C2
V1
A c h a r g eo f - Q l e a v e st h e n e g a t i v tee r m i n a ol f t h e b a t t e r ya n d a c h a r g eo f + q l e a v e st h e
p o s i t i v et e r m i n a l H
. e n c em a t h e m a t i c a ltlhye n e t c h a r g el e a v i n g
t h e b a t t e r yi s z e r o ,a n d s i n c e
t h e c h a r g eo s n t h e p l a t e so f t h e c a p a c i t oar r e+ Q a n d- e , t h e n e t c h a r g eo n e a c hc a p a c i t oirs
zero.
T h ea c t i o no f t h e c a p a c i t oirs t h e n r e a l l yt o s e p a r a t teh e n e g a t i v e
c h a r g e fsr o m t h e p o s i t i v e
ones.
F o r c o n v e n i e n ci ne c a l c u l a t i o nt sh ,e c h a r g eo n o n e p l a t ei s c o n s i d e r e id. .e .l f a c h a r g eo f + e
a c c u m u l a t eosn t h e p o s i t i v ep l a t ea n da c h a r g eo f - Q a c c u m u l a t eos n t h e n e g a t i v ep l a t e t, h e n
i n t h e c a l c u l a t i oanc h a r g eo f Q i s u s e d T
. h es i g no f t h e c h a r g ei s n o t i m p o r t a n t .
H e n c ef o r t h e s e r i e sc i r c u i ta b o v et,h e c h a r g eo n e a c hc a p a c i t oirs Q a n d t h e t o t a lc h a r g e
leaving
t h e b a t t e r yi s a l s oQ .
l f V 1 , V z , d n d V 3 r e p r e s e n t h e v o l t a g e sa c r o s sC t , C z a n dC 3r e s p e c t i v e l yt ,h e n b y t h e
c o N S E R V A T I OO
N F E NE R G y , Vr - v1 + Vz + V:
tl -
0
But v-
C
Ilence Vr ::
n
Y a,Q,
tl
a
L7 C7 C2 C.
_ J
11,,1_,L
i f w e d i v i d et h e i a t : e re q u a t i o nb y q t h e n w e g e t :
C7 Cr'Cr'C=
65
Capacitorst n P a r a l l e l :
V
Bythe conservation of charge,the total chargeQ 1 leavingthe battery,is equalto the sum of
s c c u m u l a t i nogn t h e c a p a c i t o r s .
t h e c h a r g ea
Therefore,Qr = Qr +Q2+Q3l
S i n c eQ = ! V , t h e n Q r = C r V ; Q z= C z V ; a n dQ : = C i V
Q, =CrV=C1V+CzV+CgV
66
ENERGY
STORED
IN A CAPACITOR
Energycanbe storedin a capacitorvia a batteryin the f o l l o w i ncgi r c u i t :
I n t h e g r a p ho f V v e r s u sQ , t h e
a r e au n d e rt h e g r a p h
representsthe energystored
in the capacitor
a
W h e nt h e c a p a c i t ohr a si n i t i a l l yz e r oc h a r g eo n i t , t h e p o t e n t i adl i f t e r e n c b
e e t w e e np o i n t s A
a n d B i s V . i . e .t h e p . d .b e t w e e nt h e p o s i t i v ep o l eo f t h e b a t t e r ya n dt h e u n c h a r g elde f t p l a t ei s
V.
Hencethe chargesINITIALLY
passthrougha potentialdifferenceof V volts.
Duringthe entirechargingprocess,
the potentialdifferencethat the chargepasses through,
would havechangedfrom V to zero.Hencethe AVERAGE potentialdifferencethat the total
c h a r g eQ p a s s etsh r o u g ,hr t -f,
T
T h ew o r k d o n ei n m o v i n ga c h a r g eQ t h r o u g ha n a v e r a g ep o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c o
e f Y is givenby
2
W:V 2
T h ew o r k d o n ei n m o v i n gt h e c h a r g ei s e q u a lt o t h e e n e r g ys t o r e di n t h e c a p a c i t o r
o
g =
S u b s t i t u t i nC givesthree usefulequationsfor energystoredin the capacitor;
|
- ----
w- QV Q2 CVz
22C2
Y o um u s tl e a r nt h e s ee q u a t i o n s ! ! ! ! !
67
C a p a c i t oQr u e s t i o n s
( 1 ) F i n dt h e e q u i v a l e ncta p a c i t a n ci n
e e a c hc a s e :
(i) r-IHH A n s7 . 6 2 p r F
100uF
(ii)
108.25;rF
:f
10uF 47p,F
80prF 20prF
]H A n s1 1 6 U F
100prF
80prF
Ans.200;rF
( 2 )T h et e r m i n a l sa t A a n d B a r e n o w c o n n e c t e tdo a 2 0 Vs o u r c ei n e a c hc a s e R
. e d r a we a c h
c a p a c i t o(rb )T h e
c i r c u i t o i n c l rJ e t h e p o w e rs u p p l ya, n df i n d ( a ) T h ep . d .a c r o s sE A C H
c h a r g es t o r e di n E A C Hc a p a c i t o ra n d ( c )T h eenergystoredin EACHcapacitor.
68
(1) 20v
V + z: 3 . 2 4 V ; V r c o
: 1 , . 5 2 V ; V r-c I S . Z 4 V
Q + z: Q r c : 0 r o o - I . S 2 x 1 , 0 - 4 C
E+z=2.45x1.0-4J
E r . o o_ 1 , 1 5x 1 0 - 4 J
471tF 1009F 10pF
El,o:1'15x10-3J
100sF
(2) V r c o: 2 0 V ; V t o= 1 , 6 . 5 V ; V +: z 3 . S V
Q r c o_ 2 x 1 , 0 - 3 c
Q+z=Qrc:1.65x1'0-4C
Erco_ 0.02J
E + z: 2 . 9 x L 0 - 4 J
20v E t : 1 . 3 6x 1 0 - 2 J
80uF 201tF
Q e o: Q z o: 3 . 2 x i . 0 - 4 C
Q r o o_ 2 x . 1 , 0 - 3 C
100pF
E e o= 6 . 4 x 1 0 - 4 J
Ezo:2.56x1,0-3J
20v Erco_Z.0xI0-2J
69
A CAPACITOR.
AND DISCHARGING
CHARGING
it acrossa resistoras shown:
d connecting
A c a p a c i t oirs n o r m a l l yd i s c h a r g eby
C
R
d
A st h e c a p a c i t o r i s c h a r g a
e sc r o s R
s ,its s t o r e dc h a r g d
e e c r e a s ewsi t h t i m e ,a n d h e n c et h e
magnitude o f t h e c u r r e n ti n t h e c i r c u i w e i t ht i m e .
t i l l a l s od e c r e a sw
and
of currentdependson the magnitudeof the productof resistance
The rateof decrease
, o n t h e v a l u eo f R C .
c a p a c i t a n c ie. e
T h eq u a n t i t yR Ci s c a l l e dt h e T I M EC O N S T A N Ta n d h a su n i t so f s e c o n d s .
I : Ioe
(V,l, or Q)
-ft -/nc
Q - Qoe
-/nc -ft
V - Voe
time
70
CHARGtNG
OFA CAPACTTOE
W h e na c a p a c i t oirs b e i n gC H A R G E D
t h e V O L T A Ga
En d C H A R G E
i n c r e a sw
e i t h t i m e u n t i lt h e y
r e a c ha m a x i m u mv a l u e T
. h ec u r r e n th o w e v e rd, e c r e a s ewsi t h t i m e a n d h a st h e s a m es h a p ef o r
discharging.
Voltage
charge
time
c ur r e n t
-fr
I : Ioe "/RC
Q - Q o( 1 - e - t / n c )
N o t et h e d i f f e r e n c eisn e q u a t i o n fso r
charging
a n dd i s c h a r g i n T
g .h eV o , Q o
a n d l ev a l u e sr e p r e s e nt th e m a x i m u m
time v a l u e si n t h i sc a s e .
7t
C O M P A R I S OONFC H A R G I NAGN D D I S C H A R G I N G
c a . s e:s
C o n s i d et rw o s e p a r a t e
t o a v o l t a g eo f 2 0 V a n dt h e n m a d et o
( 1 ) A c a p a c i t ohr a v i n ga c a p a c i t a n coef 2 5 p r iFs c h a r g e d
d i s c h a r gteh r o u g ha 5 0 k Or e s i s t o rD. e t e r m i n teh e t i m e t a k e nf o r t h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e c a p a c i t o r t o
f al l t o 5 V .
a n dt h e p . d .a c r o s ist i s 5 V .l t i s
( 2 )A c a p a c i t ohra v i n ga c a p a c i t a n coef 2 5 ; r Fi s p a r t i a l lcyh a r g e d
t h e n c h a r g e dt h r o u g ha 5 0 k Or e s i s t otro a p . d .o f 2 0 V .D e t e r m i n teh e t i m e t a k e nf o r t h i s
process.
charging
l n t h e f i r s tc a s e
tlnc,
V - Voe
v -t v / 51
t"% -# ; t - -RC r"uo- (-s0000x 25x 10-t)(r"^) :1..73s
l n t h e s e c o n dc a s e ,
tlnc)
V - Vo(I - e
Vo \ vo/ \ Vo/ RC
/ 5t -t
tn(r-fi) -
soooffi;
r : 5 0 0 00 x 2 5 x 1 0 - 6x l n ( 0. 7 5 ) : 0 . 3 6 s
72
Significance
of the TimeConstant
R e c a lt lh a t f o r D I S C H A R G I N
t hGe,V o l t a g ea t a n yi n s t a n it s g i v e nb y :
V : V o r - t l * r , w h e r eR Ci s t h e T i m eC o n s t a n t
l f w e c o n s i d ear t i m e t w h e r et = R Ct,h e nt h e e q u a t i o nb e c o m e s :
V - V o e "- 1
' o, r v - - V o
ev
11,
T h e u a l u eo f e - 2 . 7 1 8 , h e n c e - 0.368
; LTIB-
A f t e ra p p r o x i m a t e 3
l yt i m e c o n s t a n t st h, e c a p a c i troi s o l m o sct o m p l e t e ldy i s c h a r g e d .
T h i sc a nb e d e m o n s t r a t eadsf o l l o w sw h e nt = 3 C R
V - V o e - = ; V : 0 . 0 5 7 0w h i c h i . sc l o s et o z e r o .
S i m i l a r lfyo r t h e c h a r g i npgr o c e s s
tlnc);wheftt:3RC,
V -Vo(I -e V -VoI-e-3); V - 0.9SI/0
H e n c ea f t e r3 t i m e c o n s t a n ttsh e c a p a c i t oirs a l m o s tf u l l yc h a r g e d .
73
DISCHARGE
CAPACITOR SHEET
TUTORIAL
t o 6 V a n dt h e n m a d et o d i s c h a r gaec r o s sa L 2 0 k Qr e s i s t o r .
( 1 ) A 5 0 p Fc a p a c i t oirs c h a r g e d
C a l c u l a t:e
( i )T h et i m e c o n s t a not f t h e d i s c h a r gcei r c u i t
( i i ) T h et i m e st h a t w o u l dh a v ee l a p s e fdo r t h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e c a p a c i t o r t foa l lt o 3 V a n d 1 V
( i i i )T h ec h a r g et h a t w o u l dh a v ef l o w e dt h r o u g ht h e r e s i s t oar f t e r5 s e c o n d s
( i v )T h ee n e r g yd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t oar f t e r2 s e c o n d s . ( H i n t ; f itnhde i n i t i ael n e r g ya n d
, e n f i n dt h e d i f f e r e n c e )
t h e n t h e e n e r g ya f t e r2 s e c o n d st h
4t.)
(Ans:6s;4.1,6s;1'0.75s; t.7 x 10-4C ; 4.4 x tO
74
(4) A 1500;rFcapacitoris chargedto 6V andthen madeto discharge acrossa 800kO
resistor.
C a l c u l a t:e
( i )T h et i m e c o n s t a not f t h e d i s c h a r gcei r c u i t
( i i )T h et i m e t h a t w o u l dh a v ee l a p s e d
f o r t h e e n e r g yo f t h e c a p a c i t otro f a l lt o S O %
of its
i n i t i avl a l u e
(iii)Thetime that would haveelapsedfor the energyof the capacitorto fallto 2O%ofits
i n i t i a vl a l u ea n dt h e c u r r e n ti n t h e c i r c u i a
t t thatinstant.
(iv)Theenergystoredin the capacitorafter its initialchargefallsto 30%ofits initial
value
( v )T h e p . d .a c r o s st h e c a p a c i t owr h e n i t s e n e r g ys t o r e di s 4 5 %o f t h e i n i t i a vl a l u e .
(Ans:1200s; 4I7s; 967s;3.35x10'
A; 2.43xt03t;+.OZV)
75
Solutionsfor CapacitorDischarge
( 1 ) ( i ) T i m eC o n s t a nrt = C R= 5 0 x L 0 - 6
x 1 , 2 0 x1 0 3 =6 s e c o n d s .
(ii) Use7 - Vor-il^, where Vo : 6V, and"V : 3V
-rt 3
H e n c e3 - 6 e - t l n cb u t R C : 6 , s o 3 : 6 e - t l u ; ,-tlu
Z-
3-t-t
ln= : . ; -0.693 :: ;t : 0.693x 6 x- 4.I6s
666
- 'r//o ; l n 1 , - t
WhenV : IV ;I _ 6e ; t :10.75s
6: 6
( i i i )U s e Q: Q or . - t l n cb u t f i r s t f i . n d "Q s ; Q o : C V s - 5 0 x 1 0 - 6 x 6 : 3 x 1 0 - 4 C
H e n c eQ - 3 x 1 0 - a e - s l o- 1 . 3 x I 0 - 4 C
T h a tv a l u eo f Q r e p r e s e n ttsh e c h a r g er e m a i n i n ign t h e c a p a c i t oar f t e r5 s e c o n d sT.h ec h a r g e
t h a t w o u l dh a v eb e e nl o s tf r o m t h e c a p a c i t oi rs e q u a l t ot h e D I F F E R E NbCeEt w e e nt h e i n i t i a l
c h a r g ea n dt h e f i n a lc h a r g e .
i . e .3 x 1 0 - + 6 - 1 . 3x 1 0 - 4 C: 1 , . 7x I 0 - 4 C
( i v )F i n d . I n i t t a l E n e r g y s t o r e d .t . e . E s - ) t u & - -
1* 50 x 10-6 x 62 9 x r0-4J
A f t e r 2 s e c o n d sf ,i - n dt h e n e w v o ' I t a g et . r . V - V o r - t l n c ; V - 6 e - z l o- 4 . 3 V
1,^1
. ThenuseagatnE- 50x 10-6x4.32:4.6 xI0-4J.
ZCVt:rx
T h ed i f f e r e n c ien t h e t w o v a l u e so f t h e c a l c u l a t eedn e r g i e rse p r e s e n ttsh e e n e r g yd i s s i p a t ebdy
t h e c a p a c i t oi .re . 9 x 1 0 - + 1- 4 . 6 x 1 0 - a - 4 . 4 x t 0 - 4 J
76
( 2 ) ( i ) T i m ec o n s t a n rt = c R= 1 0 0 0x l - 0 ' 6x 1 . 5x 1 0 6 =1 5 0 0s e c o n d s
( i i ) U s e7 - V o r - t l n cw h e r e V o: 1 2 V , a n d V : 9 V
H e n c e9 : 7 2 r - t l a cb u t R C : 1 5 0 0 , s o 9 : L 2 e - t l r c o o; ,-t/rroo
*:
9-t-t
l n - : - : : i ; - 0 '.228888 : ' r -
; t : 0 , 2 8 8 x 1 5 0 0: 4 3 2 s
1,2 15oo 15oo
W h e n V: 6 V ; 6 : 1 2 r - t l r c o o ; l n ; t:1040s
*:#
W h e n V: i , V; 1 : r 2 r - t l r c ;ol o
n+ : # : ; t : 3727s
( i i i ) U s e Q : Q o r - t l n cb u t f i " r s t f i . n d . Q s ; Q o : C V s - 1 0 0 0 x 1 0 - 6 x 1 2 : 1 , 2 x 10-3C
H e n c eQ - t 2 x 1 0 - 3 r - u " / r r 0 0 - 6 . 7 x 1 0 - 3 C
( i v )F f . n d I. n t t i a l E n e r g y s t o r e di . . e . E s: ) t U & -! x 1 0 0 0 x 1 0 - 6 x 1 . 2 2: 7 2 x I0-3J
-
Af ter 200 second.s, f ind"the new voltage t. e.V - Vor-tlnc;V : 1.2r-'oolrs00 I0.SV
1^1
T h e n u s ea g a i n E - : 2 x 1 0 0 0 x 1 0 - 6 x 1 0 , 5 2: 5 5 x t 0 - 3 J .
tCVt
T h ed i f f e r e n c ien t h e t w o v a l u e so f t h e c a l c u l a t eedn e r g i e rse p r e s e n ttsh e e n e r g yd i s s i p a t ebdy
t h e c a p a c i t oi .r e . 7 2x 1 0 - : 7 - 5 5 x 1 0 - 3 : 1 . 7 x t 0 - 3 J
r j ' s v- -
T h ec u r r e n ti n t h e c i r c u iat t t h a t i n s t a nits f o u n df r o m I - Y - 7 x 1,0-6A
R 1 . 5x 1 0 b
( i v )U s eV : V o r - t l * , w h e r e V o: 1 , 2 V , a n dt ": 3 0 0 s , R C : 1 5 0 0 s
V : 1,ze-=oo r sl o o- g . B z V
77
MAGNETIC
FIELDS
co
W h e n e v ear c u r r e n t - c a r r y i n g n d u c t oor f l e n g t h/ i s p l a c e di n a m a g n e t i c f i e l da,f o r c ei s
e x e r t e do n t h e c o n d u c t opr r o v i d i n tgh a t t h e c u r r e n ti s n o t p a r a l l et lo t h e f i e l d .
T h ef o r c ea c t i n go n t h e c o n d u c t oirs g i v e nb y t h e e q u a t i o n :
F : Bllstn 0
W h e r e0 i s t h e a n g l eb e t w e e nt h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e c u r r e n ta n dt h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e m a g n e t i c
field.
T h e q u a n t i t y/ r e p r e s e n ttsh e l e n g t ho f c o n d u c t otrh a t i s i n t h e m a g n e t i fci e l da n d " 8 " i s c a l l e d
t h e m a g n e t i fcl u x d e n s i t y .
T h ea b o v ee q u a t i o ni n d i c a t etsh a t t h e f o r c ei s m a x i m u mw h e ns i n O= 1 , a n dt h i so c c u r sw h e n0
= 9 0 " , i . et h
. e f o r c ei s m a x i m u mw h e nt h e c u r r e n ta n dt h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e m a g n e t i c f i e ladr ea t
9 0 "t o e a c ho t h e r .
H e n c eF : B I L w h e nt h e c u r r e n ta n dt h e f i e l da r ea t r i g h ta n g l e st o e a c ho t h e r .
F r o mt h i s l a t t e re q u a t i o nw, e c a nd e d u c et h a t B - I , 1 * h " n 0 = 9 0 " )
IL
T h eu n i t o f m a g n e t i fcl u x d e n s i t yi s t h e T e s l a( T ) .
T h eT e s l ai s d e f i n e da sf o l l o w s :
78
c o n d u c t oirs p l a c e di n a m a g n e t i fci e l d ,t h e d i r e c t i o nof the forceon
W h e na c u r r e n t c- a r r y i n g
the conductoris givenby FLEMING'S LEFTHANDRULE
R e c a ltlh a t fhumb Forefinger seCond
iI
I
I
THRUST
I
V
FIELD
Itunnrrur
In Fleming'sLeft hand Rule,the current,field and force are alwaysat right anglesto each
other.
Forceon a Charge
W h i l et h e e x p r e s s i oFn= B l Ls i n 0i s u s e dt o d e t e r m i n et h e f o r c ea c t i n go n t h e c o n d u c t o rt ,h e
e q u a t i o nc a nb e m o d i f i e dt o d e t e r m i n et h e f o r c eo n e a c hc h a r g et h a t c o n s t i t u t teh e c u r r e n t .
F o ra c o n d u c t ocr a r r y i n ga c u r r e n t| , l e t t h e T o t a ln u m b e ro f c h a r g etsh a t w o u l dh a v ef l o w e d
a f t e rs o m et i m e b e " n ". '
o f o n e c h a r g eb e " q " .
L e tt h e m a g n i t u d e
nq
Hence the current t-
t
B u tt h e f o r c eo n t h e c o n d u c t o irs e q u a lt o F r= B I Ls i n 0
Bnql x stn?
Substituttng f or I gi"uesFt:
F - Bqv sin9
79
l f t h e c h a r g em o v e sa t r i g h ta n g l e st o t h e f i e l d ,t h e nt h e f o r c ew i l l b e a t r i g h ta n g l e st o b o t ht h e
f i e l da n dt h e v e l o c i t yo f t h e c h a r g e
C o n s i d ear p o s i t i v ec h a r g ee n t e r i n ga u n i f o r mm a g n e t i fci e l da t r i g h ta n g l e st o t h e . f i e l d :
T h ef i e l di s d i r e c t e di n t ot h e p l a n eo f t h e p a p e r . a n db y F l e m i n g l' se f th a n dR u l e ,t h e f o r c ei s
. o w e v e irf F l e m i n g 'lse f t h a n dr u l ei s a p p l i e da t a l m o s te v e r yp o i n ti n
i n i t i a l l yd i r e c t e du p w a r d sH
t h e p a t ho f t h e c h a r g ei,t w i l l b e s e e nt h a t t h e m o t i o no f t h e c h a r g ei s c i r c u l aar s l o n ga st h e
c h a r g er e m a i n si n t h e f i e l d .
T h ec h a r g eu n d e r g o ecsi r c u l a r
m o t i o na n dt h e M a g n e t i cF o r c e=
C e n t r i p e t aFlo r c e .
mvz
BQv -
Hence wherem is
r
t h e m a s so f t h e c h a r g ea n d r i s t h e
mvz
BQY :
LEARN r a d i u so f t h e c i r c l e .
r
80
M A G N E T IF
CI E L DTSU T O R I ASLH E E T
( 1 ) A w i r ec a r r y i n g a c u r r e n to f 8 A a n d 1 . 5m e t r e si n l e n g t hi s p l a c e di n a f i e l do f f l u xd e n s i t y
0 . 4 5 T. W h a ti s t h e f o r c eo n t h e w i r e i f i t i s p l a c e d
( a ) A t r i g h ta n g l e st o t h e f i e l d
( b ) A t 6 0 ' t ot h e f i e l d
( c ) A t 4 5 = t ot h e f i e l d
( d ) A l o n gt h e f i e l d ( A n s 5: . 4 N ; 4 . 6 8 N3 .; 8 2 N ; 0()U s eF = B r Ls i n 0 )
( 2 ) A t h i n c o n d u c t o6r m l o n ga n d c a r r y i n g a c u r r e n to f 0 . 4 5 Ai s p l a c e di n a u n i f o r mm a g n e t i c
f i e l da t r i g h ta n g l e st o t h e f i e l d . O n l yp a r to f t h e c o n d u c t oirs e n v e l o p e d
i n t h e f i e l dw i t h
3 . 6 me x t e n d i nogu t o f t h e r e g i o nc o n t a i n i ntgh e f i e l d .l f t h e f o r c eo n t h e w i r e i s 7 . 2 Nf,i n d
t h e m a g n e t ifcl u xd e n s i t y . ( H i n t O : n l y2 . 4 mo f t h e w i r e i s s u b j e c t etdo t h e f i e l d .
( A n s 6: . 6 7 T \
( 3 ) A p i e c eo f w i r e 6 5 c m l o n g c a r r y i n ga c u r r e n to f 1 . 2 A i s p l a c e da t a n a n g l e0 t o a u n i f o r m
m a g n e t i cf i e l d o f F l u x d e n s i t y4 . 5 T . l ft h e f o r c eo n t h e w i r e i s 2 . 8 8 N ,c a l c u l a t et h e v a l u eo f 0 .
( A n s :5 5 " )
( a ) W h a t l e n g t ho f c o n d u c t ocr a r r y i n ga c u r r e n to f 3 . 3 4p l a c e da t a n a n g l eo f 7 0 "t o a m a g n e t i c
f i e l do f f l u xd e n s i t y1 . 8 T , w i lcl a u s ea f o r c eo f 1 . 9 5 Nt o b e e x e r t e do n t h e c o n d u c t o r ?
( A n s .3:5 c m ) - .
( 5 ) l f 1 . 5 5 mo f w i r e c a r r y i n g
a c u r r e n to f 3 . 4 Ap l a c e di n a u n i f o r mf i e l do f f l u xd e n s i t y2 . 2 T ,
w h a t m u s tb e t h e a n g l eb e t w e e nt h e c o n d u c t oar n dt h e f i e l di f t h e f o r c eo n t h e c o n d u c t o r
i s5 N ? ( A n s : 2 5 . 5 " ) .
( 6 ) A n e l e c t r o ne n t e r sa u n i f o r mm a g n e t i c f i e lodf f l u x d e n s i t2y . 5 f w i t h a v e l o c i t y o f
3 . 5x L 0 6 m 1 s a t a n a n g l eo f 4 0 " t ot h e f i e l d .C a l c u l a t e
h e f o r c eo n t h e e l e c t r o n .
( A n s 9: x 1 0 ' 1 3 N tF) = B q v s i n 0 l
'(7)Aproton(mass=!.67x1027Kgandcharge=1.6x1-0-1eC)
isfiredataspeedof6.5xl06ms-1
a t r i g h ta n g l e st o a m a g n e t i fci e l do f f l u xd e n s i t y3 x l - 02 T .D e t e r m i n teh e r a d i u so f t h e p a t ho f
t h e p r o t o nw h i l ei t i s i n t h e f i e l d .( H i n t U
: s eF - r y a n d .F - B q v ) ( A n2s . 2 6 m )
( 8 ) A n e l e c t r o ni s a c c e l e r a t ef dr o m r e s tt h r o u g ha p . d .o f 3 7 5 0 V l.t e n t e r sa r e g i o nw h e r e
B= 4 x L0-3T perpendicula t or i t sv e l o c i t yC. a l c u l a tteh e r a d i u so f t h e p a t hi t w i l l f o l l o w .
31
{ A n s5 . 2 c m ) R e c a i r, ' I r d sosf e l e c t r o ni s 9 . 1 x 1 0 k g a n d c h a r g e= 1 . 6 x l - 0 - 1 e c
1, 1_ mu2
F t r s t f i r t d s p e e do f e L e c t r o nf r o m W - Q V : t h e nuseBQ
,^r' r
81
MagneticFluxPatterns
T h em a g n e t i cF i e l dP a t t e r nd u et o :
C u r r e n itn t o p l a n eo f P a P e r C u r r e n to u t o f p l a n eo f P a P e r
T h ed i r e c t i o no f t h e f i e l dl i n e si s g i v e nb y t h e R i g h H t a n dG r i pR u l e .
Thisrulestatesthat i f t h e r i g h th a n di s u s e dt o g r i pt h e c o n d u c t o rw, i t h t h e t h u m bp o i n t i n gi n
t h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e c u r r e n tt,h e n t h e d i r e c t i o no f c u r lo f t h e f i n g e r sw i l l givethe directionof the
m a g n e t ifci e l dl i n e s .
(2)Aflat circularcoil:
A L O N GS O L E N O I D
Thernagnsti*
fi*ld is
O n l o o k i n ga t t h e c o i l
ffi= FI"nl *snceRtr*ted
f r o m o n e e n d ,i f t h e int*a n*arly
c ur r e n ti s nifsrmfield
aN t i c l o c k w i s, e
then n ths *sntsr
t h a t e n d i s a N - p o l ei;f a l*ng
i t i s c l o c k w i s ei t, i s a S - s*lsnsid.Ths
pole fieldoutside
is wsakand
dir,erge*t.
T h e r i g h th a n dg r i pr u l ec a nb e
a p p l i e dh e r ea g a i nt o g e t t h e
d i r e c t i o no f t h e f i e l d .H o l dt h e c o i l
w i t h t h e r i g h th a n ds o t h a t t h e c u r lo f
t h e f i n g e r sg i v et h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e
C U R R E NtTh;e t h u m bp o i n t i n g
o u t w a r d sg, i v e st h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e
FIELD.
83
FLUXDENSITY:
OF MAGNETIC
CALCULATION
trg_r
( 1 ) A t a d i s t a n c e" r " f r o m a l o n gs t r a i g hw a c u r r e n tl ; B = . * t ,
t i r ec a r r y i n g
w h e r e$ oi s c a l l e dt h e p e r m e a b i l i t y offr e e s p a c ea n d h a sa v a l u eo f 4 n x 1 0 - ' H m
l i s t h e u n i tc a l l e dt h e H e n r yw h i c hi s a m e a s u r eo f I n d u c t a n c e
T h es y m b o H
n o t r e q u i r e db y s y l l a b u s .
B - P t f o r a l o n gs t r a i g hwt i r e ,w h e r er i st h e
zfir
d i s t a n c fer o m t h e a x i so f t h e w i r e
B - E r u f f o r t h e c e n t r eo f a f l a t c i r c u l acr o i l ,
2r
w h e r er i s t h e r a d i u so f t h e c o i l
B : VonI n e a rt h e c e n t r eo f a l o n gs o l e n o i d
N i s t h e n u m b e ro f t u r n sa n dn i s t h e n u m b e ro f t u r n s
per unit length
84
MAGNETIC
FIELDS
TUTORIAL
SHEET
( 1 ) C a l c u l a t teh e m a g n e t i cf l u x d e n s i t ya t a p o i n t ( a ) 1 2 c m a n d ( b ) 1 . 5 mf r o m a l o n gs t r a i g h t
w i r e c a r r y i n ga c u r r e n to f 5 . 8 A . ( A n s : 9 . 6 11x 0 6 T ;7 . 7 3x t O 7 t )
( 2 1A w i r e c a r r y i n ga c u r r e n to f 8 A p r o d u c e as f i e l do f f l u x d e n s i t y7 . 4 x 1 0 6 Ta t a d i s t a n c ex c m
a w a yf r o m t h e w i r e .D e t e r m i nteh e v a l u eo f x , ( A n s2 1 . 6 c m )
( 3 )W h a t m u s tb e t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e c u r r e n ti n a w i r e i f t h e c u r r e n tp r o d u c e a
s
f i e l do f f l u xd e n s i t y5 . 8x 1 0 6 Ta t a d i s t a n c e
o f 2 2 c mf r o m t h e w i r e . (A n s6 . 3 8 A )
( 4 ) A f l a t c i r c u l a rc o i l h a s 5 0 t u r n s o f w i r e , a n d t h e d i a m e t e ro f t h e c o i l i s 4 4 c m .W h a t i s t h e
magnitude o f t h e f l u xa t t h e c e n t r ei f 1 . 8 Af l o w st h r o u g ht h e c o i l ? ( A N2S. 5 7x t 0 4 t )
( 5 ) H o w m a n yt u r n so f w i r e a r e t h e r e i n a f l a t c i r c u l acr o i lo f w i r e o f d i a m e t e r6 8 c mi f a c u r r e n t
s m a g n e t i fcl u xd e n s i t yo f 6 x 1 0 4 T ?( A n sI 2 O )
o f 2 . 7A p r o d u c e a
( 6 )W h a t i s t h e m a g n i t u d eo f t h e c u r r e n ti n a f l a t c i r c u l acr o i lo f w i r e i f i t h a s2 5 0 t u r n so f w i r e ,
i t s d i a m e t e ri s 7 5 c ma n ' dt h e f i e l da t i t s c e n t r ei s 9 x 1 0 4 T ? ( A n2s. 1 5 4 )
( 7 ) A n e l e c t r o no r b i t sa n u c l e u sw i t h a s p e e do f 1 . 8 x L 0 6 m s - ' . T hr e a d i u so f t h e c i r c u l a o
r rbitis
7 . 8 x i - 01 0 m . F i nt hd e m a g n i t u d oe f t h e f l u xd e n s i t ya t t h e n u c l e u ds u et o t h e e l e c t r o n 'm s otion..
T h ee l e c t r o n icch a r g ei s 1 . 6x 1 0 1 s C .
( H i n t : F i n dt h e c u r r e n td u e t o t h e e l e c t r o n ' m
s o t i o n ;C u r r e n =t c h a r g ep e r s e c o n dy; o u r i r u s t
m a n i p u l a t teh e c i r c u m f e r e n cteh,e s p e e da n dt h e c h a r g et o g e t c h a r g ep e r s e c o n d ) .
( A n s0 . .047T)
( 8 )A n a i r - c o r es o l e n o i dh a s1 5 0 0l o o p sa n d i s 8 0 c ml o n gw i t h a d i a m e t e o r f 3 c m .l f a c u r r e n to f
6 4 i s s e n tt h r o u g hi t . W h a t w i l l b e t h e m a g n i t u d eo f t h e f l u xd e n s i t yi n s i d eo f i t ? ( 0 . 0 1 4 T )
( 9 )A l o n gw i r e c a r r i e sa c u r r e n to f 2 0 A a l o n gt h e a x i so f a s o l e n o i dw, h i c hh a sa i a d i u s0 f 1 O c m .
T h es o l e n o i d h a sa n i n d e p e n d e nc tu r r e n ta, n dt h e f i e l dd u et o t h e s o l e n o i d i s 4 x 1 0 - 3 TF.i n dt h e
r e s u l t a nfti e l da t a p o i n t3 m m f r o m t h e s o l e n o i da x i s .( H i n t ;T h e l o n gw i r e p r o d u c e si t s o w n f i e l d
t h a t i s p e r p e n d i c u l at or t h e f i e l d o f t h e s o l e n o i dc; o n s i d e trh e t w o f i e l d sa s v e c t o r st h a t a r e
perpendicula t or e a c ho t h e r ,a n df i n dt h e r e s u l t a nvt e c t o r . ( A n4s. 2 2x t O 3 l )
f o r q u e s t i o n7 : F i n dt h e c urrrreenntti n L r e v o l u ttiiooninn w h i c hc a s eN ( n o o f t u r n s = 1 )
Soiution
x s?eed
I - charge
rge p
per
er u
unit ime -9
n i t ttime -Q
-
t ctrcumf erence
4 n x L 0 - 7 x 1 . . 6 x 1 0 - 1 ex 1 . 8 x 1 0 6
: 0.0477
2 x 7 . 8 x 1 0 - 1 0x 2 x r x 7 . B x 10-10
B5
FORCES
MAGNETIC
of Force:
Direction
LEFT
W h e na c h a r g em o v e si n a n e l e c t r i cf i e l d ,t h e d i r e c t i o no f t h e f o r c ei s g i v e nb y F L E M I N G ' S
H A ND R UL E .
xxxxxx'x
E-' X XX
XX
l n t h e a b o v ed i a g r a mt,h e e l e c t r o n T h ep o s i t i v e c h a r g eh a sa n i n i t i a l
h a sa n i n i t i a vl e l o c i t yt o w a r d st h e v e l o c i t yt o w a r d st h e r i g h t ,h e n c et h e
r i g h t ,h e n c et h e C O N V E N T I O N A L c o n v e n t i o n aclu r r e n ti s t o w a r d st h e
C U R R E Ni sTt o w a r d st h e l e f t 'T h ef i e l d r i g h t .T h ef i e l di s d i r e c t e di n t o t h e
i s d i r e c t e di n t o t h e P a P e ra, n d b Y p a p e ra n d b y F l e m i n g 'Ls e f th a n dr u l e ,
F l e m i n g ' Ls e f th a n dR u l e t, h e f o r c ei s t h e f o r c eo n t h e P o s i t i v ec h a r g ei s
initialld
y ownwards. y i r e c t e du P w a r d s .
initialld
force
A s l o n ga st h e m o v i n ge l e c t r i c h a r g ei s p e r p e n d i c u l taor t h e a p p l i e dm a g n e t i fci e l d ,t h e
o n t h e c h a r g ec a u s e si t t o u n d e r g oC I R C U L AMRO T I O Na, n dt h e f o l l o w i n ge q u a t i o ni s a p p l i e d
mvz
BQv -
r
86
Considerthe casewhen the moving chargeis perpendicular
to an ELECTRIC FIELD.
87
C o n s i d et h r e c a s en o w w h e r et h e c h a r g ep a s s etsh r o u g ha c o m b i n a t i oonf a n E l e c t r iac n d
MagnetiF c i e l dt h a t a r ep e r p e n d i c u ltaor e a c ho t h e ra n da l s op e r p e n d i c u ltaort h e i n i t i a l
v e l o c i t yo f t h e c h a r g e .
, n dt h e E l e c t r iFc o r c ew i l l b e
T h eM a g n e t i fco r c ew i l l b e d o w n w a r d(sF l e m i n gl' es f th a n dr u l e ) a
u p w a r d s ( A t t r a c t ioofno p p o s i t ec h a r g e s.)
( 1 ) P a t hA i n d i c a t etsh a t t h e u p w a r df o r c ei s g r e a t e tr h a nt h e d o w n w a r df o r c ei . e .
Eq
( 2 ) P a t hB i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e E l e c t r i cf o r c e i s e q u a l t o t h e M a g n e t i cf o r c e E Q : BqV
( 3 ) P a t h C i n d i c a t e st h a t t h e M a g n e t i cF o r c ei s g r e a t e rt h a n t h e E l e c t r i cF o r c ei . e ,
Bqv > Eq
88
The Earth's
Magnetic Field
lnnerYan Outer
A l l e nB e l t Allen
i
!
I
't
I
II
I
I
M a g n e t i cF i e l dL i n e s
It is ll'ell knorvn that the axis of the magneticfield is tipped with respectto the rotation axis
of the Earth. Thus, true north (definedby the directionto the north rotational pole) does
not coincidervith magneticnorth (definedby the directionto the north magneticpole) and
compassdirectioirsmust be correctedb,vfixed amountsat given points on the surfaceof the
8,.:rc"thto vield true directions.
89
Van Allen Radiation Belts
Earth Fcints
*-
_1--.-J
A s i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e a d j a c c * t f * i l l u r r .t h t '
.
:l
I
T h e i n n e r a n d o u t e r V a n A l l e n h c l f s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n t h e t o p t i g r r r e .T h e p r i m a r v s o u r c e o f
thesechar.gedparticlesisthe.=,.ii-:':-::::::ig-:::s"lE*:E*=emanatingfromtheSunthatwecallthe'
i d , , r i ; s i ' E " g ' ; - ,r,r"e: , s: ih- .a. l{lss c e i n ; r s u h s e q u e n ts e c t i o n ,t h e c h a r g e d p a r t i c l e s t r a p p e d i n t h e
E a r t h ' s m a g n c t i c f i e l d a r r r e s p c r r s i b l ef n r t h e ; : . ; : ; i . ''' . {' :l 't:i a r t h e r n a n d S o u t h e r n L i g h t s ) .
Rocksthat are lbrmed from the molten statecontain indicatorsof the magneticfield at the
'f
time of their solidification. hc studv of such "magneticfossils"indicatesthat the Earth's
magneticlield re\er-cs ifself everv million vearsor so (the north and south magneticpoles
suir.i'). This is br-rtonc detailof thc magnetictield that is not rvellunderstood.
90
The Earth's
Magnetosphere
The solar wind mentionedaboveis
::
a stream of ionizedgasesthat ,',
blows outward from the Sun at
about 400 km/secondand that
variesin intensitvwith the amount ..-
of surfaceactil'itv on the Sun. The ,',
Earth's magneticfield shieldsit
from much of the solar wind. When the solar lvind encountersEarth's
magneticfield it is
deflectedlike water around the bow of a ship' as illustratedin the adjacent
image(F{*eer**).
91
Applicationof Mutuallyperpendicular
Electricand MagneticFields
The MassSpectrometer:
T h i si n s t r u m e nits u s e dt o d e t e r m i n et h e m a s s e os f a t o m sa n d i o n st o a v e r yh i g hd e g r e eo f
accuracy.
I t u s e si o n s i e dg a s ,a sa s o u r c eo f p o s i t i v ei o n s ,a d e f l e c t i o n
s y s t e mc a l l e da V E L O C I TSYE L E C T O R
a n d a d e t e c t ow r h i c hi s u s u a l l ay s h e e to f p h o t o g r a p hfiicl m .
T h ev e l o c i t ys e l e c t ocr o n s i s tos f t w o s e p a r a t e pd a r a l l em
l e t a lp l a t e sw i t h m u t u a l l y
p e r p e n d i c u lealre c t r i ac n d m a g n e t ifci e l d sb e t w e e nt h e m .
W h e ni o n so f a c h a r g eq a n d s p e e dv p a s st h r o u g ht h e f i e l d st,h e M a g n e t i cF o r c eo n e a c h
-
chargeis givenb.y F ! B tQV;
T h e E l e c t r ifco r c ea c t i n go n e a c hc h a r g ei s g i v e nb VF Z - E q .
l f t h e f i e l d sa r ea d j u s t e ds o t h a t t h e r ei s n o d e f l e c t ino, t h e nE Q : B tQV
- E
T h i si m p l i e st h a t V :-
B1'
T h i su n - d e f l e c t ebde a mi s t h e n p a s s e d t h r o u g ha r e g i o no f a n o t h e rm a g n e t i fci e l da l o n ew h e r e
t h e f l u x d e n s i t yi s 8 2 .T h i sf i e l dc a u s e tsh e b e a mo f i o n st o u n d e r g oc i r c u l amr o t i o n ,w i t h t h e
r a d i u so f t h e p a t hb e i n gr .
mvZ
_+ mv
Hehce Bzgv: Bze
r r
t mE
l f w e s u b s t i t u,:t V : thenBzg :
Ur, rB r'
q E
m rB 11Bz
B2
q1
X
DETECTOR
ELECTROMAG
NETISM
W h e na s o f t i r o nc o r ei s p l a c e di n s i d ea s o l e n o i d
carrying
a c u r r e n tt,h e M a g n e t i cF l u xD e n s i t y
B o f t h e c o i li s s i g n i f i c a n tilny c r e a s e d
T h i se f f e c to f p l a c i n ga s o f ti r o nc o r ei n a c u r r e n tc a r r y i n gs o l e n o i di s s i m i l a tro t h a t o f t h e
p l a c e m e notf i h e d i e l e c t r iicn a c a p a c i t o r .
T h ep r i n c i p loef t h e e l e c t r o m a g niesta p p l i e di n
( i ) E l e c t r i dc o o r l o c k s- W h e nn o c u r r e n ft l o w si n t h e c o i l ,t h e l a t c ho f t h e l o c ki s t h e i n t h e
'locked'position
a n d r e m a i n tsh e r eb y t h e e f f e c o t f a s m a l sl p r i n gp u s h i n o
g n i t . W h e nt h e
s w i t c hi s p r e s s e da,n d a c u r r e n t f l o w si n t h e c o i l ,t h e s o f ti r o nc o r eb e c o m e sm a g n e t i z eadn d
e x e r t sa f o r c eo f a t t r a c t i o no n t h e l a t c h ,p u l l i n gi t d o w n a n d c a u s i n g t h el o c k t o b e c o m eo p e n .
W h e nt h e c u r r e n ti s s h u to f f , t h e s p r i n gt h e n p u s h e st h e l a t c hb a c ki n t ot h e ' l o c k e dp' o s i t i o n .
latch
93
RELAY:
: n e x a m p l eo f a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i sc w i t c h i s t h e E L E C T R O M A G N E T I C
( i i )S w i t c h e sA
{
Connections contacts
t o l o a de . g .
T h er e l a yi s a n .
h i g hv o l t a g e
e l e c t r o m a g n e tsi cw i t c ht h a t
equipment
operatesfrom a low voltage
s u p p l ya n d i s u s e dt o c o n t r o l
a h i g hv o l t a g es u P P | u
Ys u a l l Y
t o i n d u s t r i aml a c h i n e r Y
L o w ' ; o l t a q el n P u t
i i I' i :!a v
m a g n e t i z e da n d a t t r a c t s t h e
W h e n t h e s w i t c h i s c l o s e d ,t h e s o f t i r o n c o r e i n t h e c o i l b e c o m e s
t h e c o n t a c t st h a t c o m p l e t e
m e t a l a r r n a t A . L a L i s i ntgh e e n i i a i B t o b e p u s h e du p a n d c l o s i n g
t h e c i r c u i tf o r t h e h i g hv o i t a g ee q u i p m e n t '
94
FORCES
BETWEEN
C U R R E N T . C A R R Y IC
NOGN D U C T O R I
T h e f o r c e st o b e c o n s i d e r e da r e t h o s e b e t w e e n: ( a )p a r a i i e {i c n , j u e t o r sa n d i n )p e r n e n d i c u l a r
conductors
( 1 ) P a r a l l ecl o n d u c t c r sc a r r y i n gc u r r e n t si n t h e : ; a r : r ed i r e c t i o n .
1e F i e l dd u e t o B o n i y
\-{ Y a
al Fi..rd
c i u et o A o n l y
,,i l1
rql XXX
'iI
i
V
I
XXX i
I
XXX
€-F
C o n s i d e tr h e f o r c e a c t i n go n P . T h e c o n d u c t c ri : C t r : s i c l E n: "c w , t h e i i ; r t . a c i i n g o n Q . .T h e c o n d u c _ t o r
i s p l a c e di n t h e F I E L Do f Q . l f w e u s e t h e R i g h t Q : s p l a c e cijn t h e F l L r - Do f P . l f w e u s e t h e R i g h t
H a n dG r i p R u l ef o r Q , i t w i l l b e s e e nt h a t t h e H a n d G r i p R u l ef o r P , i t w i i l b e s e e nt h a t t h e f i e l c jo n
f i e l d o n t h e l e f t s i d eo f Q w h i c h i s e x p e r i e n c e d t h e r i g h t s i d e o f P w h i c h i s e x p e r i e n c e db y Q , g o e s
b y P , g o e si n t o t h e p l a n eo f t h e p a p e r .U s i n g o u t o f t h e p i a n e o f t h r p a p e r .L l s i n gF l e m i n g ' sL e f t
F l e m i n g ' sL e f t H a n d R u l ef o r t h e f c r c e o n P , i t ! - l a n dR u i ei o r t i : e i . ; r r e o n Q , i t w i l l b e s e e nt h a t
w i l l b e s e e nt h a t t h e f o r c e i s d i r e c t e dt o w a r C s t h e f o r c e i s d i r e c t e dt o w a r d s P .
a.
l f t h e p e r p e n d i c u l adri s t a n c e
b e t w e e nt h e c o n d u c t o riss t h e n t h e f i e l de x p e r i e n c e a
dt
l -L onl
Q d u e t o P , i s g i v e n0 v b p
7nr
Jo-l'Iq
S i m i l a r l y t h e f c- e e x p e r i e n c e d b y P i s g i v e n b y F p = B I p L s_i n O I. lsine=11
2nr
f J H E N C U R R E N TA
S R E I N T H E S A M E D I R E C T I O NT, H E R EI S A F O R C EO F A T T R A C T I O N
A C T I N GO N
E A C HC O T { D U C T O RI F. T H E C U R R E N T A
S R E I N O P P O S | T TD I R E C T I O N S
T ,H E R EI S A F O R C EO F
REPULSION
A C T I N GO N E A C HC O N D U C T O R
C o n s i d et rh e f o l l o w i n ga r r a n g e m e notf c u r r e n t - c a r r y icnogn d u c t o r s -
A
X X
X XX
Y
l f w e e x a m i n et h e f i e l dd u e t o A a t t h e T h ef i e l dd u e t o C o n i t s l e f t ,i s i n t ot h e p l a n e
e f A , i t w i l l b e s e e nt h a t b y
u n d e r s i do o f t h e p a p e rw , h i l eo n i t s r i g h t ,i t i s o u t o f
a p p l y i n tgh e R i g h H t a n dG r i pR u l et,h e t h e p l a n eo f t h e p a p e r . ( R i ghhat n dg r i p
f i e l di s d i r e c t e di n t ot h e p a p e r . Rule)
F l e m i n g 'Lse f th a n dR u l e ,t h e
B ya p p l y i n g W h e nF l e m i n g l' se f th a n dr u l ei s a p p l i e d,
forceF1experienced by C at its lower t h a t p o r t i o no f t h e w i r eA w h i c hi s t o t h e l e f t
e n d i s d i r e c t e dt o w a r d st h e R I G H T . o f w i r e C ,w i l l e x p e r i e n caef o r c et h a t i s
u p w a r d sw , h i l et h a t p o r t i o no f w i r e A t h a t i s
H o w e v e ra, t t h e u p p e rs i d eo f A , t h e f i e l d
t o t h e r i g h to f C w i l l e x p e r i e n caef o r c et h a t
i s o u t o f t h e p l a n eo f t h e p a p e ra, n dt h e
is downwards.
forceexperienced by C at its upperend,
w i l l b e F za n d i t i s d i r e c t e dt o w a r d st h e T h ew i r e A w i l l t h e r e f o r ee x p e r i e n cae
L E F T . ( F l e m i nLge' fstH a n dR u l e ) C L O C W I SMEO ME N T .
T h ew i r eC w i l l e x p e r i e n caen
A N T I C L O C K WM I SOEME N T .
96
THEHALLEFFECT
T h i sH a l lE f f e c te n a b l e os n et o d e t e r m i n e
w h e t h e rt h e c h a r g ec a r r i e r isn a c o n d u c t oar r e
p o s i t i v eo r n e g a t i v e .
XXXXXXXX
1A B
.x
X X X X X X X
t W
I
I
pV
97
OFTHEHALLEFFECT
APPLICATION
T h ep r o b ei s f i r s tc a l i b r a t e bd y p l a c i n gi t i n a f i e l do f K N O W NF L U XD E N S I TsYo, t h a t t h e
s e rT e s l ac a nb e o b t a i n e d .W h e ni t i s t h e n p l a c e di n a n u n k n o w nf i e l d ,a n dt h e H a l l
m i l l i v o l tp
v o l t a g eo b t a i n e dt,h e m a g n i t u d e o f B c a nt h e n b e c a l c u l a t e d .
FLUX
MAGNETIC
'A' to a magneticfieldof flux densityB.
Considera loopor a coilof area placedperpendicular
T h ef l u x t h r o u g ht h e c o i li s t h e n u m b e ro f m a g n e t i fci e l dl i n e sp a s s i n tgh r o u g ht h e c o i la n d i s
g i v e nb y t h e f o r m u l a :
0=BA'
The unit of magneticflux is the Weber (Wb)
FLUXLINKAGE:
y ,t h e f l u x
l f a c o i lh a s ' N ' t u r n sa n di t s a r e a ' A ' i sh e l dp e r p e n d i c u l a rat of i e l do f f l u x d e n s i t B
l i n k a g et h r o u g ht h e c o i li s t h e p r o d u c to f t h e f l u xa n dt h e n u m b e ro f t u r n si n t h e c o i l .
H e n c ei n t h i sc a s e , o-NBA
l . W e b e r= l T e s l ax L m 2 O R l T e s l a= 1 W b . m - 2
98
ELECTROMAG
NETICINDUCTION
d a galvanometer,
l f a b a r m a g n e ti s m o v e di n a n d o u t o f a l o o po f w i r ew h i c hi s c o n n e c t e to a
c u r r e n it s I N D U C EiDn t h e c o i lw h e n e v e r t h e
m a g n e its i n m o t i o n .
T h ef o l l o w i n go b s e r v a t i o nwse r e m a d e :
( 1 ) A c u r r e n te x i s t si n t h e c i r c u i o
t n l yf o r t h e i n s t a n t w
s h e nt h e r ei s r e l a t i v em o t i o n
b e t w e e nt h e m a g n e ta n dt h e l o o p .T h ec u r r e n g t o e st o z e r ow h e nt h e m o t i o ns t o p s .
( 2 ) T h eg r e a t e tr h e s p e e do f r e l a t i v em o v e m e n tt,h e g r e a t e ri s t h e m a g n i t u d e of the
c ur r e n t .
( 3 ) W h e nt h e m o t i o no f t h e m a g n e ti s r e v e r s e dt h , e d i r e c t i o no f t h e i n d u c e dc u r r e n ti s a l s o
reversed.
F r o mt h e s eo b s e r v a t i o nFs a
, r a d a y 'Lsa wo f E l e c t r o m a g n e It n
i cd u c t i o n
w a sf o r m u l a t e d .
99
R e c a l l t h aftl u x a n df l u x l i n k a g er e f e rt o t h e n u m b e ro f m a g n e t i fci e l dl i n e sp a s s i ntgh r o u g ht h e
coil.
Faradaye ' sx p e r i m e n tssh o w e dt h a t t h e n u m b e ro f f i e l dl i n e sp a s s i ntgh r o u g ht h e c o i li s
unimportanT t . h ei n d u c e de . m . f .a n d i n d u c e dc u r r e n ta r ed e t e r m i n e dp r i m a r i l yb y t h e R A T Ea t
w h i c ht h a t n u m b e ro f f i e l dl i n ec h a n g e s .
C o n s i d enr o w a d i f f e r e n ct a s ew h e r ea c o n d u c t om r o v e si n a m a g n e t i c f i e l dI n. t h i sc a s et h e
f i e l di s d i r e c t e di n t ot h e p l a n eo f t h e p a p e r a
, n dt h e c o n d u c t om
r o v e sd o w n w a r d w s itha
v e l o c i t yv . T h e l e n g t ho f t h e c o n d u c t oirs l .
XXXX XXXX
-AXX
l"
I
XXXI
I XX XX
YV
XX
XX
T h eM A G N I T U DoEf t h e e . m . f .i n d u c e da c r o s st h e e n d so f t h e c o n d u c t oirs g i v e nb y
E -dQ - Bdo.
dt dt
. d"A
T h eq u a n t i t y r e p r e s e n ttsh e r a t eo f c h a n g eo f a r e at h a t t h e c o n d u c t ocr u t st h r o u g ha n d h a s
fr
u n i t so f m ' s - t .
F r o mt h e s eu n i t sa l o n ei t c a nb e d e d u c e dt h a t - I e n g t h x u e l o c i . t y
#
HenceE - BIv. LEARN
100
l n t h e c a s ew h e r ea m a g n e ti s p l u n g e di n a n do u t o f a l o o po f w i r e ,t h e i n d u c e de . m . f .i s s t i l l
g i v e nb y E - s i n c e@= B A ,t h e a r e ao f t h e l o o pi s c o n s t a nitn t h i sc a s e b , u t t h e v a l u eo f
# "nd
B c h a n g e ds e o e n d i n o
g n i t s p o s i t i o na w a yf r o m t h e l o o p .H e n c ef o r t h i s p a r t i c u l acra s e ,
E_A9
dt
T h ea b o v ee q u a t i o nh o w e v e ri s i n c o m p l e t a
e st h e D I R E C T I OoN
f t h e i n d u c e de . m . fm u s ta t s ob e
considered.
T h ed i r e c t i o ni s g i v e nb y L e n z ' sL a wa n dt h e r e s u l t i n e
g q u a t i o ni s :
-dQ
E-
dt
LEARN!!
101
LAW
LENZ,S
T h i sl a w d e t e r m i n etsh e d i r e c t i o no f t h e i n d u c e dc u r r e n t '
to
Lenz,sLaw statesthat when an emf is inducedin a conductor,the inducedemf tends
circuit.
opposethe changecausingit, and it doesopposeit when a currentflows in the
p r o d u c ea
T h i sl a w c a nb e r e s t a t e da s : T h e p o l a r i t yo f t h e i n d u c e de . m . f. i s s u c ht h a t i t t e n d st o
f l u xw h i c hc a u s e s
c u r r e n t h a t w i l l c r e a t ea m a g n e t i fcl u xt o o p p o s et h e c h a n g ei n t h e m a g n e t i c
t h e i n d u c e de . m . f .
The combinationof Lenz'slaw and Faraday'sLawgivesthe all important
equationfor both the magnitudeand directionof the inducede.m.f.
_da
F_
Ll
dt
m u s tb e
T h ed i r e c t i o no f t h e i n d u c e de . m . f .i s t h e s a m ea st h a t f o r t h e i n d u c e dc u r r e n t b, u t i t
r e m e m b e r etdh a t t h e o p p o s i t i o o n n l yo c c u r sw h e na c u r r e n tf l o w i n t h e c i r c u i ti n w h i c ht h e c o i l
o r l o o pi s c o n n e c t e dT.h i sc a nb e d e m o n s t r a t eidn t h e a r r a n g e m e nbte l o w .
of thecoil'
T h e m a g n g ti s s e t i n t o o s c i l l a t i osno t h a t i t w i l l b e c o n t i n u o u s lbye m o v i n gi n a n d o u t
ane.m.f. duced i n
W h e nt h e s w i t c hi s o p e n ,n o c u r r e n ft l o w si n t h e c i r c u i tb, u t t h e r ew i l l b e
m a g n e ti s
a c r o s st h e l e n g t ho f t h e c o i l .S i n c et h e r ei s n o i n d u c e dc u r r e n tt,h e o s c i l l a t i oonf t h e
n o t h a m p e r e di n a n Yw a y .
sets
W h e nt h e s w i t c hi s c l o s e da, n i n d u c e dc u r r e n t f l o w si n t h e c i r c u i ta, n dt h i s i n d u c e dc u r r e n t
u p a m a g n e t i fci e l dt h a t o p p o s e tsh e m o t i o no f t h e o s c i l l a t i nm gagnet.
to
T h i so p p o s i t i o tno m o t i o nc a u s e tsh e o s c i l l a t i o nt os d i e d o w n a n dc a u s e tsh e m a g n e
eventuallycometo rest.
1,02
Lenz'sLaw is an exampleof the Principleof Conservation
of Energy.
F r o mt h e p r e v i o u d s i a g r a mw, h e nt h e s w i t c hi s c l o s e da, n dt h e m a g n e ta p p r o a c h et sh e c o i l ,t h e
i n d u c e dc u r r e n tf l o w si n a d i r e c t i o nt o p r o d u c ea N o r t hp o l ea t t h e t o p e n d o f t h e c o i lt o r e p e l
t h e i n c o m i n gN o r t hp o l eo f t h e m a g n e tT. h ew o r k d o n ei n o v e r c o m i ntgh i sf o r c eo f r e p u l s i o ni,s
c o n v e r t e di n t o e l e c t r i c aeln e r g ya n d a s i g n i f i c a n tsl ym a l l e a
r m o u n to f h e a t .
W h e nt h e N o r t hp o l eo f t h e m a g n e ti s m o v i n gu p w a r d sa w a y f r o mt h e c o i l ,t h e i n d u c e dc u r r e n t
flowsin sucha way to producea Southpoleon the top of the coilto attractthe departingNorth
poleof the magnet,and the work done in overcoming thisforceof attraction,is convertedto
e l e c t r i c ael n e r g ya n da s m a l l e ar m o u n to f h e a te n e r g y .
103
INDUCTION
OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
APPLICATIONS
( 1 ) T h e A . C .G e n e r a t o r :
W h e n a c o i li s m a d et o r o t a t ei n a m a g n e t i cf i e l d ,a n e . m . f .i s i n d u c e da c r o . stsh e e n d so f
the coil.
T h ed i a g r a ms h o w sa n a l t e r n a t i n g
curreng t e n e r a t oar l s oc a l l e da n
A L T E R N A T OTRh.i sc a nb e c o n v e r t e d
t o a d . c .g e n e r a t obr y r e p l a c i ntgh e
s l i pr i n g sw i t h S P L I R
T INGS
S l i pr i n g s
T h e c o i l r o t a t e sr n a c i o c k w i s em o t i o n , a n d t h e m a g n e t i cf i e l d i s d i r e c t e df r o m l e f t t o r i g h t .
A t t h e i n s t a n tw h e n t h e c o i l i s i n a h o r i z o n t apl o s i t i o nd u r i n gi t s r o t a t i o n t, h e R A T Eo f c h a n g eo f
f l u x i s m a X i m u m a, n d t h e m a x i m u me . m . f .i s i n d u c e d .
t h e r ei st h e n i a x i n - r unmu m b e ro f f i e l dl i n e sp a s s i n g
W h e nt h e c o i li s i n t h e v e r t i c apl o s i t i o n
O FF L U XC H A N GiESA M l N l M U N 4a, n dt h e i n d u c e de . m . f i. s z e r o .
t h r o u g hi t , b u t t h e R A T E
l n d u c e de . m . f
T i me
1"04
(2) TheTransformer: i
T h et r a n s f o r m eirs a d e v i c et h a t i s u s e dt o c h a n g et h e m a g n i t u d e
of analternating
voltage
I t c o n s i s tos f t w o a d j a c e nst e p a r a t e
c o i l so f w i r e ,w o u n do n a n i r o nc o r e .
T h ec o i lo f w i r e t h a t i s c o n n e c t e tdo t h e i n p u tc u r r e n ti,s c a l l e dt h e P R I M A RC
YO I La, n d
t h e o u t p u ti s o b t a i n e df r o m t h e S E C O N D A R CY OIL.
Power vP/
Station \
W h e na n a l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n ti s a p p l i e da c r o s st h e p r i m a r yc o i l ,t h e c u r r e n t h a t f l o w s
t h r o u g hi t , w i l l p r o d u c ea n a l t e r n a t i nm g a g n e t i fci e l d .T h i sa l t e r n a t i nm
g a g n e t i fci e l d
a r o u n dt h e p r i m a r yw , i l l b e s t r i k i n gt h e c o i l so f t h e s e c o n d a rcyo i l .H e n c et h e s e c o n d a r y
c o i li s e x p o s e tdo a n a l t e r n a t i nogr c h a n g i nm g a g n e t ifci e l d
'By
F a r a d a y 'Lsa w ,a n a l t e r n a t i neg. m . f .w i l l b e i n d u c e di n t h e s e c o n d a rcyo i l .
= O U T P UP
H e n c el NP U TP O W E R TOWER
L e tt h e p r i m a r yv o l t a g e= V pa n d p r i m a r yc u r r e n t= l p
L e tt h e s e c o n d a rvyo l t a g e= V , a n ds e c o n d a rcyu r r e n t= l ,
S i n c ep o w e r - V l , t h e n f o r n o p o w e r l o s s e sV o l o= V r l ,
T h e p r i m a r yv o l t a g ei s p r o p o r t i o n a tl o t h e n u m b e r o f t u r n s o n t h e p r i m a r yc o i l
i.e.
Vp x N, and si"mi"Iarly V, x IV,
v,- n, _',
w 1/, Ip
105
ER
IM PORTANTREATURESOF THE TRANSFORM
of the core:
(2) Laminations
o f h e a te n e r g yw h i c hw o u l dl e a dt o a d e c r e a s ien t h e
T h e s ee d d yc u r r e n t sc a u s et h e p r o d u c t i o n
overallefficiency of the transformersincenow someof the electrical energyinput is converted
to heatenergywhichwould.bewastedenergy.
o f E D D yc u r r e n t sc a nb e r e d u c e ds i g n i f i c a n t(l b
T h i sp r o d u c t i o n y u t n o t t o t a l l ye l i m i n a t e d ) b y
l a m i n a t i ntgh e c o r e ,i . € .b y m a k i n gi t f r o m t h i n s h e e t so f m e t a lw h i c ha r et h e n a d h e r e d
t o g e t h e rw i t h a t h i n f i l m o f i n s u l a t i nggl u e .T h e s et h i n f i l m so f g l u ep r e v e n t h e c o n d u c t i o on f
e d d yc u r r e n t sf r o m o n e l a m i n a t i o tno t h e o t h e r .T h i sd e s i g ni s m u c hm o r ee f f i c i e ntth a n h a v i n g
t h e c o r em a d ef r o m o n e s o l i db l o c ko f c o n t i n u o um s etal.
Shell-CoreTransformers
(4).
T h e m o s tp o p u l a ra n d e f f i c i e nttr a n s f o r m ecro r ei s t h e S = i r i a * = i = a s i l l u s t r a t eidn f i g u r e
As shown,eachlayerof the coreconsists of I- =:=*i:=i=*L:r:* sectionsof metal.Thesesections
s .h el a m i n a t i o nasr e i n s u l a t e fdr o m e a c ho t h e ra n d
a r e b u t t e dt o g e t h e rt o f o r m t h e l a m i n a t i o n T
then pressedtogetherto form the core.
106
LAMINATEDCORE
.Fii
E AND LAMINATIONS
TRANSFORMW
E RI N D I N G S
A s s t a t e da b o v e t, h e t r a n s f o r m ecr o n s i s tos f t w o c o i l sc a l l e dW I N D I N Gw
Sh i c ha r ew r a p p e d
a r o u n da c o r e .T h et r a n s f o r m eor p e r a t e sw h e na s o u r c eo f a c v o l t a g ei s c o n n e c t e tdo o n e o f
t h e w i n d i n g sa n d a l o a dd e v i c ei s c o n n e c t e tdo t h e o t h e r .T h ew i n d i n g t h a it s c o n n e c t e tdo i h e
s o u r c ei s c a l l e dt h e P R I M A RW Y I N D I N GT.h ew i n d i n gt h a t i s c o n n e c t etdo t h e l o a di s c a l l e dt h e
S E C O N D AW RY I N D I N G( N
. o t e I: n t h i sp a r tt h e t e r m s" p r i m a r yw i n d i n g a" n d " p r i m a r ya" r eu s e d
; t e r m : " s e c o n d a rwy i n d i n g "a n d " s e c o n d a r ya"r ea l s ou s e d
i n t e r c h a n g e a btl hy e
i n t e r c hnag e ab l y . )
F i g u r e( 5 )s h o w sa n e x p l o d e dv i e wo f a s h e l l - t y pter a n s f o r m e T
r .h ep r i m a r yi s w o u n di n l a y e r s
d i r e c t l yo n a r e c t a n g u l acra r d b o a r fdo r m
E. t-*rtdt{ATtoH
IHSULATING
PAPER
I LAMINATION
1.07
l n t h e t r a n s f o r m esr h o w ni n t h e c u t a w a yv i e wi n f i g u r e( 6 ) ,t h e p r i m a r yc o n s i s tos f m a n y
t u r n so f r e l a t i v e lsym a l w l i r e .T h ew i r ei s c o a t e dw i t h v a r n i s hs o t h a te a c ht u r n o f t h e w i n d i n gi s
i n s u l a t e fdr o m e v e r yo t h e rt u r n . ! n a t r a n s f o r m edr e s i g n e fdo r h i g h - v o l t a gaep p l i c a t i o nssh, e e t s
o f i n s u l a t i nmg a t e r i a sl ,u c ha s p a p e ra, r ep l a c e db e t w e e nt h e l a y e r so f w i n d i n g s t op r o v i d e
a d d i t i o n ai nl s ul a t i o n .
PAPER INSULATIOH
LAMINATED
CORE
LEADS
/
I
PRIMARY
WINDING
SECONDARY WINDING
W h e nt h e p r i m a r yw i n d i n gi s c o m p l e t e lwy o u n d ,i t i s w r a p p e di n i n s u l a t i npga p e ro r c l o t h T
. he
s e c o n d a rwyi n d i n gi s t h e nw o u n do n t o p o f t h e p r i m a r yw i n d i n gA. f t e rt h e s e c o n d a rwyi n d i n gi s
c o m p l e t e , ,t iot o i s c o v e r e dw i t h i n s u l a t i npga p e r N
. e x t t, h e s e c t i o nosf t h e i r o nc o r ea r e .
i n t oa n da r o u n ct ih e w i n d i n g as ss h o w n .
inserted
T h el e a d sf r o m t h e w i n d i n g as r en o r m a l l b y r o u g h ot u t t h r o u g ha h o l ei n t h e e n c l o s u roef t h e
t r a n s f o r m e rS. o m e t i m e st e, r m i n a l sr n a yb e p r o v i d e do n t h e e n c l o s u rfeo r c o n n e c t i o nt so t h e
w i n d i n g sT. h ef i g u r es h o w sf o u r l e a d st,w o f r o m t h e p r i m a r ya n dt w o f r o m t h e s e c o n d a r y .
T h e s el e a d sa r et o b e c o n n e c t e tdo t h e s o u r c ea n d l o a d ,r e s p e c t i v e l y .
108
INDUCEE
D M FT U T O R I ASLH E E T ,
( 1 ) A r o d A B S O c m . l o nr go t a t e si n a u n i f o r mm a g n e t i fci e l dw i t h p o i n t
A a c t i n ga st h e p i v o t .
T h er o t a t i o ni s p e r p e n d i c u l a rtthoe f i e l dl i n e sa n dt h e f r e q u e n coyf r o t a t i o ni s
5 r e v o l u t i o npse rs e c o n dl .f t h e m a g n e t ifcl u xd e n s i t yi d O . 3 Td e t e r m i n teh e e m f i n d u c e d
b e t w e e nt h e e n d so f t h e r o d . ( A n:s3 V )
( 2 ) A 5 o c o i lo f 1 0 0 t u r n sa n dd i a m e t e 6r c m i s p l a c e db e t w e e nt h e p o l e so f a m a g n e ts o t h a t
t h e f l u xi s m a x i m u mt h r o u g hi t sa r e a W
. h e nt h e c o i li s s u d d e n l rye m o v e df r o m t h e f i e l d ,
a c h a r g eo f 1 x l - 0 4 C f l o w st h r o u g ha 5 9 5 Og a l v a n o m e t ecro n n e c t e tdo t h e c o i l .
C o m p u t eB b e t w e e nt h e p o l e so f t h e m a g n e t .
( 0 . 2 1 T ) l HU
i nst e;V = r n = T ,a n d1 -
f t
( 3 ) A f l a t c o i lo f r a d i u s8 c mh a s 1 5 0l o o p so f w i r e .l t i s p l a c e di n a s i n u s o i d a l
m a g n e t ifci e l d
t h a t v a r i e sa t a r a t eo f 1 . 6 T s -i 1
n s u c ha w a y t h a t t h e m a x i m u mf l u xg o e st h r o u g hi t . F i n d
t h e a v e r a g e m f i n d u c e db e t w e e nt h e t e r m i n a los f t h e c o i l .
(ANS;4.82v)
( 4 ) A c o p p e rd i s co f l d c m r a d i u si s r o t a t i n ga t 2 0 r e v i s a b o ui t sa x i sa n d
w i t h i t sp l a n e
perpendicula t or a u n i f o r mf i e l dw i t h B =0 . 6 T W . h a t i s t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c b
eetween
t h e c e n t r ea n dt h e r i m o f t h e d i s c .
= a r e ao f' O"I S C = T t l)" , d ' A:
( A n s: 0 . 3 8 V )f H i n t ;I r e v o l u t i o n ttO. Ol
r r- e
--v
1 ATee Of diSC]
d,
( 5 ) H o wm u c hc h a r g ew i l lf l o wt h r o u g ha 2 0 0 0g a l v a n o m e t ce or n n e c t e d
t o a 4 0 0 0c i r c u t a r
c o i lo f 1 0 0 0t u r n sw o u n do n a w o o d e ns t i c k2 c mi n d i a m e t e r , i f a m a g n e t i fci e l dB =
0 . 0 1 1 - 3pTa r a l l et lo t h e a x i so f t h e s t i c ki s d e c r e a s esdu d d e n l y t ozero.
( A n s 5: . 9 p C )
(6)A solenoi6 d 0 c ml o n gh a s5 O 0 C t u r n sa n d i s w o u n do n a n I R O Nr o d o f 0 . 7 5 c mr a d i u s .
F i n dt h e f l u xd e n s i t ya n df l u x t h r o u g ht h e s o l e n o i w d h e nt h e c u r r e n itn i t i s 3 4 . T h e
r e l a t i v ep e r m e a b i l i toyf i r o n i s 3 0 0 .
( b )T h ef l u xi s r e d u c e d t o a v a l u eo f l m W b i n a t i m e o f 0 . 0 5 0 s. F i n dt h e i n d u c e de m f i n
t h es o l e n o i d .
( A n s: 9 . 4 2 ;T1 . 7 m W b ; 67V)
109
for previoustutorial
Solutionguidelines
o n e .H e n c ef o r e a c hr e v o l u t i o n
L . T h es h a p et h a t t h e r o d c u t so u t a s i t r o t a t e si s a c i r c u l a r
t h e r a d i u sr i s t h e l e n g t ho f t h e
t h e a r e ao f f i e t dl i n e st h a t a r ec u t i s e q u a lt o n r 2 w h e r e
rod.
ln determiningthm e agnitudeo f t h e i n d u c e de m f ,i t i s n e c e s s a r y tdoe t e r m i n et h e r a t e
of Area)'
at whichthe flux is cut whichin this caseis B x (rateof change
w h i c hw o u l db e e q u a lt o t h e
T h e r a t eo f c h a n g eo f a r e ai s t h e a r e ac u t o u t p e r s e c o n d ,
o f r e v o l u t i o npse r
p r o d u c to f t h e a r e ao f t h e c i r c l e ( i . e1.r e v o l u t i o na)n dt h e n u m b e r
second.'
e x p e r i e n c easc h a g ei n
T h e m o v e m e not f t h e c o i lo u t o f t h e f i e l dm e a n st h a t t h e c o i l
causea s n e m ft o b e
t h e n u m b e ro f m a g n e t i c f i e lldi n e sc u t t i n gi t , a n dt h i sc h a n g e
L 'asw )
i n d u c e di n t h e c o i l ( F a r a d a Y
a n d h e n c ea c u r r e n tw i l l
T h ei n d u c e de m f i s a p p l i e da c r o s sa t o t a l r e s i s t a n coef 6 0 0 0
f l o w t h r o u g ht h i s r e s i s t a n c e '
m o v e d ,h e n c ei t i s
w e d o n o t k n o wt h e v a l u eo f t h e t i m e f o r w h i c ht h e c o i lw a s
n e c e s s a r y tsoe t u p a n e q u a t i o nw h e r et h e t i m e c a nb e e l i m i n a t e d '
NBAIt
V I n d u c e d " e m:f ,4\
F r o m O h m ' sL a w , ,: n: T l -
tr/
A r s o c u r r e n t r - T o t attme - g'e
'.|'charg Q)
t
(1) and (2)
Thecurrent ts the sametnboth equattonsso we c&nequate
NBAI. n
v NBA
lt : henceBcanbefound
R t, ;-Q
110
3 . T h ei n d u c e e
dm. f i . sg t v e n b yE _ - -rO# wttere#: r.6Ts-l
#:
4 . T h eh i n t i s a l r e a d yg i v e ni n t h e q u e s t i o n
lJT
2
lVl.of,ufe
I I M P O R T A NETQ U A T I O N S
(1)A sinusoidal voltage or current i.srepresented by i x - xssinat
'ff
(2)Ther . m.s.ualueof an a.c.ts Ir.^.r.:
Rr
( 4 ) G a t n o f I N O N - I N V E R T I N Ga m p l i f t e r t s g t v e n b y G a i n - t *
&
-
$ ) f h e G a t n o f a c o m b t n a t i o no f C a s c a d e dA m p l i f t e r s i s A A r A z A 3. . .
- Albert Einstein
112
A L T E R N A T I NC
GU R R E N T
A n a l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n it s o n e i n w h i c ht h e d i r e c t i o cn h a n g eps e r i o d i c a l l y .
s qu ar e w a v e a . c . s i nu s o i d Ia
rrnllroo
o r c ur r e n t
I n b o t hc a s e s t, h e r ei s a m a x i m u mv a l u eo r P E A K
VALUE
o f t h e c u r r e n ot r v o l t a g ew, h i c hi s
u s u a l l yw r i t t e na s I n . . uo ,I V r u ^ .
s e rs e c o n da n di s m e a s u r eidn H e r t z( H z ) .
T h ef r e q u e n coy f t h e a . c .i s t h e n u m b e ro f c y c l e p
T h eR O O TM E A NS Q U A R E v a l u eo f a n a . c .i st h a tf r a c t i o no f t h e p e a kv a l u et h a t w o u l dd i s s i p a t e
h e a ta t t h e s a m er a t ea sa s t e a d yd . c .t h r o u g ha g i v e nr e s i s t o r .
T h ep o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t ow
r h e nt h e S I N U S O I D A
aL. c .p a s s etsh r o u g hi t , i s t h e
GP O W E R .
A V E R AE
T h i sa v e r a g ep o v / e i , a l s oe q u a l t o I i ^ r R .
,.)
lmK -------\ <-
HencellrnrR :
z
t--
113
S i m i l a rV
l yr * r : ' r , +- LEARN.
V^I^
, I r ^ , -jry'+
Another useful f ormula is i Vr^-I--n
t:
AveragePower
i O-
In the caseof the squarewave from the abovegraph,the magnitudeof the currentand
voltageis constant,and the power dissipatedis constant. Hencefor the squarewave shown
above,the r.ms.valuesof both voltageand currentwill be the sameas the steadymaximum
value.
Sincean alternating
voltageor currentcanbe represented
by a sinewave,the voltageor
currentat any instantcanbe expressed
as :
F o re x a m p l et h e m a i n ss u p p l yi n T r i n i d a dh a sa f r e q u e n c o
y f 6 0 H z .H e n c et h e a n g u l a r
frequencyu,ris givenby ul = 2n x 60 = 1,20nrad.s-1.
( R e c a tl h
l a t f o r t h e s i n ew a v e ,1 c y c l er e p r e s e n t2sn r a d i a n s ) .
W h e na l t e r n a t i ncgu r r e n t sa n dv o l t a g e a
s r e m e a s u r e dt h, e i n s t r u m e n tm
s easure
the r.m.s.
v a l u e sr a t h e rt h a nt h e p e a kv a l u e s .
1.1.4
Advantagesof transmissionof currentsusingalternatingcurrentsand highvoltages:
P ower
Cut'rent - -
Voltag e
. 2,000,000
I ='# = 8333/, and the power lossesin the cableswould be l2R,whichwould give
a
2'000'000
f - = 83,4and the oowerlossin the cablesis 832xo.2= 1378W.
24000
'
The highvoltagescanbe steppeddown to 110Vor 220Vby meansof a transformeron reaching
the district
115
QUESTIONS
c ur r en t
(a)
currenI
A N S: 3 . 5 4 A ,3 . 5 4 A 5
, A.
(c)
( 2 ) A v o l t m e t e r e a d s1 1 0 Vw h e n i t i s c o n n e c t e da c r o s st h e t e r m i n a l so f a s i n u s o i d aplo w e r
W
s u p p l yt h a t h a s a f r e q u e n c yo f 6 0 H 2 . r i t e d o w n t h e e q u a t i o nf o r t h e i n s t a n t a n e o u s
v o l t a g ep r o v i d e db y t h e s o u r c e .
( 3 ) A s i n u s o i d aal l t e r n a t i n gc u r r e n ti n a 4 0 O r e s i s t o rp, r o d u c e sh e a t a t a r a t e o f 7 5 0 W .
D e t e r m i n teh e m a x i m u mv a l u e so f v o l t a g ea n d c u r r e n t.
1.16
(4) Determine
t h e r . m s .v a l u eo f t h e c u r r e n ti n ( i )a n dt h e r . m . sv. o l t a g ei n ( i i )
A N S :4 4 , 1 1 0 V
( 5 ) W h e na n a . c .s u p p l y . o1f 2 0 V , . *i s, c o n n e c t e tdo a c i r c u i t
i n w h i c ht h e r e is a fuse in series
w i t h a l o a d ,t h e f u s eb r e a k st h e c i r c u i tw h e nt h e c u r r e n jtu s t e x c e e d gs A
r . m . s .l f t h e a . c .s u p p l y
i s r e p l a c e db y a 8 0 V d . c .s u p p l y w , h a t m u s t b e t h e m a x i m u mc u r r e n tp a s s i n through
g the fuse
j u s t b e f o r ei t b r e a k st h e c i r c u i t ?
v-
IT7
Solutions
( 1 ) I n t h e c a s eo f t h e s i n u s o i d aglr a p h t, h e r . m . s c. u r r e n ti s g i v e nb y :
r-*--'^y-:-3.s4A
rrms-
O-O-rrr
( b )T h eg r a p hi n ( b ) i s a l s oc y c l i cw i t h e a c hc y c l eh a v i n ga c o n t i n u o u5s A r e g i o nf o l l o w e db y a
zeroregion
l f t h i s c u r r e n tw a sa l l o w e dt o p a s st h r o u g ha r e s i s t o rt ,h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t o r f o r
t h e c o n s t a nct u r r e n to f 5 A w o u l dh a v eb e e nP = l 2 R= 2 5 R .
r o u l dh a v eb e e n0 .
D u r i n gt h e i n t e r v aol f z e r oc u r r e n tt,h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t ow
IzR + 0 25R
The average power dtsstpated - :
Z z
B yd e f i n i t i o nt ,h i sw o u l dh a v eb e e nt h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r . m . s c. u r r e n t
H e n cIe? ^ r R: ' +
t
i l , m s :+ - 3 . 5 4 A
12
( c )l n t h i s p a r t ,e a c hc y c l eo f t h e c u r r e n th a sa c o n s t a npt o s i t i v e5 A . f o l l o w ebdy a c o n s t a n t
negative5A.
r d u r i n gt h e p o s i t i v eh a l fc y c l ei s
T h ep o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy a r e s i s t oR
Pt: I z R - 5 2 R- 2 5 R
D u r i n gt h e n e g a t i v eh a l fc y c l et,h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy a r e s i s t oR
r is
P z : 1 2 R- ( - 5 ) 2 R - 2 5 R
T h i si s t h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r . m . s c. u r r e n tb y d e f i n i t i o n ,
118
(2)
V- V^orsinl)t : V*o* stnZrcft
T h e 1 L O Vr e c o r d e db y t h e v o l t m e t e ri s i n f a c t h e r . m . s v. o l t a g eA. l l a . c .m e a s u r i nign s t r u m e n t s
a r e d e s i g n e tdo g i v et h e r . m . s v. a l u e s .
v^o*
,t :
Recallvro, h, e n c e
V ^ o ,- \n x 110V : 1.55.6V
fi;
. T he g eneral equati"onbecomesV - 155.6 sinZrcx 60t
V : 155.6sin 12Ont
( 3 )T h eh e a td i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r e s i s t oirs o b t a i n e df r o m t h e f o r m u l a
500
P - I?^rR; 500 : I?^, x 40 i lrms : :3.54A
40
( a ) F o rt h e p o s i t i v eh a l fc y c l et,h e m a x i m u mc u r r e n ti s 8 A . I f t h e c u r r e n tw a sa c o m p l e t es i n e
wave,the powerdissipated by a resistorR would havebeen
12D
IhorR
P :'^7" ; Howaver f or a HALF si"ne P-
wave the power d.i"sstaptedwouldbe
z
B yd e f i n i t i o nt ,h e p o w e rd i s s i p a t ebdy t h e r . m . s c. u r r e n tw o u l db e e q u a lt o t h i s l a t t e rv a l u e ,
119
r for a
F o rt h e v o l t a g eg r a p h t, h e p o w e rt h a t w o u l dh a v eb e e nd i s s i p a t etdh r o u g ha r e s i s t oR
F U L Ls i n eg r a p hw o u l dh a v eb e e n :
v"1n'
Io --
:zR
is
H e n c ef o r a H A L Fs i n eg r a p ht h e p o w e r t h a t w i l l b e d i s s i p a t e d
, - v'?''n'
I
4R
Vl,n, V|o,
Bydefinltiort,f :P:
*
s g i v e nb y
( 6 )I n t h e c a s eo f t h e s i n u s o i d a l v o l t a tghee, p o w e rd i s s i p a t ei d
Vior
'Dl
zR
124
SEMICONDUCTORS
T h ee l e c t r o n cs o n t a i n e d
i n s o l i d sa, r ec o n t a i n e d
i n v a r i o u sb a n d so f e n e r g yl e v e l s .
T h eh i g h e sbt a n di s c a l l e dt h e C O N D U C T I OBN
A N Da n d i n m e t a l st,h e r ea r ef r e ee l e c t r o ntsh a t
m o v ew i t h i nt h e c o n d u c t i obna n d .
I n i n s u l a t o r es l, e c t r o nasr eh e l di n a l o w e rb a n dc a l l e dt h e v a l e n c e
b a n d ,a n dt h e r ei s a
r e l a t i v e llya r g eg a pb e t w e e nt h e v a l e n c eb a n da n dt h e v a c a n ct o n d u c t i o b
na n d .
H e n c ef o r i n s u l a t o rtsh e e l e c t r o n m
s u s tb e s u p p l i e d
w i t h a r e l a t i v e llya r g ea m o u n to f e n e r g y t o
j u m p i n t ot h e c o n d u c t i obna n di n o r d e rt o p a r t i c i p a ti en e l e c t r i c ac lo n d u c t i o n .
I n s e m i c o n d u c t osr su c ha s s i l i c o nt,h e e n e r g yl e v e ld i f f e r e n c b
e e t w e e nt h e v a l e n c eb a n da n d
t h e c o n d u c t i obna n di s m u c hs m a l l etrh a nt h a tf o r i n s u l a t o r as n
, dh e n c et h e ya r ea b l et o
c o n d u cw
t h e no n l ya s m a l lp o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c ies a p p l i e da c r o s st h e c r y s t a l .
Conductiob nand
Conductiob
nand
Conductiob nand A l m o s te m p t y { c o n t a i nos n e
P a r t l yf i l l e dw i t h c h a r g e E m p t yo f c h a r g ec a r r i e r s
o r t w o c h a r g ec a r r i e r s
c ar r ie r s
V a l e n c eb a n d ( f i l l e d )
V a l e n c eb a n d ( f i l l e d )
E n e r g yb a n d sf o r
E n e r g yb a n d sf o r M E T A L E n e r g yb a n d sf o r I N S U L A T O R
SEMICONDUCTOR
T h eg a pb e t w e e nt h e v a l e n c e
b a n da n dt h e c o n d u c t i obna n di s c a l l e dt h e F O R B I D D E
GNAp.
1.21
Conductionin Semi-conductors:
T h i sh o l ea c t sa s a v a c a n c fyo r a n yo t h e re l e c t r o na n dw h e n i t i s f i l l e d ,a n o t h e rh o l ew i l l b e
createdwherethe other electronwould haveleft.
s o v ei n o n e d i r e c t i o nh, o l e sm o v ei n
A l o n ga n ys t r a i g hlti n e ,i t w i l l b e s e e nt h a t w h i l ee l e c t r o n m
t h e o p p o s i t ed i r e c t i o n .
as a POSITIVE
The holecanthereforebe considered CARRIER.
CHARGE
l n t h i sc a s et h e n u m b e ro f h o l e sw i l l b e e q u a tl o t h e n u m b e ro f m o b i l ee l e c t r o nasn ds i n c ea l lo f
s o n o t c o m ef r o m a n ye x t e r n asl o u r c et,h e s e m i c o n d u c t oi srs a i dt o b e
t h e c h a r g ec a r r i e r d
INTRINSIC.
W h e nt h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f a s e m i c o n d u c t oi sr i n c r e a s e dm, o r ee l e c t r o nw s i l l e s c a p ef r o m t h e i r
n i l l i n c r e a s ae n d r e s i s t a n cwei l l
s i t e sa n d m o r eh o l e sw i l l b e c r e a t e dh, e n c e t h ec o n d u c t i o w
decrease.
e st h e i rc o n d u c t i o ins t o o l i m i t e dT
I n t r i n s i sc e m i c o n d u c t oar sr e o f l i t t l ei m p o r t a n c a . h ea m o u n t
o f c o n d u c t i o tna k i n gp l a c ec a nb e i n c r e a s egdr e a t l yb y i n c r e a s i ntgh e n u m b e ro f a v a i l a b l he o l e s '
or electrons.
T h i sc a nb e d o n eb y a d d i n ga s m a l la m o u n to f a n o t h e rm a t e r i atlh a t c a ns u p p l ya d d i t i o n a l
a n dt h e m a t e r i atlh a t i s a d d e di s c a l l e da n
h o l e so r e l e c t r o n sT.h i si s r e f e r r e dt o. a s D O P I N G
IMPURITY.
e m i c o n d u c t ba rn dt h e r e
t hr a t i s p r o d u c e db y d o p i n gi s c a l l e da n E X T R I N SsI C
T h es e m i c o n d u c t o
aretwo types,i.e.n-typeand p-type.
122
The n-typesemiconductor:
The p-typesemiconductor:
T h i si s m a d eb y d o p i n gs i l i c o n
w i t h a t r i - v a l e ni tm p u r i t ys u c ha s B o r o no r A l u m i n i u m .
A s i l i c o na t o m i s r e p l a c e db y t h e t r i v a l e n at t o ma n dt h r e eo f t h e v a c a n c i el se f t b y t h e m i g r a t e d
s i l i c o nw i l l e db e f i l l e db y t h e t h r e ev a l e n c ee l e c t r o n isn t h e i m p u r i t yT. h ef o u r t hv a c a n c w
y i l J.
t h e na c L e p a
t n e l e c t r o nf r o m t h e v a l e n c eb a n d ,t h u sc r e a t i n ga h o l ei n t h e v a l e n c eb a n d .T h e
v a l e n c eb a n dw i l l t h e n b e a b l et o c o n d u c w
t i t h t h e p r e s e n c oe f h o l e si n i t .
T h e i m p u r i t yi n t h i s c a s ei s c a l l e da n A C C E P T O R .
L23
T H EP . NJ U N C T I O N
A p - nj u n c t i o ni s a s e m i c o n d u c t corry s t at lh a t i s d o p e di n s u c ha w a yt h a t o n e r e g i o ni s n - t y p e
a n dt h e a d j a c e nrte g i o ni s p - t y p e .
T h i sc a nb e v i s u a l i z eadsa b l o c ko f n - t y p em a t e r i abl e i n gp r e s s e d
a g a i n sat b l o c ko f p - t y p e
material.
C C p o
Fo on
C
o
n <tO
clo -+t+- O O
At the interface o f t h e p - nj u n c t i o nt h e r ei s a n i n i t i a d
l i f f u s i o no f e l e c t r o nfsr o m t h e n - t y p e
t o t h e p - t y p ea
, n d a d i f f u s i o no f h o l e sf r o m t h e p - t y p et o t h e n - t y p e .
W h e na n e l e c t r o nf r o m t h e n - s i d ec r o s s etsh e j u n c t i o na n d e n t e r st h e p - s i . d ei ,t f i x e si t s e l f
i n t oa v a c a n st i t ea n dp r o d u c eas n e g a t i v ceh a r g eo n t h e p - s i d en e a r t h ej u n c t i o n .
S i m i l a r l yw,h e na h o l ec r o s s etsh e j u n c t i o na n de n t e r st h e n - s i d ei ,t w i l l p r o d u c ea p o s i t i v e
c h a r g eo n t h e n - s i d en e a rt h e j u n c t i o n .
T h ed i f f u s i o no f c h a r g ec a r r i e r cs a u s e tsh e b u i l d -u p o f a n e t p o s i t i v ec h a r g ei n a n a r r o w
s t r i po n t h e n - s i d ec l o s et o t h e j u n c t i o na, n d a n a r r o ws t r i po f n e g a t i v e c h a r g eo n t h e p - s i d e
c l o s et o t h e j u n c t i o n
T h e r e g i o no n e i t h e rs i d eo f t h e j u n c t i o nb e c o m e a
s l m o s tf r e bo f m a j o r i t yc h a r g ec a r r i e r s
a n d i s c a l l e dt h e D E P L E T I OLN
AYER
o r B A R R I ELRA Y E R .
T h ee x i s t e n coef t h i sd e p l e t i o nl a y e rp r e v e n t sa n yf u r t h e rd i f f u s i o no f c h a r g ec a r r i e r s .
r) a)
.)
n C
124
T h e r ei s a s m a l lv o l t a g ea c r o s st h e d e p l e t i o nl a y e rc a l l e dt h e j u n c t i o np . d .o r b a r r i e rv o l t a g e .
S i n c et h e d i f f u s i o nc u r r e n ti s t h e f l o w o f h o l e s i,t i sj u s t b a l a n c e b
d y t h e f l o w o f e l e c t r o n isn
theopposite direction a n dt h e c u r r e n dt u et o t h e m o t i o no f t h e e l e c t r o niss c a l l e dt h e D R I F T
C U R R E NlTa , i r ,
T h ed r i f t c u r r e n ti s a l w a y si n t h e o p p o s i t ed i r e c t i o nt o t h e d i f f u s i o nc u r r e n t .
BIAS
W h e na b a t t e r yi s c o n n e c t e a
d c r o s st h e p - nj u n c t i o ns u c ht h a t t h e p o s i t i v ep o l eo f t h e b a t t e r y
c o n n e c t tso t h e p - s i d eo f t h e j u n c t i o na n dt h e n e g a t i v e
p o l eo f t h e b a t t e r yc o n n e c t tso t h e n -
s i d eo f t h e j u n c t i o nt,h e p - nj u n c t i o ni s s a i dt o b e F O R W A R B Dl A s E D .
F o r w a r dB i a s
R e v e r s eB i a s
I n t h e f o r w a r db i a sc o n n e c t i o nt h, e I n t h e r e v e r s eb i a sc o n n e c t i o nt ,h e n -
d e p l e t i o nl a y e ri s o v e r c o m e
,becomes t y p e i s m a d em o r e p o s i t i v ea n d t h e p -
n a r r o w e r a n d h o l e sf r o m t h e p - t y p e t y p e m o r e n e g a t i v eT. h i sc a u s e sa n
w i l l f l o w t o t h e n - t y p e ,a n d e l e c t r o n s i n c r e a s ien t h e w i d t ho f t h e d e p l e t i o n
f l o w i n gi n t h e o p p o s i t ed i r e c t i o nT. h e l a y e r ,c a u s i n ga v e r y h i g hr e s i s t a n c e
c u r r e n ti s i n t h e o r d e ro f m i l l a m p e r e s . s o t h a t t h e c u r r e n ft l o w i n gt h r o u g h
t h e j u n c t i o ni s a p p r o x i m a t e zl ye r o .
. p - n j u n c t i o nt h e r e f o r ea c t s a s a r e c t i f i e r ,
a s i t a l l o w sc u r r e n tt o f l o w i n o n e d i r e c t i o no n l y .
1,25
The current - voltage characteristic
for a p-n iunction.
Current/mA
Forward
lv
T h ej u n c t i o ns t a r t st o c o n d u c itn t h e f o r w a r dd i r e c t i o na t o r a r o u n d0 . 6 V ,a n dt h i sp . d .i s c a l l e d
t h e s a t u r a t i o vn o l t a g e .
nection illiam
DIODE:
OFTHEP.NJUNCTION
APPLICATIONS
- h e n a n a . c .i s a p p l i e dt o t h e d i o d e ,t h e j u n c t i o nc o n d u c t si n t h e
( 1 ) A s a h a l f w a v e r e c t i f i e rW
forwarddirection,but preventscurrentfrom flowingin the reversedirection.
(2) As a full-waverectifier.
l n t h i sc a s ef o u r d i o d e sa r ec o n n e c t e tdo f o r m a b r i d g e
W h e n X i s p o s i t i v ec, u r r e n tf l o w st o B
t o R t o C a n dt h e n t o Y .
W h e nY i s p o s i t i v et,h e c u r r e n tf l o w s
t o D t o R t o A a n dt h e n t o X .
I n b o t h h a l fc y c l e st,h e c u r r e n ti n R i s
i n t h e s a m ed i r e c t i o n .
126
(3) The manufactureof the light-emittingdiode(LED)
W h e na n e l e c t r o nf r o m t h e c o n d u c t i o b n a n df a l l si n t o a h o l et h e v a l e n c eb a n d ,t h e r ei s a
l o s so f e n e r g yo f t h e e l e c t r o nw
s h i c hi s d i s s i p a t eads h e a t .T h e r em u s tb e a l a r g e
n u m b e ro f e l e c t r o n - h o lceo m b i n a t i o nt so c a u s et h e e m i s s i o o
n f l i g h t .T h i si s a c h i e v e d
by
a p p l y i n ga s t r o n gf o r w a r db i a so n a h e a v i l yd o p e dp - nj u n c t i o n
W h e na c u r r e n ti s p a s s e d
t h r o u g ha p - nj u n c t i o nl i g h ti s e m i t t e d .l t f o l l o w st h e n t h a t i f
l i g h ti s ' i n c i d e notn a p - nj u n c t i o na, c u r r e n tc a nb e p r o d u c e di n t h e c i r c u i ct o n t a i n i n g t h e
p - nj u n c t i o n .
T h i sa p p l i c a t i oins c o m m o ni n t h e o p e r a t i o no f a T V r e m o t ec o n t r o l .
W h e nt h e r e m o t ec o n t r o li s c l i c k e da, l i g h te m i t t i n gd i o d ee m i t si n f r a r e dl i g h ti n a
particularsequenc,e. The receiving deviceon the TV detectsthe infrared lightand
p r o d u c ee
s l e c t r i c asli g n a ltso c h a n g et h e T V s e t t i n g s .
1.27
THETRANSISTOR
W h i l et h e p - nj u n c t i o ni s a t w o t e r m i n a dl e v i c ea n di s u s e dp r i m a r i l ya s a r e c t i f i e rt ,h e
TRANSISTO a t h r e et e r m i n a dl e v i c ea n d h a ss i g n i f i c a n tm
i sR s a na
l yo r ea p p l i c a t i o nt h
, itchina
s i n g l ep - nj u n c t i o na, s i s i t u s e df o r s i g n aal m p l i f i c a t i o sn w g n di s a n e s s e n t i a l
c o m p o n e ni tn a l l I N T E G R A TC
EIDR C U I T S ( l C ' s )
T h ea r r a n g e m e no tf t h e j u n c t i o n cs a ng i v ee i t h e ra P N Po r a n N P Nt r a n s i s t o r .
A n n p nt r a n s i s t o r
A p n pt r a n s i s t o r
emitter
CIRCUIS
TYMBOLS:
NPN T h ed i r e c t i o no f t h e a r r o w h e a do n
PNP
t h e E M I T T EiR s h e t h e rt h e
n d i c a t ew
C
(
I t r a n s i s t oi rs n p no r P n P T . h ea r r o w
of conventional
p o i n t si n t h e d i r e c t i o n
-\ c u r r e n ti . e .f r o m p t o n .
I
c
r28
O P E R A T I O N AAL M P L IF IE R S
T h eo p e r a t i o n aalm p l i f i e r ( a b b r e v i a o t epd- a m p )i s a d e v i c et h a t c a np e r f o r mm p t h e m a t i c a l
o p e r a t i o nssu c ha sa d d i t i o nm , u l t i p l i c a t i oann di n t e g r a t i o n .
I t h a so n e O U T P U a Tn dt w o I N P U T Sa,n d h a sa s e p a r a t e s e to f c o n n e c t i o nt sh a t a r e u s e dt o
p o w e ri t . T h ep o t e n t i a l d i f f e r e ntchea t i s u s e dt o s u p p l yp o w e r t oi t i s c a l l e dt h e S U p p L y
VOLTAG E.
T h eS U P P LVYO L T A Gm E u s tn o t b e c o n f u s e d
w i t h t h e I N P U TV O L T A G E a s, t h e l a t t e ri s t h e o n e
t h a t i s s e n tf o r A M P L I F I C A T I tOhN r o u g ht h e o p - a m p w , h i l et h e s u p p l yv o l t a g ei s u s e dt o p r o v i d e
e l e c t r i c aeln e r g yf o r t h e o p - a m pt o b e c o m ef u n c t i o n a l .
-
T h eo p - a m ph a st w o i n p u tt e r m i n a l m s a r k e da s ( + ) a n d( - )
T h e( + )t e r m i n ails c a l l e dt h e N O NI N V E R T I NTG E R M I N AaLn d R E T A I Nt hSe s i g no f t h e v o l t a g e
. v er e m a i n sa s+ v ea f t e ra m p l i f i c a t i oann d s i m i l a r l -yv e r e m a i n sa s- v e a f t e r
a p p l i e dt o i t . i . e +
a m p l iifc a t i o n
T h e( - )t e r m i n a il s c a l l e dt h e I N V E R T I NTGE R M I N AaLn d i t c o n v e r t s+ v et o - v e a f t e r
a m p l i f i c a t i oann d- v e i s c o n v e r t e d
t o + v ea f t e ra m p l i f i c a t i o n .
T h et e r m i n a l s+ V ,a n d- V , a r et h e S U P P L Y v o l t atgeer m i n a l sa n dt h e s em u s tn o t b e c o n f u s e d
w i t h t h e l NP U Tt e r m i n a l s .
1,29
T h i ss u p p l yv o l t a g ec a nb e c o n s i d e r etdo b e s i m i l a tro t h e v o l t a g ew h i c hm u s tb e a p p l i e da c r o s s
a m u s i ca m p l i f i e irn o r d e rt o g e t i t t o w o r k .E g .A m u s i c i a h
n a st o p l u gi n a n a m p l i f i etro t h e
L 2 0 Vm a i n si n o r d e rt o g e t h i se l e c t r i cg u i t a rt o o p e r a t eW
. h i l et h e s o u n df r o m t h e g u i t a ri s
convertedto an electrical
signaland amplified,the t20V from the mainsis not amplified
( 3 ) V r = Y z, T h e o u t p u tf r o m V 1w o u l d h a v et h e s a m em a g n i t u d e a s t h a t f o r V 2b u t t h e y w i l l
h a v eo p p o s i t es i g n sT. h i sw o u l dr e s u l ti n t h e n e t o u t p u tb e i n gz e r oi . e .V 6= I
130
A M P L I F I EGRA I N :
T h ep u r p o s eo f a n a m p . l i f i ei sr t o i n c r e a steh e m a g n i t u d o e f t h e i n p u ts i g n aal n d a s a r e s u l t h e
o u t p u ts h o u l da l w a y sb e a n i n t e g r am l u l t i p l eo f t h e i n p u t .
T h er a t i oo f t h e o u t p u tv o l t a g et o t h e i n p u tv o l t a g ei s c a l l e dt h e G A I No f t h e a n a p l i f i e r .
VOUt
G A I N:
Vtn
S i n c eG A I Ni s a r a t i oo f v o l t a g e si t, h a sn o u n i t s ,a n d i s u s u a l l yr e p r e s e n t ebdy t h e s y m b o "l A "
H e n c ei f t h e v o l t a g e V
s l a n d V 2 d r €a p p l i e dt o t h e i n p u tt e r m i n a l st ,h e n e t i n p u tv o l t a g ew i l l b e (
-
V r V z) a n d i f V o i s t h e o u t p u tv o l t a g et,h e n
Vo: A(Vr-Vz)
PRoIEBTIES-QE"T"H"r_"QP-""AMP"",""
T h ep r o p e r t i eos f a t h e o r e t i c aild e a lo p - a m pa r ec o n s i d e r efdo r t h e p u r p o s eo f d e r i v i n g t h e
relevantequationsfor it. Howevera REALOP-AMPhasproperties that areverycloseto but not
i d e n t i c awl i t h t h o s eo f t h e i d e a lo p a m p .
(1) A very high open loop gain of approximately 10sat low frequencies but it decreases as
f r e q u e n c yo f t h e i n p u ts i g n a il n c r e a s e s( R. e m e m b et r
h a t t h e i n p u ts i g n adl o e sn o t h a v e
t o b e a c o n s t a nvt o l t a g ei,t c a nb e s i n u s o i d aaln d h e n c ei t w i l l h a v ea f r e q u e n c y ) .
T h et e r m " o p e nl o o p "m e a n st h a t t h e r ei s n o e l e c t r i c aclo n n e c t i ofnr o m t h e o u t p u tb a c k
t o t h e i n p u t .C o n s i d et rh e f o l l o w i n gd i a g r a m s :
In Diagraffi A, there is no
D i a g rma A connection from the output back
t o t h e i n p u t ,o r t h e r ei s n o l o o p
f r o m o u t p u tt o i n p u t ,a n dt h i s
c i r c u i ti s c a l l e da n O P E NL O O P
C I R CIUT .
1.31
I n d i a g r a mB t h e r ei s a l o o pf r o m
t h e o u t p u tt o t h e i n p u ta n dt h i s
D i a g r a mB
c i r c u i ti s c a l l e da C L O S ELDO O P
C I R C U IoTr a F E E D B A C K
IRCUIT
( 2 ) A v e r y h i g h i n p u t r e s i s t a n c e ( i m p e d a n cr ie=)1 0 1 2 Oa,n d t h e r e f o r ed r a w s a m i n u t e
c u r r e n tf r o m t h e s u p p l y . T h iisn p u t r e s i s t a n cies n o t o n e t h a t i s c o n n e c t e d e x t e r n a l l ay t
t h e i n p u t sb , u t i n s t e a di t i s a r e s i s t a n ct eh a t i s m a n u f a c t u r ei dn t ot h e o p - a m p .
Ri
i n p u ti m p e d a n c e
Ro output impedance
1.32
P R O P E R T IoEf tSh e I D E A LO PA M P
( 1 ) T h ei n p u ti m p e d a n cies l N F l N l T E
he, n c et h e i n p u tc u r r e n it s Z E R O .
( 2 ) T h e i n p u t sa r e b o t h a t t h e s a m ep o t e n t i a lT. h i sc a n b e e x p l a i n e d
a s f o l l o w s :F o ra v e r y
h i g ho p e nl o o pg a i n ,t h e g a i n4 6 =o o
vo-vo
R e c a lA o - b - hence Vi _ - o
Vi "o Ag co
B u t V i= ( V z - V r ) = 0
H e n c eV z = V r
( 3 ) Z e r oo u t p u tl m p e d a n c e .
l d e aO
l PA m p R e aO
l PA m p
( 1 ) I n f i n i t ei n p u ti m p e d a n c e F i n i t ei n p u t i m p e d a n c e1 0 1 2 0
( 2 )Z e r oo u t p u ti m p e d a n c e L o wo u t p u t i m p e d a n c -e 1 0 0 0
( 3 ) l n f i n i t eo p e n l o o p g a i n F i n i t eo p e nl o o pg a i n- 1 0 '
133
CS.
R CHARACTERISTI
TRANSFE
CHARACTERISTIC
TheTRANSFER vs.INPUTVOLTAGE.
is simplya graphof OUTPUTVOLTAGE
Saturation
Vrlt-tV
R e c a lt lh a t t h e m a x i m u mo u t
v o l t a g ei s e q u a lt o t h e s u P P l Y
v o l t a g eV , a n dw h e nt h i sh a P p e n s ,
t h e o p a m p i s s a i dt o b e
Saturation SATURATED
in
i n V o l t s t, h e i n p u tv o l t a g ei s m e a s u r e d
Notethat whilethe cutPutvoltagei s m e a s u r e d
.mlgrgyg.!!r,
134
l f t h e i n p u tv o l t a g ei s S I N U S O I D At hLe n t h e g r a p h so f I n p u tv s .t i m e a n d o u t p u tv s .t i m e d r a w n
s e p a r a t e lwy i l l b e a sf o l l o w s :
CLIPPING
INPUT/microvolts Output/volts
time
T h eo u t p u ts i g t r ai ls n o t a n e x a c tr e p l i c ao f t h e i n p u tb e c a u s teh e o p a m p b e c o m e s a t u r a t e d . s o
t h a t t h e m a x i m u mv a l u eo f V si s e q u a lt o V , w h i c hi s a c t u a l l yl e s st h a nA o V i a n tdh e p e a k so f t h e
output graphare saidto be C[PP"E_,D_*
In mostcases,
the amplifier
reaches
saturation
almostinstantaneously
sothata sinewaveinputwould
givea SQUAREWAVEOUTPUT
l n p u t / mi c r o v o l t s Output/Volts
135
SPECIAL
CASEWITHTWO INPUTS
r h e c a s ew h e r e t h e r e i s a n i n p u t t o b o t h t h e i n v e r t i n a
C o n s i d eT g n dn o n - i n v e r t i nt egr m i n a l s :
t
Vort
T h e i n p u t st o t h e i n v e r t i n ga n d n o n -
i n v e r t i ntge r m i n a l sa r ea ss h o w n :
Output/V
T h ei n i t i a pl o s i t i v ep a r to f t h e s q u a r ew a v eo u t p u ta r i s e sf r o m t h e f i r s tp a r to f t h e i n p u tv o l t a g e O
sA
w h e r et h e i n p u tt o t h e + v et e r m i n a il s g r e a t e trh a nt h a t o f t h e - v e t e r m i n a l , r e s u l t iinnga + v eo u t p u t .
A f t e rt h a t ,t h e i n p u to n t h e - v e t e r m i n a bl e c o m e g
s r e a t e trh a nt h a t o n t h e + v et e r m i n a l ( A B sCo) t h e
o u t p u ti s- v e i . e .i n v e r t e dF. r o mC t o D t h e o u t p u tw i l l a l w a y sb e p o s i t i v eb e c a u s fei r s t l yt h e
rragnitude o f t h e i n p u tv o l t a g eo n t h e + v et e r m i n ails g r e a t e trh a nt h a t o n t h e - v e t e r m i n a l .
S e c o n d l yw,h e nt h e m a g n i t u d o e f t h e i n p u tv o l t a g eo n t h e - v e t e r m i n a il s g r e a t e trh a nt h a t o n t h e
e o w t h e i n p u to n t h e i n v e r t i n tge r m i n ails - v e s o t h e
+ v et e r m i n a lt,h e o u t p ; r ti st s t i l lp o s i t i v eb e c a u s n
o , ! i . :,,i w i l l b e i n v e r t e dt o a + v ev a l u e .
136
F E E D B A CAKN DT H EI N V E R T I NAGM P L I F I E R
F e e d b a ci kn a n o p a m p i s a c h i e v e bd y m a k i n ga n e l e c t r i c ac lo n n e c t i ofnr o mt h e o u t p u t t oo n e
o f t h e i n p u t s, u s u a l lvyi aa r e s i s t ocra l l e dt h e F E E D B A C
RKE S I S T ORRr
F o ra n I N V E R T I NaG
m p l i f i e rt h
, e o u t p u ti s c o n n e c t etdo ' t h ei n v e r t i n ign p u to f t h e a m p l i f i e r v i a
R i3 ss h o w n :
= 0 , o r l i n= - l r .T h i sa l s oi n d i c a t e s
l f K i r c h o f f 'csu r r e n tl a w i s a p p l i e da t t h e j u n c t i o nP , t h e nl ; p+ 1 1
t h a t l 1 dp n d l i a r ei n A N T I P H A SwEh i c hi st r u ef o r t h e I N V E R T I NoG
pamp.
T h ef o l l o w i n g
t w o I M P O R T A NATS S U M P T I OaNrS
em a d e :
( 1 ) T h ef e e d b a ccku r r e n lt 1i s e q u a tl o t h e i n p u tc u r r e n lt i n d, u et o t h e i m p e d a n coef t h e o p
a m p b e i n gs o h i g ht h a t i t d r a w sn e g l i g i b lceu r r e n t .
( 2 ) T h ep o t e n t i aal t t h e p o i n tP i s s o s m a l l t h a itt i s a p p r o x i m a t et od z e r o ,a n dt h e p o i n tp i s
t h e r e f o r ec a l l e dt h e V I R T U AELA R T H .
A point is saidto be at VIRTUAL EARTH when the potentialat that point is so small
that it can Deapproximatedto earth potentiali.e.zeropotential.
1.37
e f t h e v e r yl a r g eG A I No f t h e o p a m p .
l a r t hc o n d i t i o na r i s e sb e c a u s o
T h ev i r t u a e
e . g .l f g a i n A = 1 0 s , t f r e n f: 1 0 s a n di f V o = V , = g V t h e nV p : # = O
T h ef o l l o w i n gd e r i v a t i o fno r G a i ni s v e r yi m p o r t a n t :
S i n c eV p =0 , V i n= l i n R iann dV o= l r R r
B u t l i n- - l 1( a ss h o w np r e v i o u s l y )
138
T H EN O N . I N V E R T I N
AGMPLIFIER
vi 1
I
I
t__-
T h e i n p u tv o l t a g eViii s; a p p l i e dt o t h e n o n -i n v e r t i n g
t e r m i n a (l + ) .T h i sp r o d u c e as n
o u t p u tV ot h a t i s i n p
1 hr a s ew i t h t h e i n p u t .
Negativefeedbackis obtair
n1 (ed( b y f e e d i n gb a c ka f r a c t i o no f t h e o u t p u tt o t h e
I N V E R T I Ni nGp u t ( - ) .
S i n c eR r a n dR id r e i n s e r i e st h e s a m ec u r r e n ft l o w st h r o u g ht h e m t o t h e e a r t h ;
V p = l R i a n d V o = l ( R t+ R i )
vo Rf+Ri Rr
: 1 * J - G A I N f o r N O N I N V E R T I N GO P A M P
vp R, rti
G a i n o f I N V E R T I N Go p q m p - - "t
_^
139
SN D B A N D W I D T H
G A I N . F R E Q U E NGCRYA P HA
y r e l a t i o n s hb
I n o r d e r t od i s p l a a g r a p hi s p l o t t e d .
i pe t w e e nG a i na n df r e q u e n c ya,l o g a r i t h m
T h i sl o gg r a p hi s u s e df o r t w o r e a s o n s :
( 1 ) l t a l l o w ss m a l l enr u m e r i c avla l u e st o b e u s e d
b e t w e e nt h e p a r a m e t e rosn t h e x a n dy a x e s .
( 2 ) l t g i v e sa l i n e a vr a r i a t i o n
'Gain T h i s P o r t i o ni s t h e r e g i o no f n o
f e e d b a c ka n d t h e g a i n h e r e i s c a l l e c
t h e O P E NL O O PG A I N .
10s
l-04
103 an d w i d t h
102
bandwidth
.10 C
1,
i.0 1,oz l-03 !04 10s 106 1,06 1,01 108 Frequency/Hz
T h ed i a g r a ms h o w st h a t t h e c l o s e dl o o pg a i ni s a l w a y sl e s st h a nt h e o p e nl o o pg a i nb u t i t i s
m o r ed e s i r a b lbee c a u s e :
( 1 ) T h eg a i ni s p r e d i c t a b l e .
( 2 ) S t a b i l i t yi s g r e a t e rw h i c h m e a n st h a t t h e g a i n i s c o n s t a n to v e r a w i d e r r a n g eo f
frequencies.
n f g a i nw i t h f r e q u e n c y
i ' , r U n l i k et h e o p e nl c o pg a i nt h e r ei s n o v a r i a t i o o
I4A
E.ANDIUDI.II;
Thedifferencebetweenthe upperand rowerfrequencies for whichthe gainislonstant,is
calledthe BANDWIDTHof the amplifierfor a particulargain.
C A S C A D EADM P L I F I E R S
A1
A2
W h e nt h e t w o o p a m p sa r ec a s c a d eads s h o w na b o v e t, h e r e s u l t a ngt a i n =
A 41xA2
S i m i l a r lfyo r 3 o p a m p st h a t a r ec a s c a d e dt h, e r e s u l t a ngt a i nA = A r
x 4 2x 4 3
1,4L
OFTHEOPAMP
APPLICATIONS
t r a s a c o n v e r t eor f s i n e
T h ec o m p a r a t ocr a nt h e n b e u s e da s a s w i t c hi n a n a l a r mc i r c u i o
w a v es i g n a l tso s q u a r ew a v es i g n a l s .
( 2 ) A s a S U M M I N GA M P L I F I EwRh e n i t i s u s e da sa n i n v e r t i n g a m p l i f i e rT. h i si s u s e di n
m i x i n gb o a r d si n m u s i ca n da l s oa sa d i g i t atl o a n a l o g u ce o n v e r t e r .
THECOMPARATOR
T h et h e r m i s t o a r form a
r n d t h e f i x e dr e s i s t o R
p o t e n t i adl i v i d e rw h i c hf i x e st h e v o l t a g ea t t h e
( a ) A s a s w i t c hi n a n a l a r mc i r c u i t : n o n - i n v e r t i ni n
gp u t .
A s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e ' r i s et sh,e v o l t a g ea t t h e n o n -
i n v e r t i n gi n p u ti n c r e a s e sa,st h e r e s i s t a n coef t h d
t h e r m i s t o rr i s e s ( a s s u m ian gp o s i t i v ec o e f f i c i e n t
t y p et h e r m i s t o r ) .
T h ev o l t a g ea t t h e i n v e r t i n gi n p u ti s s e t b y t h e
potentiometer.
T h e p o t e n t i o m e t eirs s e tt h a t t h e v o i t a g ea t t h e
inverting i n p u ti s t h e s a m ea st h a t a t t h e n o n -
i n v e r t i n gi n p u t .T h ed i f f e r e n c eb e t w e e nt h e t w o
v o l t a g e sw i l l t h e n b e z e r o ,a n dt h e l a m po r
r ill beoff.
buzzew
A s s o o na st h e t e m p e r a t u r ei n c r e a s e st h, e
a t t h e i n p u tw i l l b e g r e a t e r
v o l t a g ed i f f e r e n c e
t h a n z e r oa , n dt h e l a m po r b u z z ew r illbe
a c t i v a t e dC. o m p a r a t o rasr e v e r ys e n s i t i v e
s w i t c h e sa n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r en e e d st o c h a n g e
b y o n l ya s m a l la m o u n tt o t r i g g e ro n t h e a l a r m .
r42
T H ES U M M I N GA M P L I F I EORRA D D E R
W h e nt h e o p a m p i s u s e da s a m u l t i - i n p uitn v e r t i n ga m p l i f i e ri,t c a nb e u s e dt o a d d a n u m b e ro f
v o l t a g e sb, o t h a . c .a n d d . c .
C i r c u i t s u c ha st h e s ea r e u s e di n t h e m u s i ci n d u s t r y t oc o m b i n eo u t p u t sf r o m m i c r o p h o n e s ,
electricguitars,keyboards, voiceetc.
A f o u r i n p u ts . u m m i nagm p l i f i e irs s h o w nb e l o w :
RF
v1
ll t
vo
1I v4
+ j
W h e nK i r c h o f f ' sc u r r e n tl a w i s a p p l i e dt o t h e j u n c t i o na t P ,t h e t o t a lc u r r e n te n t e r i n gP i s e q u a l
t o t h e t o t a lc u r r e n tl e a v i n g .
Hence:
It*lz*ls*l+=l
I43
T h ec u r r e n t h r o u g ht h e f e e d b a c kr e s i s t oirs g i v e nb y I -
- + ( t h e riesa m i n u ss i g ns i n c et h e
a m p l i f i eirs i n v e r tni g )
V. V, V, V4
1r:;: ;lz -i; Is: Io:
Rn
t(1 &,
-vo - + V"" + \
_ V',^ + V?
Rf R1 R2 R3 Ra
vo: (3,, Rr
* JV"
RzL
.frvs*P-r-)
a
t o e l e c t r i c apl u l s e st h a t h a v eo n l y t w o s t a t e si . e .1 ( h i g h )a n d
l n d i g i t a ,t ' r n . l s , d a t ai s c o n v e r t e d
O( l o w ) .
l yv e ra r a n g eo f v a l u e s
t o a v o l t a g et h a t v a r i e sc o n t i n u o u s o
I n a n a l o g u se i g n a l sd,a t ai s c h a n g e d
i . e .a w a v e f o r mo f t h e v o l t a g er e p r e s e n ttsh e d a t a '
ANALOGUE
144
Analoguesignalsare subjectedto noiseand distortion,whiledigitalsignalsare extremelyclean
and undistorted.
However,there are manyapplications
whichcanonly operateon an analogue
basise.g.thosewhichinvolvethe humansensessuchas hearingand seeing.
l n p r a c t i c eD, / A c o n v e r t e ri sn c o r p o r a taeS U M M I N G
A M P L I F I E. R
1.45
T h ef o l l o w i n ge x a m p l es h o w st h e c o n v e r s i oonf d i g i t atl o a n a l o g u e :
A m a x i m u mp . d .o f 5 V i s a p p l i e dt o e a c hi n p u t .
2kC) 1ko
1
VD
VC 16kO
vo
VB
t
VA
J I
F r o m t h e g e n e r a lf o r m u l a f o r t h e o u t p u t o f t h e s u m m i n ga m p l i f i e r ,
Rr Rr Rr Rr
Vo: - -iV3-
f"Vr- nU, rur*
T h eo u t p u tv o l t a g ed u e t o t h e 2 k Or e s i s t oar l o n e- V p
-lkfi
Vo: x5:-2.5V
Zkn
- 1ko
Vc:4kA x5:-1.25V
-Iko
Vs: x5: -0.625V
B/.O
-1k0"
Ve:16k'x5:-0'31'3V
r46
T h e m i n i m u mv o l t a g eo u t p u tt h a t i s n o n z e r o i s c a l l e dt h e L E A SsTl G N l F l c A NBTl r ( L S Ba) n d
in
t h e a b o v ee x a m p l et,h e L S Bi s e q u a lt o 0 . 3 1 3 V .
T h ec a l c u l a t i o nssh o wt h a t w h i l et h e i n p u ti s o n l y0 o r 5 V ,t h e o u t p u tr a n g e sf r o m 0 t h r o u g h
a
s p t o a m a x i m u mo f - ( 2 . 5 +j . . 2 5 + 0 . 6 2 5 + 0 . 3=1 -34). 6 g g v .
s e r i e so f v o l t a g e u
A s e r i e so f i n t e r m e d i a toeu t p u t sc a nb e o b t a i n e df r o m t h e f o l l o w i n gb i n a r yd i g i t s :
0 1 0 1 = V c * V R = - ( j , . 2 5+ 0 . 3 1 3 )= _ 1 . 5 6 3 V
1 0 1 1- V p+ V s + V=a- ( 0 . 3 L 3+ 0 . 6 2 5 + 2 . 5=)- 3 . 4 3 g V
=Vo*Vc+Vs+V4
1J1,1. =- (0.313+ 0.625+ 1.25+ 2.5)=-4.6ggV
0 1 0 0 = V c =- 1 , . 2 5 V
Theabovecalculations
showthat therecan be a seriesof differentbinarydigitsto givea wide
rangeof outputvoltagesand in this way,the inputdigitalstatesof "on and off" can be
converted
t o a n A N A L O G USEI G N A L .
r47
FOLLOWER
THEVOLTAGE
T h i si s a s i m p l e vr e r s i o no f t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nagm p l i f i e r .
Rt=0
OV
t o e a r t h ,w h i l ea v o l t a g ei s a p p l i e dt o t h e n o n - i n v e r t i ntge r m i n a l ,
t e r m i n a li s c o n n e c t e d
T h ei n v e r t i r l g
h e n c et h e a m p l i f i eirs N O NI N V E R T I N G .
R e c a lt lh a t f o r t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nagm p l i f i e rt ,h e G A I Ni s g i v e nb y :
Rr
A_L+J 'R,
t o l e a v ea n o p e nc i r c u i t .
R,1i s m a d ez e r o ,a n dt h e R ii s r e m O v e d
I n t h e v o L T A G EF O L L O W E R
t m a k i n gR ii n f i n i t e .
T h i si s e q u i v a l e nt o
T h ec i r c u i tf o r t h e v o l t a g ef o l l o w e rw i l l t h e r e f o r eb e a ss h o w nb e l o w :
148
S i n c et h e g a i nA : ' 1 + y , t h e n i n t h i s
R1'
n
case,A=1*"-1.
oa)
T h eg a i no f t h e v o i t a g ef o l l o w e r = 1 .
T h ev o l t a g ef o l l o w e ri s n o t u s e da s a v o l t a g ea m p l i f i e rb, u t i n s t e a di t i s u s e da s a V O L T A G E
BUFFER.
T h ev o l t a g eb u f f e ra c t st o i s o l a t ea n i n p u ts i g n a l f r o ma l o a d ,w h i l ea l l o w i n gt h e v o l t a g eo u t p u t
t o b e i d e n t i c at lo t h e i n p u ti n m a g n i t u d ea n d i n p o l a r i t yi.. e .V o= V i n
T h ev o l t a g ef o l l o w e rh a sa h i g hi n p u ti m p e d a n cseo t h a t i t d r a w so n l ya m i n u t ec u r r e n ta, n da t
t h e s a m et i m e ,i t h a sa l o w o u t p u ti m p e d a n cteh u sp r o d u c i n a
g s u f f i c i e n t l ya r g ec u r r e n ta t t h e
o u t p u t .( R e c atl hl a t 1 _ r o t h a t w h e n R i s s m a l l I, w o u l db e s u f f i c i e n t l ya r g e . )
f
C o n s i d et rh e f o l l o w i n gc i r c u i t : A v o l t m e t e ri s c o n n e c t e d
t o m e a s u r ea p . d .o f 1 V
a c r o s sa 1 M O r e s i s t o rA. t y p i c a vl o l t m e t e rh a sa
r e s i s t a n coef 1 0 0 k Oa n d i n t h i s c i r c u i tt,h e v o l t m e t e r
w i l l d r a wm o s to f t h e c u r r e n a
t n dg i v ea n i n a c c u r a t e .
reading.
T h ev o l t a g ef o l l o w e rc a n b e u s e da ss h o w nb e l o w .
1 M O\
tv
1MO
l"Mo
T h eo p a m p i n p u td r a w sf a r l e s sc u r r e n t h a n t h e v o l t m e t e r b
, utthe OUTPUT
p r o v i d e se n o u g hc u r r e n t
f o r t h e v o l t m e t e rt o o p e r a t e .
T h ei n p u tc u r r e n ti s a b o u t1 p A ( 1 01 2 A ;w, h i l et h e o u t p u ti s a f e w m i l l i a m p(st 0 3 n ) .
T h i sc i r c u i ti s a l s ou s e f u fl o r d e t e r m i n i n g
t h e c u r r e n t st h r o u g hv e r y h i g hr e s i s t a n c eis. e
, .v e r ys m a l l
c u r r e r r tw
s h e n a v e i ' \ s. e n s i t i v a
e m m e t e ri s n o t a v a i l a b l e .
d s b e f o r ea, n dt h e c u r r e n ti s c a l c u l a t efdr o m r - v
I n t h i sc a s et h e p . d .i s m e a s u r e a
R
1,49
ON OP.AMPS
TUTORIAL
(1)
t h e l a m pi s r a t e da t
r nt h e a b o v ec i r c u i tt,h e o p - a m ph a sa n o p e n r o o pg a i no f 1 o 2 a n d
s 0 m A ,t h e l a m pw i l l b u r n o u t .
2 V ,4 0 m A .l f t h e c u r r e n te x c e e d 4
op-amp is
i. D e t e r m i n et h e v a l u e o f t h e p r o t e c t i v er e s i s t o rR , w h e n t h e
saturated
ii. C a l c u l a tteh e p o t e n t i aal t t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nign p u t
iii. Calculate t h e r e s i s t a n coe f t h e r h e o s t a t h a t w i l l a l l o w t h e p o t e n t i a la t t h e
i n v e r t i n gi n p u tt o a t t a i na v a l u eo f 2 ' 3 8 V '
j u s t c a u s e st h e
iv. w h a t m u s t b e t h e p o t e n t i a/ sl a t t h e i n v e r t i n gt e r m i n a lt h a t
o p - a m Pt o r e a c hs a t u r a t i o n'
v. To what valuesof resistancemust the resistance of the rheostatbe adjristed
same initial
s o t h a t t h e o p - a m p j u s t r e a c h e ss a t u r a t i o n ? ( A s s u mt hee
conditiona s t t h e n o n - i n v e r t i ntge r m i n a l )
( R= 2 5 0 (;)2 . 4 V ; 3 2 9 k O2; . 2 8 Vo r 2 . 5 2 Y ; 3 2 3 k o Or 3 3 7 k Q )
150
(2)
l n t h e a b o v ec i r c u i tt,h 6 o p - a m ph a sa n o p e n l o o pg a i no f 1 0 a a n dt h e l a m pi s r a t e d a t 1 , . 2 V ,
8 0 m A .l f t h e c u r r e n te x c e e d 8
s 0 m A ,t h e l a m pw i l l b u r no u t .
i. D e t e r m i n et h e v a l u eo f t h e p r o t e c t i v er e s i s t o R r ,w h e n t h e o p - a m pi s s a t u r a t e d
ii. C a l c u l a tteh e p o t e n t i aal t t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nign p u t
iii. Calculate the resistanco e f t h e r h e o s t a t h a t w i l l a l l o w t h e p o t e n t i a la t t h e i n v e r t i n g .
'
i n p u tt o a t t a i na v a l u eo f 0 . 8 V .
iv. What must be the potentiad l i f f e r e n c ea c r o s st h e i n p u t t e r m i n a l st h a t j u s t c a u s e st h e
o p - a m pt o r e a c hs a t u r a t i o n .
v. T h e r e s i s t a n coef t h e r h e o s t a it s s e t i n i t i a l l ya t 2 0 0 k Qa n d t h e n a t 1 8 O O k OD.e t e r m i n ea t
w h i c hs e t t i n go f t h e r h e o s t a wt i l l t h e l a m po p e r a t ea n d e x p l a i nh o w y o u a r r i v e da t y o u r
conclusion.
( 2 2 . 5 0; I . 2 Y; 1 0 3 6 k O; 3 0 0 U V; 2 0 0 k 4 )
151
(3)
( i ) F i n dt h e p o t e n t i aal t t h e n o n i n v e r t i nign p u t .
( i i i ) T h el a m pi s r a t e da t 3 V ,1 . . 2 Ad,e t e r m i n e t h er e s i s t a n coef t h e p r o t e c t i v e
r e si s t or .
( 1 , 8 V5; 4 M O ;5 O )
1.s2
(4)
I n t h e a b o v em u l t i s t a gaem p l i f i e rt ,h e i n p u tv o l t a g ei s 1 5 m V .D e t e r m i n teh e g a i no f t h e c i r c u i t
a n dt h e o u t p u tv o l t a g e .
A n s: 2 0 0 ; 3 V
(s)
500ko
T h e i n p u tv o l t a g ei s V r =2 0 p t VD
. e t e r m i n et h e o v e r a lgl a i na n dt h e o u t p u tv o l t a g e .
( 1 . 5 6x 1 0 " ; 0 . 3 1 2 V )
153
(6)
76kO
200ko
600ko
s r e A z =4- 0 a n d 4 3 - - 8 0 , a n dt h e o v e r a l gl a i no f t h e s y s t e mi s
( i ) l ft h e g a i n sf o r t h e c a s c a d e ad m p l i f i e r a
6 . 4 x 1 0 4 d, e t e r m i n e s r , R za n d R 3.
t h e v a l u e so f t h e r e s i s t o rR
( i i )l f V r = 3 5 F V ,d e t e r m i n et h e o u t p u tv o l t a g e .
A n s : 4 k O ; 5 k O; 7 . 5 k O; 2 . 2 4 V
(7)
40ko
1s0ko
500ko
s r e A r = -8 0 , a n dA r = -2 0 , a n dt h e o v e r a l gl a i no f t h e
l f t h e g a i n sf o r t h e c a s c a d e ad m p l i f i e r a
s r ,R za n d R 3 .
a m p l i f i e ri s 3 0 0 0 ,d e t e r m i n et h e v a l u e so f t h e r e s i s t o r R
1.54
(8) 2MO
-141mV
1
(e)
220kO 500ko
V z =1 2 m V
D e t e r m i n et h e o u t p u tv o l t a g ef o r t h e a b o v ec i r c u i t .
( 0 . 2- 2 s v )
155
Solutionsfor tutorial
(1)
i . W h e nt h e o p a m p i s s a t u r a t e dt h, e o u t p u tv o l t a g ew o u l db e e q u a tl o t h e s u p p l y
v o l t a g ew h i c hi s 1 2 V .I f t h e l a m pi s r a t e da t 2 V t h e nt h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e l a m pi s 2 V ,s o
t h a t t h e p . d .a c r o s tsh e r e s i s t owr o u l db e 1 0 V( l . e '1 2 V- 2 V = 1 0 V ) '
T h er e s i s t oar n dt h e l a m pa r e i n s e r i e s o t h a t i f 4 0 m Ah a st o f l o w t h r o u g ht h e l a m p ,
t h e n 4 0 m Aw i l l h a v et o f l o w t h r o u g ht h e r e s i s t o rS. of o r t h e r e s i s t o rV, = 1 0 Va n d | =
v10
0 . 0 4 4. R - :250Q
1 0.04
V 24
T h ec u r r e n t t h e b r a n c h1 - :-'
R7 zxros'
T h e o . d a c r o s st h e # x B 0x 1 0 3: 9 . 6 V
T h i si s t h e p o t e n t i aD l I F F E R E Na o f p o t e n t i aal c r o s s
CcEr o s st h e 8 0 k O ,i . et h e d i f f e r e n c e
a c r o s sb o t h e n d s
t h a t r e s i s t o rl.f t h e t o p e n d i s a t a p o t e n t i aol f L 2 Va n d t h e d i f f e r e n c e
o f t h e r e s i s t oirs 9 . 6 V t, h e nt h e p o t e n t i aal t t h e l o w e re n d i s 1 2 V9- . 6 V = 2 . 4 Y
156
S o l u t i o nf o r q u e s t i o n1 c o n t i n u e d ;
i i i .A t t h e i n v e r t i n gi n p u t ,t h e b r a n c ho f r e s i s t o rcso n t ai n a 2 2 O k Q r e s i s t o irn s e r i e sw i t h a
r h e o s t a tl.f t h e p o t e n t i aal t t h e i n v e r t i n gi n p u ti s 2 . 3 8 V t, h e n t h e p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
a c r o s st h e
2 2 O k Or e s i s t o irs ( 1 2 V -2 . 3 8 V ) =9 . 6 2 V
T h e c u r r e n t h r o u g ht h e 2 2 0 k Or e s i s t o irs 1 , - -
# #
T h ep . d .a c r o s st h e r h e o s t a=t 2 . 3 8 V - ( - 1 2 V
1 4) . 3 8 V
T h ec u r r e n t h r o u g ht h e r h e o s t aw
t i l l a l s ob e t h e s a m ea st h a t c a l c u l a t eadb o v es i n c et h e t w o
14'38
resistorsare in series.I,' = ? - - - s s3-, Rz=329ko.
R2 R2 220x103
i v .T h ep o t e n t i aal t t h e n o n - i n v e r t i nt e
g r m i n a il s f i x e da t 2 . 4 V T
. h eo p a m p r e a c h e s a t u r a t i o n
w h e nt h e o u t p u tv o l t a g ei s l - 2 V .
R e c a l lt h a t t h e g a i n o f a n o p a m p i s g i v e n b V A - l s t t
vLn
vin=Ynf- # - a.rzv
; hence
T h ed i f f e r e n c be e t w e e nt h e p o t e n t i a last t h e i n v e r t i n a
g n d n o n -i n v e r t i p tge r m i n a l m
s u s tb e
0 . 1 . 2 Vs,o t h a t i f V , = 2 . 4 i t h e nV , c a nb e e i t he r 2 . 2 8 Vo r 2 . 5 2 V .
v ' T h i sp a r tr e q u i r e tsh a t y o u f i n dt h e v a l u e so f t h e r e s i s t a n ct e
h a t w o u l dg i v ep o t e n t i a losf 2 . 2 g V
a n d2 . 5 2 Va t t h e i n v e r t i n tge r m i n a l .
C o n s i d efri r s ta p o t e n t i aol f 2 . 2 8 V T
. h e p o t e n t i aD
l I F F E R E NaCcEr o s st h e 2 2 O k Ar e s i s t o irs
1 ' 2 V- 2 . 2 8 V =9 . 7 2 V . T h ec u r r e n t h r o u g ht h e 2 2 0 k Oa n d h e n c et h r o u g ht h e b r a n c hi s g i v e nb y
v. 9.72
Rr 220xI03
T h e p . d . a c r o s st h e r h e o s t a t 2.28v-(-1Zv)=1.4.28v
T h i sc u r r e n t i s t h e s a m e t h r o u g h t h e r h e o s t a t L e . 3 - 1 4 - 2-8 - s ' 7 2 n
R z = 323kA
R2 R2 ,To" ro= ;
U s e t h e s a m e m e t h o d t o g e t t h e r e s i s t a n c ew h e n t h e p o t e n t i a li s 2 . 5 2 V .
Q u e s t i o n2 a n d 3 c a n b e s o l v e ds i m i l a r l yt o q u e s t i o n1
I
I
I
I
157
Solutionfor question4
A : ArAzAz
30c)
Ar:1+200:2.5
s r e i n v e r t i n gs i n c et h e y h a v en o s i g n aal t t h e n o n i n v e r t i n g
T h e s e c o n da n dt h i r d a m p l i f i e r a
l h i l et h e r ei s a s i g n aal p p l i e dt o t h e i n v e r t i n tge r m i n a l .
t e r m i n aw
_Rr
TheGainf or aninverttngop - emp ts gtvenby A - t
-20 -800
' Az=i--4 andA=- - -20
J 40
T h e o u e r a l l G o . t nA : 2 . 5 x ( - 4 ) x ( - 2 0 ) = 2 0 0 .
Solutionfor question5
T h ef i r s to p - a m pi s n o n i n v e r t i n gw h i l et h e o t h e rt w o a r e i n v e r t i n g .
T h eg a i no f t h e f i r s to p - a m pi sA t : 1 * L* -'U
ff: #
T h eg a i no f t h e s e c o n do p - a m pi s A z : - + - - -40
#
: 6 0 0- - 1 5
T h eg a i no f t h e t h i r do p - a m pi s , 4 3- + -
- 1 ' ' 5 6x 1 0 4
T h e o v e r agl la i n i s g i v e bn y A - A 1 A , A 3 - ( 2 6 ) x ( - 4 0 ) x ( - 1 5 )
158
Solutionfor question5
A 6.4 x l_04
Overall Gatn A = A1A2A3 ; henceA, : -
AzAs 40 x B0
T h ef i r s ta m p l i f i e ri s n o n i n v e r t i n gs i n c et h e i n v e r t i n gt e r m i n a li s c o n n e c t e d
t o 0 V w h i l et h e n o n
i n v e r t i n gt e r m i n a li s c o n n e c t e d
to analternating
supply.
Thegainisgib
ve n , , : 2 0- 1 *
vA ; h e n c e R r :r y - 4ke
N-t*T
-200kQ
T h es e c o n da m p l i f i e ri s i n v e r t i n ga n d i t s g a i ni s g i v e nb v A z - - 4 0 : a# :
R2
henceR2: Skf)
-600ko
T h et h i r d a m p l i f i e ri s i n v e r t i n ga n dA z = - - ! f -
-J : -80: vvt R E: 7 . S k e
R1 R3
( i i )T h eo u t p u tv o l t a g eV o= A V t n : 6 . 4 x 1 0 a x 3 5 x 1 0 - 6 - 2 . 2 4 V
Solutionfor question7
A 3000
rA1- 2 - - -1,.875
AA= -80 x -20
_Rr 40k0"
-80 hence Rr : 5000
i
R, R1
-Rt -15Okcr
Az : -I'875 ; Rz: BOkf)
Ri R2
. _R, -500k0
A." R=i -20 ; R s: 2 5 k A
R3
159
D I G I T A LE L E C T R O N I C S
L o g i cg a t e s :
( 1 ) T h e N O Tg a t e :
T h i sg a t e h a s o n e i n p u t a n d o n e o u t p u t ;
I N P U T OUTPUT
0 I
1 0
( 2 ) T h eO Rg a t e :
I N P U T OUTPUT
T h i sg a t eh a st w o i n p u t sa n do n e o u t p u t ; A B c
0 0 0
A 0 1 I
C. 1, 0 1
B I I t
T h eo u t p u ti s h i g h( 1 )w h e ne i t h e ro r b o t hi n p u t sa r eh i g h .
B
0 I 0
1 0 0
1 I 0
( a ) T h eA N Dg a t e :
T h eo u t p u ti s h i g ho n l yw h e n b o t h i n p u t sa r e h i g h .
I N P U T OUTPUT
A B C
0 0 0
0 T 0
I 0 0
1 1 1
160
( 5 ) T h e N A N Dg a t e :
T h i si s e q u i v a l e nt to a n A N Dg a t ef o l l o w e dby a NOTgate.
I N P U T OUTPUT
A
A B c
0 0 1
B
0 I 1.
t 0 t
1 I 0
( 6 ) T h e E X C L U S I V E -gO
aRt e( E X - o R )
T h i si s s o m e w h ast i m i l a r t oa n O Rg a t e ,b u t i t E X C L U D E
t hSe c a s eo f t h e b o t h i n p u t sb e i n gh i g h .
R e c a lt lh a t i n t h e c a s eo f t h e O Rg a t e ,t h e o u t p u ti s h i g hw h e n b o t h i n p u t sa r e h i g h ,h o w e v e r
g a t e ,t h e o u t p u ti s l o w w h e n b o t h i n p u t sa r e h i g h ,b u t i n a l l o t h e rc a s e si,t
withthe EX-OR
b e h a v e s i m i l a tro t h e O Rg a t e .
I N P U T OUTPUT
A B c
A n o t h e re a s yw a y o f r e m e m b e r i n g
0 0 0
A \\------.' t h e t r u t h t a b l ei s t h a t t h e o u t p u ti s
0 I I
\\ h i g ho n l yw h e nt h e i n p u t sa r e N O T
-B--l___-/
t /-c 1 0 1
thesame.
I 1 0
( 7 1 T h e E X C L U S I VNEo-R g a t e( E X - N O R )
I N P U T OUTPUT
c
--l)A \\----\
A
0
B
0 T
-B
lL----/
>-. 0
1
t
0
0
0
t 1. 1
I n ' i t i sg a t et h e o u t p u ti s h i g ho n l yw h e n b o t h i n p u t sa r ee q u a l ,h e n c ei t a c t so p p o s i t et o t h e E X -
O Rg a t e .
t6r
GATE DIAGRAM FUNCTION INPUTS OUTPUT
T h eo u t p u ti s o p p o s i t e 1. 0
NOT of the input
0 I
OR T h eo u t p u ti s L o n l y 0 0 0
w h e n e i t h e ro n e o f t h e 0 1. L
i n p u t si s 1 O Rb o t h
1. 0 1.
i nputsare l -
L t 1.
0 0 I
T h eo u t p u ti s t h e 0 t 0
NOR opposi teof the ORgate.
T 0 0
N O Rm e a n sN O TO R
I L 0
1 0 0
T 1. L
NAND T h eo u t p u ti s t h e 0 0 T
o p p o s i t eo f t h e A N D 0 L L
gate.
T 0 L
N A N Dm e a n sN O T A N D
I T 0
EX-OR T h eo u t p u ti s 1 o n l y 0 0 0
w h e no n e o f t h e i n p u t s 0 L L
a r e1 b u t n o t w h e nb o t h
1. 0 T
i n p u t sa r e 1
1. 1. 0
0 0 1
EX-NOR 0 T 0
T h eo u t p u ti s t h e
opposi teof the E X -OR t 0 0
gate. L 1 1.
r62
C o m b i n a t i o nosf l o g i cg a t e s
A L Ll o g i cg a t e sc a nb e m a d ef r o m o n l yN A N Dg a t e so r o n l yN o Rg a t e s ( R E M E M I
B E RT H t S ) .
T h e m a i nb e n e f i ti s t h a t t h e s u b s t i t u t i odno e sn o t r e d u c et h e a m o u n t g a t e s
of butinstead
r e d u c e tsh e n u m b e ro f l cC' 'ssr e q u i r e d . ( lm c e a n sl n t e g r a t e cdi r c u i ta n d i s n o r m a l l yc a l l e da
"chip")
I n o r d e rf o r a n yg a t et o b e a b a s i cb u i l d i n gb l o c kf o r o t h e rg a t e s i,t m u s t
h a v et h e I N V E R T I N G
c a p a b i l i t yh,e n c eA N Dg a t e sa n d o R g a t e sc a n n o tb e u s e dt o b u i l do t h e r g a t e s .
T h e r ea r es o m eb a s i cd e s i g n tsh a t y o u m u s tl e a r ni n o r d e rt o m a k eg a t e s
f r o m N A N Do n l yo r
N O Ro n l y .
( 1 ) F i r s t l ya, N o T g a t ec a nb e m a d ef r o m a s i n g l ei n p u tN A N D
o r a s i n g l ei n p u tN o Rg a t e ;
NAND
NOR
Input Output
Input Output
0,0 1
0,0 I
t,r 0
r,t 0
( 2 ) s e c o n d l ya, n A N Dg a t ec a nb e m a d eb y c o m b i n i n ga N A N Dt o
a N O Tg a t e :
A B C c D
0 0 1. 1. 0
0 1 1 1. 0
1 0 1 T 0
1 I 0 0 T
163
( 3 ) T h eO Rg a t ei s f o r m e db y a d d i n ga N O Tg a t et o e a c hi n p u to f t h e N A N Dg a t e :
A B c D E
0 0 1. 1, 0
0 1, I 0 1
T 0 0 t 1
T 1 0 0 !
( a ) T h e N O Rg a t ec a nb e . m a d ef r o m i n v e r t i n gt h e O Rg a t e .T h i si s d o n eb y a d d i n ga N O T
g a t ea t t h e o u t p u tf r o m t h e p r e v i o u O
s Rg a t e .
T h et r u t h t a b l ef o r t h e o u t p u to f t h i sc o m b i n a t i o ins t h e N O To f t h a t f o r t h e p r e v i o u tsa b l e .
164
B U I L D I NW
GI T HN O RG A T E S
I n o r d e rt o b u i l da n yg a t e sf r o m N O Rg a t e s i,t i s i m p o r t a ntto p e r f o r mt h e f o l l o w i n gs e q u e n c oe f
actions:
( 1 ) D e s i g nt h e c i r c u i w
t i t h N A N Dg a t e so n l y .
( 2 ) R e p l a c e a c hN A N Dg a t ew i t h a N O Rg a t e
( 3 ) A d d N O Tg a t e st o a l l t h e i n p u t sa n do u t p u t s . ( R e m e m bt h
ear t t h e N O Tg a t ei s m a d ef r o m
a N O Rg. a t e ) .
( 4 ) R e m o v ea n y p a i r so f N O Tg a t e si n s e r i e sw i t h e a c ho t h e rs i n c et h e y c a n c eol u t e a c h
other.
E X A MP L E :
( 1 ) s h o wt h a t t h e f o l f o w i n gc i r c u i ti s e q u i v a l e nt to a N o Rg a t e :
F i r s t l yr,e p l a c ea l l N A N Dg a t e sb y N O Rg a t e s :
T i i e i t i n s e r t N O Tg a t e sa t A , B ,a n d C .
165
B yc a n c e l l i nogu t t h e p a i r so f N O Tg a t e st h a t a r e i n s e r i e sw i t h e a c ho t h e r ,t h e e n d r e s u l ti sj u s t
t h e l o n eN O Rg a t eX .
E x a m p l 2e :
D e s i g na n A N Dg a t ef r o m u r i n gN O Rg a t e so n l y .
A NANDgatefollowedby a NOTgate
g i v e sa n A N Dg a t e .i . e N O To f N A N D
=AND
S t e p2 ; R e p l a cteh e N A N Dg a t e sw i t h N O Rg a t e s :
166
Step3; lnsertNOTgatesat A, B, and C.
T h e N O Tg a t e s4 a n d 5 a r e i n s e r i e sa n d w i l l c a n c eol u t e a c ho t h e r ,a n dt h e r e s u l t i n gc i r c u i tw i l l b e :
T h ea b o v ec i r c u i tr e p r e s e n tasn A N Dg a t e
O n l o o k i n ga t t h e i n p u t sA a n d B , i t i s s e e nt h a t t h e
O U T P U Ti s i d e n t i c atlo t h a t o f a n A N Dg a t e
1.67
The Exclusive-OR
Gate :
TruthTable
lnput A Input B OutputQ
000
011
101
110
The ExclusiveNORgate:
t=Dr-
TruthTable
Input A Input B Output Q
0 01
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 I
168
B u i l d i n gW i t h N A N DG a t e s
The ORgate:
:-TF-
TruthTable
Input A Input B Outpute
000
011
l0l
111
The NORgate :
:Ir-
TruthTable
Input A Input B OutputQ
0 01
0 l0
I 00
I 10
169
ORgate
TheExclusive
lfl-
TruthTable
Input A Input B OutputQ
000
011
101
110
The X- NORgate :
lilr-
TruthTable
Input A Input B OutputQ
001
010
100
111
170
NOTES
171
B IN A R YA D D E R S
T h e r ea r et w o t y p e so f B I N A R A
Y D D E RiS. e .t h e H A L FA D D E R
a n dt h e F U L LA D D E R .
T h e H A L FA D D E R i s u s e dw h e nt w o o n e b i t n u m b e r sa r ea d d e d T
. h ew o r d " b i t " m e a n sb i n a r y
digit.
T h eo n e b i t n u m b e r sc a no n l yh a v et h e v a l u e so f 0 a n d L .
T h e r ea r ef o u r d i s t i n cst i t u a t i o ntso c o n s i d ew
r i t h t h e H A L FA D D E RT.h e ya r e :
carry
I n ( d ) ,t h e s u mo f L + L = 1 0 ,a n dt h e 0 i s c a l l e dt h e S U Ma n dt h e 1 i s c a l l e dt h e C A R R y .
T h ev a l u eo f 1 0 o n t h e D E C I M A sL c a l ei s 2 . T h i si s e x p l a i n eadsf o l l o w s :
t0
\ The0isequalto0x20=0
T h e1 i s e q u a tl o 1 x 2 r = 2
T h eH A L FA D D E R
i s m a d ef r o m a n E X - O Rg a t ea n da n A N DG A T E :
A sum
A B CARRY S U M
0 0 0 0
0 I 0 t
I 0 0 1
carry 1. 1. 1. 0
( T h eE X - O R
g a t eg i v e :l h e s u ma n dt h e A N Dg a t eg i v e st h e c a r r y )
172
T h e H A L FA D D E Rc a na l s ob e b u i l tf r o m t w o N O R sa n d a n A N Dg a t e( L E A R N
T H | S! ! ! ! ! ! ! ! )
SUM
T h ec i r c u i tg i v e st h e
f o l l o w i n gr e s u l t s :
CARRY S U M 0+0=00
A B c D E
0+l-=01
0 0 1, 0 0
0 1' 0 0 1 1+0=01
I 0 0 0 1
1+1=10
I I 0 T 0
173
T H EF U L LA D D E R
I t + 1 . L ;t h i s i s r e w r i t t e ni n t h e f o l l o w i n gf o r m a tf o r s i m p l i f i c a t i o n :
t1
0t L
OL I
1.1.0
T h e r e f o r e1 1 - + 1 1
, , =1 1 0
174
T h e F U L LA D D E R
i s m a d ef r o m t w o H A L FA D D E RaSn d a n O Rg a t e .( H A ra n d H A 2a r e H A L F
ADDERS)
sum
T h et r u t h t a b l ef o r t h e F U L LA D D E R
i s g i v e nb e l o w :
INPUTS OUTPUTS
A B c SUM CARRY
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 t 0
0 T 0 1 0
1 0 0 t 0
0 1 1 0 t
T 0 T 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
T I I 1. 1,
-ffi:;id:jr', jVr.:
T'homas .{. Edison. 1*irt;r-';"lE
175
CIRCUITS
BISTABLE
circuithastwo stablestatesof L or 0 .
A BISTABLE
A c i r c u i ti s c o n s i d e r etdo b e s t a b l ei f i t s o u t p u ts t a y sf i x e de v e na f t e r t h ei n p u tc h a n g e sI n . order
f o r t h i sc i r c u i t o m a i n t a i ni t s o u t p u tw h i l et h e r ei s a c h a n g ei n i t s i n p u t , i t m u s ti n c o r p o r a t e
sometype of LATCH in its design.
T h ep r i n c i p l e c a nb e u n d e r s t o o idn t h e f o l l o w i n gc i r c u i t :
o f o p e r a t i o no f t h e L A T C H
A L AT C HC IR C U IT
output
input
, n d h e n c et h e i n p u tt o B i s h i g h .
W h e nt h e i n p u tA i s h i g ht h e o u t p u ta t C i s h i g h a
W h e nt h e . i n p utto A g o e s to l o w ,t h e i n p u ta t B d o e sn o t c h a n g ea n d h e n c et h e o u t p u ta t C i s
s t i l lh i g h .
A s i m p l ew a y o f u n d e r s t a n d i nt hgi sc i r c u i w t o u l db e t o a s s u m et h a t w h e nt h e i n p u ta t A w a sc u t
o f f i . e .s e n tf r o m L t o 0 , t h e r ew a sa d e l a y e dr e a c t i o ni n t h e o u t p u t( e g .a m i c r o s e c o n d. )T h i s
d e l a yi s s u f f i c i e nt to a l l o wt h e o u t p u ts i g n atlo f l o w t o B s o t h a t t h e i n p u tt o t h e O Rg a t ew o u l d
b e l a n d0 , h e n c ei t s o u t p u tw o u l db e 1 , a n dt h i so u t p u tw i l l b e c o n t i n u o u s l y f ebda c k t oB s o
t h e O Rg a t ew i l l h a v ea l w a y sa n o u t p u to f 1
T h ea b o v ec i r c u i th a so n e s t a b l es t a t e , b u t f o rp r a c t i c apl u r p o s e ss,o m ec i r c u i t sa r e d e s i g n e d
w i t h t w o s t a b l es t a t e sa n dt h e s ea r ec a l l e dB I S T A B Lc E ircuits.
i r c u i tc a nb e m a d ef r o m t w o N O Ro r t w o N A N Dg a t e sa, n d s u c ha c i r c u i ti s c a l l e d
A B I S T A B Lc E
a n S - RB I S T A B L E .
The "S" refersto SETandthe "R" refersto RESET.
176
C o n s i d et rh e B I S T A B Lc E
i r c u i t h a t i s m a d ef r o m N O Rg a t e s :
a
a
Q'
Q'
OPERATION:
C A S E1 :
T h e o u t p u to f a N O Rg a t ei s L o n l y i f b o t h i n p u t sa r e 0 . H e n c ei f S o r R i s L , t h e o u t p u to f t h e p a r t i c u l a r
g a t em u s t b e 0 .
F o re x a m p l ei,f S = 1 a n d R = 0 , t h e o u t p u to f G A T E1 i s 0 i . e .Q = 6 .
T h i so u t p u tQ i s f e d t o G A T E2 , s o t h a t n o w G A T E2 h a st w o i n p u t st h a t a r e0 , a n d i t so u t p u tw i l l b e 1 .
i.e. Q' -1,.
T h i s Q ' i s n o w f e d i n t o G A T E1 , s o t h a t G A T E1 n o w h a st w o i n p u t st h a t a r e 1 ( S = 1f r o m b e f o r e) , s ot h a t
Q r e m a i n sa t 0 .
I n s u m m a r v . w h esn= 1 a n d R = 0 . t h e c i r c u i t i s s t a b l e w i et h= 0 a n d e ' = 1 .
CASE 2
'lf S is nowresetto0 sothatS = R =0,
l stillhasan inputof l from q, sothattheoutputat eis still0.
GATE
ThisQ =0 isfed intoGATE2 sothat bothinputsto thisgate=0 andthe outputCf remainsat 1.
CASE3 :
R i s n o w r e s e t o l l e a v i n gs = 0 . T h e i n p u t st o G A T E2 a r e n o w l a n d0 ( e w a s 0 i n t h e p r e v i o u cs a s e ) ,
h e n c eQ ' = 0 a n d t h i s b e c o m e st h e s e c o n di n p u tt o G A T E1 . T h i sG A T E1 t h e r e h a st w o i n p u t so f 0 , s o
t h a t i t so u t p u t Q = l w h i c hi s f e d b a c kt o G A T E2 t o e n s u r et h a t Q ' r e m a i n sa t O .
CASE4:
R r ss w i t c h e dt o 0 w i t h S = 0 , Q i s s t i l la t L s o g a t e2 h a si n p u t so f 0 a n d 1 s o t h e o u t p u tQ ' i s 0 .
T h eo u t p u t sa r et h e r e f o : €U n c h a n g eads R i s s w i t c h e dt o 0 .
177
i s 'SET"by settingS = 1 and R=0.
The BISTABLE
i s 'RESET"by settingS =0 and R=1.
The BISTABLE
circuit
TheTruth table for the BISTABLE
(uslNGNoRGATEs)
T h et r u t h t a b l es h o w st h a t w h e n S i s
S R a a'
"set" at 1-, with R beingkePtat 0, the
1 0 0 t o u t p u t sQ a n d Q ' a r e s t a b l e ( u n c h a n g e d )
0 0 0 I w h e n S i s c h a n g e dt o 1 .
0 L I 0
H o w e v e tr h e o u t p u t sc h a n g ew h e n R i s
0 0 1 0
" R e s e t "t o 1 , a n dt h e s eo u t P u t sr e m a i n
s t a b l e( u n c h a n g e dw)h e n R i s c h a n g e d
to 0.
T h e o u t p u t sc a n b e c h a n g e da g a i nb Y
r e s e t t i n gt o t h e o r i g i n asl t a t ew i t h S =1
a n d R =0 .
t78
BistablecircuitusingNANDgates
S R a Q'
T h et r u t h t a b l es h o w st h a t w h e n S i s
"set" at 1-, with R beingkept at 0, the
L 0 10
o u t p u t sQ a n d Q ' a r e s t a b l e ( u n c h a n g e d )
0 0 0 1
w h e n S i s c h a n g e dt o 1 .
0 I 1, 0
0 0 1 0 H o w e v e trh e o u t p u t sc h a n g ew h e n R i s
" R e s e t "t o 1 - a
, n dt h e s eo u t p u t sr e m a i n
s t a b l e( u n c h a n g e dw)h e n R i s c h a n g e d
to 0.
T h eo u t p u t sc a n b e c h a n g e da g a i nb y
resettingto the originalstatewith S=1
a n d R =0 .
179
F L I PF L O P S
F l i pF o p sa r e b i s t a b l es t o r a g ed e v i c e tsh a t a r e c a p a b l eo f s t o r i n go n e b i t .
T h ed i f f e r e n c b
e e t w e e na L A T C H a n da F L I P - F L O i sPt h e m e t h o dt h a t i s u s e dt o c h a n g et h e i r
states.
L a t c h eas r ec o n s i d e r etdo b e " L e v eTl r i g g e r e d i".,et h e y c h a n g es t a t ed e p e n d i n o gn t h e v o l t a g e
l e v eal pplied.
Rising
edge
F a l l i n ge d g e
T h ed i a g r a . m s h o w st h a t f o r t h e c l o c kp u l s et h e " R l S l N GE D G Ei's a t t h e l e f t s i d eo f t h e
r : e c t a n g u lparro j e c t i o n(sa r r o w sp o i n tu p w a r d sw ) h i l et h e " F A L L I N E
GD G Ei"s a t t h e r i g h ts i d eo f
t h e r e c t a n g u l aprr o j e c t i o n(sa r r o w sp o i n td o w n w a r d s ) .
180
ACTION
OFFLIP
FLOPS
T h eT - t y p eF L I P - F L O P :
T h ee x p l a n a t i o n
1 I 0
f o r t h e s ea r r o w s
t o t h e r i g h ti s
+ 0 0
g i v e nb e l o w t I
+ 1 0 I
0 0 I
t
T h eT r u t ht a b l ea n dt i m i n gd i a g r a masr eg i v e na s
I 1, L 0
follows:
J-O
I n t h e t r u t h t a b l et h e r ea r es o m ea r r o w st o t h e l e f t o f i t . T h ef i r s ta r r o wi n d i c a t etsh a t t h e c l o c k
. u l s ei s o n 0 b u t m o v e su p t o 1 . T h i si s a l s os h o w no n t h e c l o c kp u l s et i m i n gd i a g r a mT. h e
p
s e c o n da r r o wf r o m t h e t r u t h t a b l e ,i n d i c a t etsh a t t h e i n p u tl e v e li s 1 a n dt h e r e f o r em o v e sd o w n
t o 0 e t c .T h i si s n o t s h o w no n t h e t i m i n gd i a g r a mb e c a u s w e e a r e u s i n gt h e t i m i n gd i a g r a mt o
s h o wo n l yt h e R I S I N E GD G E Sa,st h e f l i pf l o p i s o n l ya c t i v a t eodn t h e r i s i n ge d g e s .
T h et r u t h t a b l ea l s os h o w st h a t t h e o u t p u t sQ a n d Q ' t o g g l ea t e a c hr i s i n ge d g eo f a c l o c kp u l s e .
F o re x a m p l ea, t t h e f i r s tc l o c kl e v e l, Q = 0 a n d Q ' - 1 . A t t h e s e c o n dp u l s eo f L t h e i n p u tw o u l d
h a v eR I S E N f r o m C t o 1 , i . e .i t i s a R I S I N G
e d g e ,a n dt h e o u t p u t sw o u l dt o g g l es o t h a t Q = 1 a n d
( j" 1.
181
t o g g l ea s
W h e nt h e c l o c kl e v e lf a l l sb a c kt o Ot h i s i s a f a l l i n ge d g ea n dt h e o u t p u t sw o u l dN O T
n e x tr i s i n g
t h e y r e s p o n do n l yt o r i s i n ge d g e s ,h e n c et h e o u t p u t sr e m a i nu n c h a n g e dA.t t h e
edge,therewould againbe togglingi.e.the Q and Q' would exchange states.
T h et i m i n gd i a g r a mfso r i n p u ta n do u t p u t sa r es h o w nb e l o w
Q'
l & , a n do u t p u t sa r es h o w nh e r e .T h e
lettersA, B, C, D, E,and F are not part of the diagrambut they have
b e e ni n s e r t e da s l a b e l sf o r s o m ei m p o r t a n p
t oints.
A t A t h e i n p u ti s a t a r i s i n ge d g ea n d Q w o u l ds w i t c ht o 1 w h i l eQ '
wouldswitchto 0.
A t B , t h e r ei s a n o t h e r i s i n ge d g ea t t h e i n p u t ,s o Q a n d Q ' w o u l d
n o w t o g g l e. i . e .Q w o u l dg o t o 0 a n d Q ' w o u l dg o t o 1 '
A t C , t h e r i s i n ge d g eo n t h e i n p u tw o u l da g a i nc a u s et o g g l i n g
,causing Q to go to l- and Q' to 0.
A t o B , B t o C ,C t o D , D t o E , a n d E t o F ,h a v eo n l y
T h es p a c e s f r o m
F A L L I NeGd g e so n t h e i n p u tt i m i n gd i a g r a ma n dt h e r e f o r ed u r i n g
theseintervals, thereare no changes to both Q and Q'.
1,82
COUNTERS
T h ea r r a n g e m e nf ot r t h e t h r e ef a l l i n ge d g eT - F L I PF-L O P iSs a sf o l l o w s :
Qz(m.s.b.)
Q r ( 1 .bs .)
Most SignificantBit Q'
LeastSignificantBit
Clock
pulses
I t i s i m p o r t a nt o n o t et h e s i g n i f i c a n coef t h e s y m b o l fso r R I S I N G
EDGE
TRIGGERE
anDd F A L L I N G
EDGE TRIGGERED.
The FALLING
EDGE
TRIGGERED
is denotedby I t i s a n a r r o ww i t h a b u b b l ec l o s e
1pr-
to thetip
T h eR I S I N E
GD G E
T R I G G E R iEsD
d e n o t e db y + T h e r ei s n o b u b b l e
183
T h et i m i n gd i a g r a masn dt h e c o r r e s p o n d i tnrgu t ht a b l ea r eg i v e nb e l o w :
C l o c kp u l s e s
a o( l . s . b . )
Q, (m.s.b.)
Remembe : rL s . bm e a n L
s E A SSTI G N I F I C ABNI TT
m . s . bm e a n Ms OSS TIGNIFICA BNI TT
W h e nt h e c l o c kp u l s ei s 0 t h e t o t a l o u t p u ti s 0 .
W h e nt h e c l o c kp u l s e= I , t h e o u t p u ti s 0 0 1 =1 , =2 0( o n l yt h e f i r s tf l i p - f l o pi s o n )
W h e nt h e c l o c kp u l s e= 2 , t h e o u t p u t= 0 1 0= 0 + 2 r + O =2 ( t h es e c o n df l i p - f l o pi s o n a n dt h e
first is off)
k u l s e= T , t h e o u t p u t= ! ! L = 2 2+ 2 1+ 2 0= 7 e t c . ( A ltlh r e ef l i p - f l o p a
W h e nt h e . c l o c p s r eo n )
W h e nt h e c l o c kp u l s ei s 5 , t h e t i m i n gd i a g r a ms h o w st h a t t h e 3 ' of l i p f l o p i s o n , t h e s e c o n di s o f f
a n dt h e f i r s ti s o n t o g i v e 2 2+ 0 + 2 0= 4 + 1 = 5
Outputs
Numbeo r f Qz=22=4 Qt= 2'= 2 Q o = 2 u= 1
C l o c kP u l s e m . s b. . l.s.b.
0 0 0 0
I 0 0 1
2 0 I 0
3 0 1 I
4 1, c 0
5 1, 0 I
6 1, 1, 0
7 1, T 1,
1.84
MODULE
3
Atomic and NuclearPhysics
I M P O R T A NFTO R M U L A E :
( 3 ) E t n s t e t n 's P l t o t o e l e c t r ie
c q u a t i " o n: h f : , *;mv2
OR ltf - E + eV,
(S)Energy LeuelTransi"tton AE - hf : Ez - Er
$ ) f h e d . eB r o g l i . eW a u e t e n g t l tl , : L
p
(7)Massnumber-A*Z
A =#:
(e) Acti.utty -AN
( 1 1 )H a t fL i' fe r r , : Y
/2 A
185
EFFECT
ThCPHOTOELECTRIC
PARTIC TE NATUREOF E ROMAG RA
, , p a r t i c u l aN
t ea t u r e "m e a n sp a r t i c l ep r o p e r t i eis. e .l i g h ta sw e l l a sa l l o t h e r t y p e so f
T h et e r m
electromagnetic radiation(eg.microwaves, X -rays,radiowavesetc,) behaveas particlesin
a d d i t i o nt o e x h i b i t i n wg a v ep r o p e r t i e s .
CE CoTf l i g h t .
T h i sp a r t i c u l a tnea t u r ei s d e m o n s t r a t eidn t h e P H O T O E L E C TERFI F
u . v .l i g h t
lll-e
lila
+++
l
Polished
Zinc
plate
E x p ln
aa t i o n :
p l a t ep l a c e do n
W h e nt h e e l e c t r o s c o pwea s i n i t i a l l yg i v e na p o s i t i v ec h a r g ea, n dt h e nt h e z i n c
t h e c o p ,t h e r ew a sn o c h a n g ei n t h e d i v e r g e n coef t h e l e a v e sw h e nt h e z i n cw a si l l u m i n a t e d
with uv " Thismeansrhattherewas no changeof positivecharge,and photoelectrons were
ur.lilr:l€ to leavethe electroscope asthey were heldin placeby electrostatic attractionof the
positivechargeson the electroscope.
186
Onesignificant otherobservation with the caseof the negatively chargedelectroscope, was
t h a t w h e n a s h e e to f g l a s sw a s i n s e r t e db e t w e e nt h e u v . s o u r caen dt h e z i n cp l a t e ,t h e r ew a sn o
collapso ef the leaves..
T h i so b s e r v a t i ocna nb e e x p l a i n e a
d sf o l l o w s : .
T h eg l a s sc a u s e tsh e R E F R A C T I o OfNl i g h t .T h eu v l i g h th a sa v e r ys m a l w
l a v e l e n g t ah n d i s t o t a l l y
i n t e r n a l l rye f l e c t e d
s o i t i s u n a b l et o r e a c ht h e z i n cp l a t e .
T h eo t h e rl o n g e rw a v e l e n g t hwsi l l p a s st h r o u g hb u t d o n o t h a v es u f f i c i e net n e r g yt o s u p p l yt o
the electronsto causethem to escapefrom the metalsurface.As a result,the pHOTOELECTRIC
EFFECT doesnot occur.
L a w so f P h o t o e l e c t r iEcm i s s i o n :
( 1 ) T h e p h o t o c u r r e nw
t h i c h i s t h e n u m b e ro f p h o t o e l e c t r o npse r s e c o n d i, s p r o p o r t i o n a l
t o t h e I N T E N S I ToYf t h e i n c i d e n rt a d i a t i o n .
( 2 ) T h e m a x i m u m K i n e t i cE n e r g yo f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o niss d i r e c t l yp r o p o r t i o n atlo t h e
F R E Q U E N Co Y f t h e i n c i d e n tr a d i a t i o na, n d i s i n d e p e n d e not f t h e i n t e n s i t yo f t h e
i n c i d e n tr a d i a t i o n (. t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o nasr e e m i t t e d w i t h a r a n g eo f k i n e t i ce n e r g i e s
f r o m z e r ou p t o a m a x i m u mv a l u e .
( 3 ) F o r a n y p a r t i c u l amr e t a l ,t h e r e i s a m i n i m u mf r e q u e n c yo f r a d i a t i o nt h a t w i l l c a u s e
p h o t o e m i s s i oT nh. i sm i n i m u mf r e q u e n c yi s c a l l e dt h e T H R E S H O LFD REeUENCY an,d
b e l o wt h i sf r e q u e n c yn, o p h o t o e m i s s i ot na k e sp l a c e .
A c c o r d i ntgo W a v eT h e o r yt,h e i n t e n s i t yo f r a d i a t i o ni s t h e p o w e rp e r u n i t a r e a ,s o a g r e a t e r
l n t e n s i t yi m p l i e sa g r e a t e ra m o u n to f e n e r g yi n c i d e not n t h e m e t a ls u r f a c el .t w o u l db e
r e a s o n a b lteo a s s u m et h e n t h a t w h e nt h e i n t e n s i t yi s i n c r e a s e dt h, e p h o t o e l e c t r o nssh o u l d
a c q u i r ea g r e a t e ra m o u n to f K i n e t i cE n e r g ya st h e y l e a v et h e m e t a ls u r f a c e .
However, this is not observedand the fact that the kineticenergyof the photoelectrons is
i n d e p e n d e notf i n t e n s i t y , ( L a2w) i s a c a s eo f t h e F A I L U RoEF T H EW A V ET H E o R yo F L t G H T .
T h eo b s e r v a t i o ni n
s the photoelectre i cf f e c tc a no n l yb e e x p l a i n e b
d y a s s u m i ntgh a t t h e
r a d i a t i o nh a sa P A . : , T I C U L A
NTAET U R ET .h a ti s ,e l e c t r o m a g n e triacd i a t i o nb e h a v e sl i k ea s t r e a m
of iiiscreteparticles.
1.87
THEQUANTUMTHEORY
A L B E RE
T I N S T E IdNe v i s e da t h e o r yt h a t w o u l da c c u r a t e leyx p l a i nt h e P h o t o e l e c t rE
i cf f e c t :
T H E Q U A N T U MT H E O R Y .
T h i st h e o r yi m p l i e st h a t a l l e l e c t r o m a g n e rt a
i cd i a t i o ins m a d eu p o f i n d i v i d u auln i t sc a l l e d
PHOTONS.
E a c hp h o t o nh a sa f i x e da m o u n to f e n e r g yc a l l e da Q U A N T I . J o
Mf e n e r g y .
l f t h e i n c i d e net n e r g yh a sa f r e q u e n c y /t,h e nt h e q u a n t u mo f e n e r g yi n a p h o t o ni s g i v e nb y :
E:hf
W h e r eh i s a c o n s t a nct a l l e dt h e P l a n c k 'cso n s t a n(t h =6 . 6 3x 1 O - 3 a J s )
hc
E_ -hf !-EARNI
1
T h ep h o t o nm o d e lc a ne x p l a i nt h e r e s u l t so f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r e
i cf f e c ta sf o l l o w s :
W h e nt h e f r e q u e n c o y f t h e i n c i d e nlti g h ti s i n c r e a s e dt h, e e n e r g yo f e a c hp h o t o ni s i n c r e a s e(dE
= h f ) ,c a u s i n tgh e p h o t o n st o n o w t r a n s f e a r g r e a t e ra m o u n to f e n e r g yt o t h e e l e c t r o n sw, h i c h
i n t u r n c a u s e tsh o s ep h o t o e l e c t r o nt os n o w h a v ea g r e a t e rK Ew h e nt h e y l e a v et h e m e t a l
surface.
\ l / h e nt h e i n c i d e nrt a r J i a t i oi n
s b e l o wt h e T H R E S H O L FD
REQUENC t hYe, e n e r g yo f t h e p h o t o ni s
'low;:r,ij
t h e e n e r g yt r a n s f e r r etdo e a c he l e c t r o ni n t h e m e t a li s t o o l o w f o r i t t o e s c a p ef r o m t h e
188
m e t a ls u r f a c eT. h ee n e r g yi s n o t c o n t i n u o uasn dt h e e l e c t r o ncsa n n o ta b s o r bm o r e
t h a no n e
q u a n t u ma t a n yt i m e ,a n da r et h e r e f o r eu n a b l et o e s c a p teh e m e t a l .
PROPERTIES
OFTHEMETALSURFACE
F o re a c hp a r t i c u l am r e t a l ,t h e r ei s a m i n i m u mf r e q u e n c o y f l i g h tt h a t c a nb e r a d i a t e do n i t s
s u r f a c et o c a u s ep h o t o e m i s s i o n
T h i sm i n i m u mf r e q u e n c o y f e l e c t r o m a g n e triacd i a t i o n
t h a t i s r e q u i r e dt o c a u s ep h o t o e l e c t r o n
e m i s s i o ins c a l l e dt h e T H R E S H O F LRD E e U E N COYRC U TO F FF R E e U E N C f oYr t h e m e t a l .
R e c a ltlh a t c = ' f l h e n c e l - : . l f t h e t h r e s h o l d f r e q u e n c yi s d e n o t e db y f o ,t h e n t h e
I
c o r r e s p o n d i nwga v e l e n g t ihs c a l l e dt h e T H R E S H o LWDA V E L E N G T oH r C U T - O FW F AVELENGTH
and is denotedby trg.
C
Ao: r
lo
T h em i n i m u me n e r g yt h a t a p h o t o n m u s th a v et o c a u s ep h o t o e l e c t r oenm i s s i o n
i s d e n o t e db y
$ a n d i s c a l l e dt h e w o r k f u n c t i o ne n e r g yo f t h e m e t a l
Q : hf o
L E A RT
NH I S :
W h e nt h e e n e r g yo f t h e p h o t o ni s e q u a l t ot h e w o r k f u n c t i o ne n e r g yo f t h e m e t a l ,t h e e m i t t e d
p h o t o e l e c t r odno e sn o t h a v ea n y i n c r e a s ien i t s K i n e t i ce n e r g y .
H o w e v e ri,f t h e e n e r g yo f t h e p h o t o n( E : h f ) i s G R E A T Et hRa nt h e w o r k f u n c t i o ne n e r g y
of
t h e m e t a l ,t h e nt h e d i f f e r e n c ien t h e t w o e n e r g i e (si . e .h f - g o e s i n t o i n c r e a s i nt g
h e
il K I N ETIC
E N E R GoYf t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o n .
T h ep h o t o e l e c t r o nasr e l i b e r a t e dw i t h a r a n g eo f K i n e t i ce n e r g i e u
s p t o a m a x i m u mv a l u ew h i c h
is denotedby KEr.".
L E A R NT H I : :
Einstein's
Photoelectric is:KE.",= hf - e ORKE.."=!^uko*:
equation hf - e
189
POTENTIAL
STOPPING
W h e n l i g h ts t r i k e st h e m e t a l
C o n s i d et rh e f o l l o w i n gc i r c u i t : p l a t eC , p h o t o e m i s s i ot n
akes
p l a c e( a s s u m i nt gh a t t h e
V a c u u mc h a m b e r
f r e q u e n c yo f l i g h ti s
s u f f i c i e n t lhyi g h ) .
P h o t o e l e c t r o nasr e l i b e r a t e d
from C and moveto strikethe
p l a t eA .
T h e m i g r a t i o no f e l e c t r o n s
f r o m C t o A c o m P l e t etsh e
c i r c u i ta n d a c u r r e n ti s
d e t e c t e da n d d i s P l a Y eodn t h e
ammeter.
e c r o s sA Ca s s h o w n :
C o n s i d enr o w t h e c a s ew h e r et h e r ei s a p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c a
A t t h i s p o i n t ,t h e r e v e r s ep o t e n t i aal c r o s sA Ci s c a l l e dt h e s t o p p i n gp o t e n t i aal n d i s
denotedby V, , and the energyneededby the photoelectrons to crossthe gapacross
- O
ACwould havebeenequafto ] mvlro, - llf
190
H e n c e€ V , - K E ^ o * - ! * u , ^ q x : hf - O.
E i n s t e i n 'psh o t o e l e c t r e
i cq u a t i o nc a nt h e r e f o r eb e r e = w r i t t e na s :
'J-
't
€rV
r
,: ; m v k o * - h f - 0 .
L
T h i se q u a t i ocna nb e r e -a r r a n g eadsf o l l o w s :
v' : h f - h f o
ee
l f a g r a p ho f S t o p p i n gP o t e n t i avl e r s u sf r e q u e n c iys p l o t t e d i, t w o u l dh a v et h e f o l l o w i n g
shape:
Stopping
Potential
fo frequency
T h i sc a nb e d e d u c e df r o m t h e e q u a t i o n :
v' : h f - h f o
e
V ,w i l l b e e r o w h e n
hf hfo
l"l_-
ee
W h i c hm e a n st h a t
f =foat V, =0
191
I
Fromthe previousgraph,the gradientwould be equalto
can
The stoppingpotentialfor a metal irradiatedwith photonsof sufficientlyhigh energy
thereforebe definedas the REVERSE POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE that must be appliedacross
preventthe
the metal surfaceand a collectorplate in an evacuatedchamberto iust
photoelectronsfrom reachingthe collector'
T h e e n e r g yo f a p h o t o nc a nb e e x p r e s s eidn J o u l e so r a l t e r n a t i v e liyn E L E C T R o N V o L T S ( e V )
1eJ'
L e V= e l e c t r o n i c h a r g ex l V o l t = 1 ' 6 x L 0
O T H E RU S E F UG
LRAPHS:
rrent
Photocu
4rlntensitYr (C)
Intensityz(B)
\ I n t e n s i t v 3( A )
T h eg r a p hs h o w s3 s i g n i f i c a nf e
t atures:
( 1 ) A s t h e i n t e n s i t yi s i n c r e a s e dt h, e m a x i m u mp h o t o c u r r e ni tn c r e a s e s '
s u r f a c ea, n d a s a
A g r e a t e ri n t e n s i t ym e a n st h a t t h e r ea r e m o r e p h o t o n sp e r s e c o n ds t r i k i n gt h e m e t a l
> T h i sl e a d st o a
r e s u l t h e r ew o u l d b e m o r ee l e c t r o n sp e r s e c o n db e i n ge j e c t e df r o m t h e m e t a ls u r f a c e
g r e a t e rp h o t o c u r r e n t .
( 2 ) T h e p h o t oc u r r e n ti n c r e a s efsr o m z e r o( a t - V , ) u p t o a m a x i m u ma t
the
V = 0 .A s t h e p . d i s m a d el e s sa n d l e s sn e g a t i v et ,h e r e i s l e s sr e s i s t i v feo r c ea c t i n go n
p h o t o e l e c t r o nhse n c em o r eo f t h e m w o u l d b e a b l et o t r a v e lf r o m t h e m e t a ls u r f a c et o t h e
f r e et o
a n o d e .A t V = 0 , t h e r ea r e n o r e s i s t i v feo r c e sa c t i n go n t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o nasn d a l l a r e
m o v et o t h e a n o d et o p r o d u c et h e p h o t o c u r r e n T e f V b e y o n dz e r od o e sn o t
t .h e i n c r e a s o
remain
i n c r e a s teh e p h o t o c u r r e nat st h e n u m b e ro f p h o t o e l e c t r o nl se a v i n gt h e m e t a ls u r f a c e
u n c h a n g q (dt h i sc h a n g e o s n l y i f i n t e n s i t yc h a n g e s )
( 3 ) R e g a r d l e sosf h o w t h e i n t e n s i t yi s c h a n g e dt,h e s t o p p i n gp o t e n t i a l( - V , )r e m a i n su n c h a n g e d '
which is
T h e s t o p p i n gp, o t e n t i a li s o n l y d e t e r m i n e db y t h e e n e r g y o f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o n s
d e t e r m i n e db y t h e f r e q u e n c yo f t h e i n c i d e n rt a d i a t i o n
192
TUTORIAL
SHEET
( 3 ) A m e t a ls u r f a c eh a sa w o r k f u n c t i o no f 4 e V .W h a t m u s tb e t h e f r e q u e n c ya n d
w a v e l e n g toh f i n c i d e nlti g h to n i t t o c a u s ep h o t o e l e c t r o nt os b e e m i t t e dw i t h a
'
maximum speedof 4.4x1,0sms-t?
( A n s t: . L x L O 1 s H ; 2z. 7 3x 1 0 - 7 m )
( a ) T h e m a x i m u mK Eo f p h o t o e l e c t r o nesm i t t e df r o m a m e t a ls u r f a c ei s 1 . 8e V w h e nt h e
frequencyof the incidentlightis 7.9 xi,OraHz. Calculate
(i) T h ew o r k f u n c t i o no f t h e m e t a l
(ii) T h e m a x i m u ms p e e do f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o n s
( i i i ) T h et h r e s h o l df r e q u e n c y
(iv) The cut off wavelength
(v) T h e m a x i m u mK Ea n d s p e e do f t h e p h o t o e l e c t r o nwsh e nt h e i n c i d e n lti g h t
h a sa f r e q u e n c o y f 8 . 8x 1 0 ' o H z .
(Ans:2.35x 10 1eJ; 7.96x 10sms-1;3.54 x l-o1aHz ;8.47 x r-0-7m ;3.4gx 10-1sJ ;
8.7 xl-Osms-1)
193
(5) A metalsurfacehasa work functionof 4.4eV,and when lightof frequency3x 101sHz is
incidenton it, a photocurrentof O.221tA flowsin the circuitwith the metaland a
c o l e c t o rp l a t e .D. e t e r mni e :
(i) The KEof the photoelectrons
(ii) T h e n u m b e ro f p h o t o n ss t r i k i n gt h e m e t a ls u r f a c e a c hs e c o n d .
(Ans:1,.2gx 10-18J; 1012electronsper second)
1..375x
194
S O L U T I OG
NU i D E L I N E S
2'76x 1'0--1e
L e V - t . 6 x r 0 - r r J , l t e n c ez . T 6 x 1 0 - 1 e - L.7Z6eV
t.6 x L0-1e
Itc 6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4x 3 x 1 0 8
KE:hf-0-T-Q- - 2 . 7 6 x 1 o - l e - 1 . 9 8x 1 0 - 1 e /
4.2x L0-7
KE -;mv-;
rrn 1' 2
v - -2:K E zxr9Bx1o-1e
- 6 . 6x l , O s m s - 1
m 9.1x1o-31
( 2 ) 0 : 3 . 2 e v- 3 . 2 x L . 6x ' J , 0 - 7 e-J 5 . L Zx 1 0 - 1 e J
hc hc 6 . 6 3x l - 0 - 3 4x 3 x 1 0 8
UseQ:10, tro: : 3.9 x 1-0-7m
e: 5 . 1 , 2x 1 0 - 1 e
c 3x108
fo:i- :7'7x1'o14Hz
( 3 ) E n e r g yo f p h o t o e l e c t r o -n -)x o . t X L 0 - 3 tx ( + . +x L 0 s ' ) : B . Bx L 0 - 2 o J
).*u'
Work functton - 4eV - 4 x 1,.6x L o - r s J : 6 . 4 x 1 ' o - r s J
195
(4) K E - l . B e V: 1 . 8x I . 6 X 1 0 - 1 e- 2.BBx L'0-1sJ
K E * o , - h f - Q ; O - h f - K E - ( 6 . 6 3 x 1 0 - 3 4x 7 . 9 x 1 g t o )_ Z . B Bx 1 0 - 1 e
: 2 . 3 5x 1 0 - 1 e J
6 2 . 3 5x L 0 - 1 e
hfo - Q t fo :;- : 3 . 5 4x L 0 1 4 H z
ffi
C 3 x l-08
(tv)l,: : 8.47 x 10-7m
n: 3 . 5 4x 1 0 1 4
-3a
energy E - hf : 6.63 x 10
(v)lnci"d"ent x B.Bx L0t4 : 5.8 x 1,0-1e
J
2KE 2 x 3 . 4 8 x 1 0 - 1 e-
-: 8.7x l0sms-1
m 9.t x L0-31
( s ) I ( E - t r f - Q , ( w h e r e Q- 4 . 4 x 1 . 6 x 1 0 - I e : 7 . 0 4 x t 0 - 1 e 1 )
K E : ( 6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 ax 3 x 1 0 1 s )- 7 . 0 4 x 1 0 - 1 e- L . 2 9x L 0 - 1 8 /
The number of photons striktng each second ts equal to the number of electrons leavtng
each second.
n :o n
I - where Q - electronf"ccharge and - - nltmber of electrons per second
tt
n I 2 . 2x ! 0 - 7
h':nce - 1.375 x 1.012
per second
t a L . 6x 1 0 - 1 e
196
KE*o, 2.8 x 1018
(6)eV, : KE^ox iVs : - 17.5V
e 1 , . 6x 1 0 - 1 e
(it) K Emax - h f - Q ; Q - I t f - K E ^ o , - ( 6 . 6 3x L 0 - 3 4x 5 . 8 x 1 0 1 s )_ Z . B x 1 0 - 1 8
0 - 10.4x 1,0-7e
J
1 0 . 4x L 0 - 1 e
Q_ - 6 . 53 e V
1 , . 6x 1 0 - 1 e
hc hc 6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 ax 3 x 1 0 8
(tll)Q- ) 7o: - 1 . 9x I 0 - 7 m
1, O: 1 , 0 . 4x 1 0 - 1 e
t n e r g y - l ^ L -f 6 . 6 3 x 1 0 - 3 4x 5 . 8 x 1 0 1 s: 3 . 8 4 x L 0 - 1 8 /
( 7 ) I n c i " d e nE
u m o r : 1 . 8x t O 6 m s - . ; K E * o r : ; m v f r " o * - ) r 9 . I x l - 0 - 3 1 x ( 1 . 8x t 0 6 ) z
_ 1,.47x 10-18/
KE*o,
(i.i) eV, - KE^oy; W - _t :r." :9-:rJ_ e.Zv
e L6 x 10-1e
(tli)Q:hfoifo: a 2 . 3 7x 1 0 - 1 8
- 3.57 x 1,01s
Hz
It 6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4
1.97
X.RAYS
Production:
T h e P r i n c i p loef X - R a Y
two processes
At the pointof collisionbetweenthe electronand the tungstenatom,thereare
that leadto X-raYProduction:
(1) Bremsstrahlun Pgr o c e s s
(2) K - s h e l lemission
LUNG PROCESS:
BREMSSTRAH
atoms,the
When an incominghighspeedelectronof kineticenergyEostrikesone of the target
of anX-ray
e l e c t r o nw i l l l o s ea n a m o u n to f e n e r g yA E, a n d p a r to f t h i se n e r g yw i l l b e t h e e n e r g y
photon.(Therestof AEwill be convertedto heat)
198
THEK-SHELL
EMISSION
PROCESS:
A n e l e c t r o ni n o n e o f t h e h i g h e rs h e l l sw i l l n o w j u m p i n t ot h a t l o w e rK s h e l tl o f i l l t h e v a c a n c y ,
a n d i n d o i n gs o ,i t w i l l g i v eu p s o m eo f i t s e n e r g yb y e m i t t i n ga n X - r a yp h o t o n .
T h e K s h e l li s t h a t s h e l fl o r n = 1 , t h e L s h e l li s t h e o n ef o r w h i c hn = 2 a n dt h e M s h e t fl o r n = 3 .
W h e na v a c a n c yi s c r e a t e di n t h e K s h e l ld u e t o t h e e j e c t i o no f a n e l e c t r o na, n d a n e l e c t r o n
f r o m t h e L s h e l fl i l l st h a t v a c a n c yt ,h e e m i t t e dr a d i a t i o ni s c a l l e dt h e K ol i n ei n t h e s p e c t r u m .
l f t h e v a c a n c yi n t h e K s h e l li s f i l l e db y a n e l e c t r o nf r o m t h e M s h e l l t, h e nt h e e m i t t e dr a d i a t i o n
i s c a l l e dt h e K sl i n ei n t h e s p e c t r u m .
T h ed i s t r i b u t i o on f w a v e l e n g t hi sn t h e e n t i r es p e c t r u ms h o w i n gb o t ht h e C O N T IU
NO U S
S P E C T R UaMn dt h e L I N ES P E C T R Ui M s g i v e nb e l o w .
T h e K pl i n eh a s
greaterenergy(due
Relative t o i t ss m a l l e r
intensity w a v e l e n g t hb) u t
h a sa s m a l l e r
INTENSITY.
Continuous T h e s h a r pp e a k sa r e
d u et o K s h e l l
e m i s s i o nw, h i l et h e
continuous
s p e c t r u mi s d u e t o
B16msstrahlune
,
trrin Wavelength(pm)
E n e r g yl e v e l t r a n s i t i o n
Diagram:
M ( n = 3)
L(n=2)
K(n=1)
199
OFX.RAYS
PRODUCTION
Target anode
Coolingoil+
Orwater
:---------------
I E v a c u a t etdu b e
*
Lead C a t h o d e( t o e m i t e l e c t r o n s )
T h ec a t h o d ei s a c o i lo f t u n g s t e na c r o s sw h i c hi s c o n n e c t e tdo t h e m a i n ss u p p l y( 2 2 0 Va . c . ). A s
a c u r r e n ft l o w st h r o u g hi t , e l e c t r o nas r e e m i t t e d T
. h e s ee l e c t r o n as r et h e n a c c e l e r a t e d
t h r o u g ha p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c o
e f a b o u t1 0 0 k Vw h i c hi s a p p l i e da c r o s st h e a n o d et o t h e
cathode.
T h ea n o d ei s m a d eo f c o p p e ra n d h a sa s m a l lb l o c ko f t u n g s t e nf i x e do n i t . T h et u n g s t e ni s t h e
t a r g e tf o r t h e h i g hs p e e de l e c t r o n sA. st h e e l e c t r o ncso l l i d ew i t h t h e t u n g s t e n9, 9 %o f t h e i r
I % i s c o n v e r t e di n t o X r a y p h o t o n s .
k i n e t i ce n e r g yi s c o n v e r t e di n t o h e a ta n dt h e r e m a i n i n g
i s a s u i t a b l em a t e r i a l f o r t h et a r g e ts i n c ei t c a nw i t h s t a n dv e r yh i g ht e m p e r a t u r e s
Tungsten
w i t h o u tm e l t i n g .
T h el e a ds h i e l di s a n e c e s s a rsya f e t yd e s i g nt o p r e v e n t h e e s c a p eo f x r a y sf r o m a l l p o i n t s
o t h e rt h a nt h e w i n d o w .
T h eh i g ht e m p e r a t u r edse v e l o p e d
b y t h e c o l l i s i o nbse t w e e nt h e e l e c t r o nas n dt h e t a r g e t ,
m u s tb e c o n t r o l l e db y m e a n so f a c o o l i n gf l u i d ,w h i c hi s t y p i c a l l o
y i l .O i l d o e sn o t e v a p o r a t e
as
w a t e rd o e s ,a n d h e n c et h e r ei s n o d a n g e ro f a v a p o u rp r e s s u r b e u i l du p .W a t e rc a nb e u s e d
',,vhen there is a veryefficientflow design.
I
t_
200
ABSORPTION
OFX RAYS
X r a y sa r ea b s o r b e db y m e t a l s ,w h i c hm e a n st h a t t h e i ri n t e n s i t yd e c r e a s easst h e y p a s st h r o u g h
m e t a l sa n dw e s a yt h a t t h e y u n d e r g oA T T E N U A T I O N .
Attenuation
i s t h e g r a d u adl e c r e a s ien i n t e n s i t y .
l f a b e a mo f X - r a y sh a sa n i n c i d e nitn t e n s i t y1 oo n a m e t a ls u r f a c et ,h e n a s i t p a s s etsh r o u g ha
d e p t hx o f t h e m e t a l ,t h e i n t e n s i t y w o u ldde c r e a s e t o
a n e w v a l u el w h e r e I : I o € - v r .
T h eq u a n t i t yp i s c a l l e dt h e L T N E AARB S O R P I OcNo E F F t c l E N T .
TUTORIAT
SHEET
( 3 ) A b e a mo f X r a y so f i n t e n s i t y5 5 W m m - i2s i n c i d e not n a m a t e r i aw
l h o s el i n e a ra b s o r p t i o n
coefficientis 0.44mm-1. What is the intensityof the beamat a depthof :
(a)0.75mm
(b)2.6cm
(Ans3 : 9 . 5 W mm - 2 ; 5 . x9 1 0 - 4 W m m - 2 )
20r
SOLUTIONS
( 1 ) 1 : I o € - F x ; I = 0 . 4 I o . , l t e n c e0 . 4 l l 0 = -I s e - t t x ; 0 . 4 : s-Lrx
T a k t n g I o g s : l n ( 0 . + )- - P x , where F : 0.1Bcm-7
-0.92 - -0.18x ; x - 5.1,cm
I : I o e - F * ; 0 . 6 5 1 s: I o e - F x
ln 0.65
l n 0 . 6 5- -0.85p ; p: - S.Lcm-'
_0S5
202
APPLICATION
OFX RAYS
IN MEDICINE
T h ef i r s tC Ts c a n n eur s e di n 1 . 9 7 2 w a se x t r e m e l yr u d i m e n t a r yb y t o d a y ' ss t a n d a r d s T . o
p r o d u c eo n e r e c o g n i z a bilm e a g et o o k n i n ed a y s i, m a g er e c o n s t r u c t i ot w
n o a n d a h a l fh o u r sa n d
p u n c ht a p ef e e d - i nt i m e ' ag r e a td e a ll o n g e r E
. a r l ys c a n n e rcso u l do n l yd i s p l a yi m a g e si n o n e
p l a n e( a x i apl l a n e )h, e n c et h e t e r m C A Ts c a n- ' A ' m e a n i n ga x i a lS . c a n n e rnso w c a nd i s p l a y
i m a g e si n a n yp l a n e i,n c l u d i n3gD s o t h e ' A ' w a sd r o p p e df r o mt h e t i t l e .
T o d a yC , Ts c a n n e rcsa na c q u i r ea n i m a g e ( si )n l e s st h a no n e s e c o n dw , i t h t h e i m a g ed i s p l a y e d
immediatelM y .o d e r n ' h i g h e n d ' s c a n n e rcsa na c q u i r eu p t o 6 4 i m a g e a
s t onceS . u c hs c a n n e r s
a r ec a l l e dM u l t iS l i c eu n i t s .
203
LINESPECTRA
T h ee l e c t r o n isn a t o m sa r e b e l i e v e d . v i d e n coef t h i s i s
t o e x i s ti n p a r t i c u l aer n e r g yl e v e l sE
o b t a i n e db y t h e p r o d u c t i o n
o f l i n es p e c t r a .
E l e c t r o nws i l l t e n d t o p o p u l a t et h e l o w e s te n e r g yl e v e l sf i r s t ,a n d a st h e s eb e c o m e f i l l e dt h, e
e l e c t r o n s t a r to c c u p y i ntgh e h i g h e rl e v e l s .
W h e na n e l e c t r o na b s o r b se n e r g y f o re x a m p l ei f t h e m a t e r i ails h e a t e do r i f i t i s i r r a d i a t e w
d ith
e l e c t r o m a g n e twi ca v e s a, n e l e c t r o nm a ya b s o r be n e r g ya n d m o v ef r o m i t s i n i t i a l l y l o w e n e rgy
s t a t e( l e v e lt)o a h i g h e rl e v e l
I n t h i sh i g h e rl e v e lt,h e e l e c t r o nh a sm o r ee n e r g ya n d i s c o n s i d e r et d o b e u n s t a b l e* .T h e
b y t h e a m o u n to f e n e r g yi t p o s s e s s etsh;e g r e a t e r t h e
s t a b i l i t yo f t h e e l e c t r o ni s d e t e r m i n e d
a m o u n to f e n e r g yt,h e m o r eu n s t a b l ei t i s .
T h ee l e c t r o na t t h e h i g h e rl e v e tl h e n t r i e st o r e g a i ni t s s t a b i l i t ya, n d i t d o e st h i s b y e m i t t i n gt h e
e n e r g yt h a t i t p r e v i o u s layb s o r b e dT. h i se n e r g yi s e m i t t e di n t h e f o r m o f l i g h to r s o m eo t h e r
f o r e x a m p l eX - r a y sg, a m m ar a y se t c .
t y p e o f e l e c t r o m a g n e triac d i a t i o n
F o rd i f f e r e n et n e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o nisn t h e a t o m ,d i f f e r e n at m o u n t so f e n e r g i eas r ee m i t t e d ,
a n de a c hp a r t i c u l aarm o u n t b fe n e r g yh a sa d i s t i n cw t a v e l e n g tahn dh e n c ea d i s t i n cct o l o u r
a s s o c i a t ewdi t h i t .
is
H e n c ef o r a s e r i e so f e n e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o n sa,S P E C T R UOMFB R I G H T LCYO L O U R ELDI N E S
produced.
T h ef o l l o w j n gd i a g r a ms h o w ss o m ep o s s i b l e n e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o nisn a n a t o m .
n=5
^-A
tt - a F o ra n e n e r g yl e v e lt r a n s i t i o n
f r o m E 4t o E s, t h e e n e r g y
n=3 r a d i a t e db y t h e a t o m i s g i v e n
by:
AE:hf: Ea-En
-
l t L
t n e r g yt r a n s i t i o ni s f r o m E 4t o E sa n d t h i s t r a n s i t i o nw i l l h a v e t h e
I n t h e a h r o v ed i a g r a m , r e g r e a t e se
hct
t a v e l e n g t h( A E - h f : = l
g r e r r. ' , ' r tf r e q u e n c y a n d t h e s h o r t e sw
A
204
L i n es dencefor
E a c hl i n ei n t h e s p e c t r u m
i n d i c a t eas p a r t i c u l aern e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o n
a n d a n o b s e r v a t i oonf t h e
s p e c t r u mo f I S O L A T EADT O M Sr e v e a l tsh a t t h e l i n e sa r es e p a r a t e
a n dd i s t i n cftr o m e a c ho t h e r .
T h ef a c tt h a t t h e l i n e sd o n o t t o u c he a c ho t h e rt o f o r m a c o n t i n u o ubs a n d ,i n d l c a t etsh a t t h e
e n e r g yl e v e tl r a n s i t i o nasr eq u i t ed i s c r e t ea, n dt h e r ei s n o t a c o n t i n u u m( a c o n t i n u o u rse g i o n i)n
t h e t r a n s i t i o np r o c e s s .
The EMISSION
SPRECTRUM
for any atom is seenas a seriesof brightlycolouredlinesagainst
a dark background.
ABSORPTION
SPECTRA
E a c he l e m e n th a si t s o w n d i s t i n cst e t o f s p e c t r al li n e sa s s o c i a t ewdi t h t h e e n e r g yl e v e l
t r a n s i t i o nt sh a t a r eu n i q u ef o r e a c he l e m e n t .
R e c a ltlh a t e a c hc o l o u ri n t h e s p e c t r u mc o r r e s p o n dt o s a p a r t i c u l aar m o u n to f e n e r g yt h a t i s
r a di a t e d ,
T h ee l e m e n st o d i u mh a s p n l yo r a n g es p e c t r al il n e s .
W h e nt h e w h i t el i g h tp a s s etsh r o u g ht h e s o d i u mv a p o r ,t h e a t o m so f s o d i u ma b s o r bt h e e n e r g y
c o r r e s p o n d i nt og t h e o r a n g el i g h t , c a u s i nt hge e l e c t r o n isn t h e a t o mt o m o v et o a h i g h e rl e v e l .
A t t h i s h i g h e rl e v e tl h e e l e c t r o ni s u n s t a b l e
a n df a l l sb a c kd o w nt o a l o w e rl e v e l a
, n dr a d i a t e s
t h e e n e r g ya s s o c i a t ewdi t h t h e o r a n g ew a v e l e n g t h .
H o w e v etrh i s r a d i a t i o no f o r a n g el i g h to c c u r si n A L Ld i r e c t i o nasn d h e n c et h e s p a c et h a t w a s
p r e v i o u s loyc c u p i e db y t h e o r a n g el i g h ti n t h e V I B G Y OsRp e c t ; u ma, p p e a r sa s a d a r kr e g i o n .
T h i sr e s u l t a nst p e c t r u mw h i c hi s m a d eu p o f a b r i g h t l yc o l o u r e db r i g h tb a c k g r o u n dw,i t h a d a r k
b a n di n i t , i s c a l l e da n A B S O R P T I O N
SpECTRUM.
An AbsorptionSpectrumfor sodium
T h i si s t h e r e g i o nw h e r eO R A N GsEh o u l d
h a v eb e e n
205
OF MAfiER
NATURE
THEWAVE-PARTICLE
e f f e c t i, t i s p o s s i b l teh a t
s i n c ew a v e se x h i b i tp a r t i c l ep r o p e r t i eas ss e e ni n t h e P h o t o e l e c t r i c
t a v ep r o p e r t i e s '
p a r t i c l essh o u l de x h i b i w
e x p e r i m e n tosn E L E C T R O N
E v i d e n coef t h i sW A V EN A T U R Eo f m a t t e rw a s p r o v i d e db y
DIFFRACTION.
f i l m o f g r a p h i t ei,t w a sf o u n dt h a t a
w h e n a b e a mo f h i g hs p e e de l e c t r o n iss d i r e c t e da t a t h i n
g r a p h i t ef i l m '
r i n g sw a sp r o d u c e do n a s c r e e np o s i t i o n e bd e h i n dt h e
s e r i e so f d i f f r a c t i o n
Electron
beam
ring
Diffraction
pattern
film
Graphite
and by
meansthat they haveWAVEproperties,
Thefact that electronscanundergodiffraction,
t a v ep r o p e r t i e s '
e x t e n s i o na,l l m a t t e rs h o u l de x h i b i w
OnNd t h e s et w o
dD I F F R A C T I a
a cn E
E l e c t r o m a g n e rt iacd i a t i o n( e . g .l i g h t )e x h i b i tI N T E R F E R E N
w h i l et h e
phenomena i n d i c a t et h a t e l e c t r o m a g n e triacd i a t i o nh a v ea W A V EN A T U R E ,
NATURE of electromagnetic radiation'
photoelectric effectindicatesa PARTIcuLATE
r t c a nb e d e d u c e dt h e n ,t h a t t h e r ei s a w A V E - p A R T l c d
LuEa l i t yo f m a t t e r .
p, the wavelengthassociated
DEBrogliesuggestedthat for eachmasshavinga momentum
with its momentumis givenbY:
h
1- -
p
V , t l - , , ,h- e= P l a n c k 'cso n s i a n t .
206
TUTORIAL
SHEET
207
SOLUTIONS
- g . 1x 1 0 - 3 r k g
( I ) q = ! . 6 x 1 . 0 - r s C; p . d . : 2 0 0 0 V ; m a s s
h e n c e W- q' zV : 1 * u '
1 . 6x L 0 - 1 ex 2 0 0 0- 1 * 9 . 1 . x 1 0 - 3 x1 v 2
2
2 x 1 . 6x 1 0 - 1 ex 2 0 0 0:
2.65 x 1'07ms-r
9 . 1 ,x 1 0 - 3 1
lL
(ti")Thewavelength ts f ound f rom the DeBrogltef ormulatr p
TI
wher t , p - m o m e n t u m ; P:mv ; h e n c e1 - -
mu
6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4
)- 2.75 x I0-11m
9 . 1 , x 1 0 - 3 1x 2 . 6 5 x 1 0 7
lt ILh
- :-
tr
(2) ustngthe DeBroglteequatton, "
p mv' mA
6 . 6 3x L 0 - 3 4
Hencev : - 4 . 5 6x L 0 s m s - 1
tSZx!0-27x8.7x10-13
s n i n c r e a s ien i t s
s u e s t i o nt ,h e w o r k d o n ei n a c c e l e r a t i nt hge p r o t o nc a u s e a
A si n t h e p r e v i o u q
K i n e t i cE n e r g Y .
t
- qv
t^u'
1? 1,
1 . 6 7 x 1 . 0 - 2 7x ( 4 . 5 6 x 1 0 s ) 2
V_
zmu- 2x 1,087V
1 . . 6x L 0 - 1 e
6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4
: 2.97 x L07ms-I
(3)1 --
+ s s r i o - 3 0x 4 . 9 !x 1 ' o - 1 2
1 0 - 3 0x ( z . o l x 1 , 0 7 ) 2
: B x 1,0-1eC
208
ATOMICSTRUCTURE
E a r l yT h e o r i e o
s n A t o m . iS
c tructure:
( 1 ) T h o m s o nM o d e l :C a l l e d
t h e p l u m - p u d d i nmgo d e l
T h i sm o d e lp r o p o s e d t h a t t h e p o s i t i v ec h a r g eo f t h e a t o mw a ss p r e a do v e r t h ee n t i r e
v o l u m eo f t h e s p h e r eo f t h e a t o m a n dt h e e l e c t r o nw s e r ed i s p e r s erda n d o m l yl i k ep l u m s
w i t h i nt h i ss p h e r e .T h ee l e c t r o nw
s e r et h o u g h t o b e i n c o n s t a nvt i b r a t i o na b o u tt h e i r
f i x e dp o s i t i o n s .
electron
O O'O
OO
S p h e r eo f p o s i t i v e
charge
T h ee l e c t r o n os r b i tt h e p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dn u c l e u sl i k ep l a n e t sa r o u n dt h e s u n .
209
The Geiger-MarsdenExPeriment:
T h i se x p e r i m e nits k n o w na st h e A L P H AS C A T T E R I e
NxGp e r i m e n t .
screen
Z i n cs u l o h i d e
Metal box
with alpha
source
P i p et o v a c u u mp u m p
2r0
T h e r e s u l t so f t h e e x p e r i m e ni tn d i c a t et h a t :
( 1 ) T h ea t o m c o n t a i n e d a p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dn u c l e u w
s h i c hw a sr e s p o n s i b fl e
or deflection
of
t h e p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e da l p h ap a r t i c l e .
( 2 ) T h i sp o s i t i v ec h a r g ew a s c o n t a i n e di n a v e r y t i n y v o l u m eo f t h e a t o m , w h i c hw a s t h e
r e a s o nw h y o n l yf e w a l p h ap a r t i c l e e s x p e r i e n c eadn y d e f l e c t i o n . ( t h ew r ea s o n l y a s m a l l
p r o b a b i l i toy f t h e a l p h ap a r t i c l ec o m i n gc l o s et o t h i s p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dn u c l e u s . )
( 3 ) M o s t o f t h e m a s so f t h e a t o m w a sc o n t a i n e di n t h e n u c l e u s i n c ei f t h e m a s sw a ss p r e a d
o u t o v e r t h e e n t i r ea t o m a s p r o p o s e db y T h o m s o nm , o s t o f t h e a l p h ap a r t i c l e w
s ould
h a v es t r u c kt h i s m a s sa n dw o u l dn o t h a v eb e e na b l et o p a s st h r o u g ht h e a t o m .
USEFUL
TERMSIN ATOMICPHYSICS:
(1) Nucleon-
T h ew o r d n u c l e o ni s a c o l l e c t i vtee r m f o r b o t h p r o t o n sa n d n e u t r o n sA. n u c l e o ni s a
particle inthe NUCLEUS.
(2) Atomicnumber-
T h i si s t h e n u m b e ro f p r o t o n si n t h e n u c l e u sa, n d i s r e p r e s e n t ebdy t h e s y m b o l Z .
( 3 ) N e u t r o nn u m b e r-
T h i si s t h e n u m b e ro f n e u t r o n si n t h e n u c l e u a
s n d i s r e p r e s e n t ebdy t h e s y m b o N
l .
( 4 ) N u c l e o nn u m b e r -
T h i si st h e t o t a ln u m b e ro f N U C L E O Nl NST H EN U C L E UlSt i.s a l s oc a l l e dt h e M A S S
n u m b e ra n d i s r e p r e s e n t ebdy t h e s y m b o A l .
T h ef o l l o w i n gr e l a t i o ni s u s e f u l t or e m e m b e rA: - Z + N
i.e.Nucleonnllmber - Number of Protons * Number of Neutrons-
(5) Nuclide-
T h i si s a n a t o m c h a r a c t e r i z ebdy t h e n u m b e ro f p r o t o n sa n d n e u t r o n si n t h e n u c l e u s .
T h i st e r m i s u s e di n p r e f e r e n cteo t h e w o r d " a t o m "s i n c et h e t e r m a t o m i n c l u d etsh e
o r b i t a le l e c t r o n as n df o r n u c l e a P
r h y s i c st h, e o r b i t a le l e c t r o nds o n o t c o m ei n t o p l a y .
(6) lsotope-
A n u c l i d eh a sd i f f e r e n its o t o p e isf i t c a nh a v ed i f f e r e n m
t a s sn u m b e r sw h i l eh a v i n g t h e
s a r n ea t o m i cn u m b e rT . h ed i f f e r e n c ien t h e m a s sn u m b e ri s d u et o t h e n u c l i d eh a v i n g
d i f f e r e nn t r i u t r o nn u m b e r sE. . g .
t t c ; ' Z C ; t Z C a r ei s o t o p eos f c a r b o na n d
l H ; ? n ; I U a r ei s o t o p eosf h y d r o g e n .
211,
OFCHARGE
THEQUANTIZATION
T h ea r r a n g e m e notf t h e a p p a r a t ufso r t h e e x p e r i m e ni ts g i v e nb e l o w :
O i ld r o p l e t s
ee
e
€€ A t o m i s e re . g .p e r f u m e
€ s p r a yb o t t l e
P o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dm e t a l
plate
X raysfor
i o n i z i n tgh e a i r
N e g a t i v e l yc h a r g e dm e t a l
mtcroscooe
plate
L i g h ts o u r c ef o r
illuminating
droplets
T h ee x p e r i m e ni ts d o n ei n t w o p a r t s T . h ef i r s tp a r ti n v o l v etsh e d e t e r m i n a t i oonf t h e t e r m i n a l
s p e e do f a n o i l d r o p ,w h i c ht h e n a l l o w st h e R A D I UoSf t h e d r o pt o b e d e t e r m i n e d .
T h ec i r c u i ti s l e f t O P E Ni n i t i a l l ys o t h a t t h e m e t a l p l a t e sa r e u n c h a r g eadn dw h e nt h e a t o m i z e r
s p r a y sd r o p l e t si n t ot h e e m p t ys p a c e , t h ed r o p l e t sf a l ld u e t o t h e g r a v i t a t i o n a f ol r c ea c t i n go n
them
S o m eo f t h e d r o p l e t sp a s st h r o u g ht h e o p e n i n gi n t h e u p p e rp l a t ea n dt h e i rm o t i o ni s t i m e d
w h e nt h e yf a l lt h r o u g ha d i s t a n c e "d".
T h et e r m i n a sl p e e dc a nt h e n b e f o u n df r o m 1 ) .:t #
T h ev i s c o u fso r c ea c t i n go n t h e d r o p i s g i v e nb y F - 6 r c n r uw h e r eq i s a c o n s t a nat n d i s t h e
v i s c o s i toy f a i r ,r i s t h e r a d i u so f t h e d r o pa n dv = t e r r n i n asl p e e dw h i c hw a sp r e v i o u s l y
determined.
T h e r a d i u so f t h e d r o p h a st o b e f o u n da sf o l l o w s .
W h e nt h e d r o pf a l l si n a i r i t s w e i g h ti s e q u a lt o t h e v i s c o u fso r c ea c t i n gu p w a r d sh, e n c e
nng - 6n4re 1. or mg = kvr where k is a constant.
212
T h ed r o pi s s p h e r i c aaln d i t sv o l u m ei s V - , a n d m a s s =V o l u m ex d e n s i t y =
t"f p.
tnrt
H e n c ef r o m t h e e q u a t i c j *n
t o r = p g = 6 n 4 r v t ,h e n c er c a nb e d e t e r m i n e d .
l n t h e s e c o n dp a r to f t h e e x p e r i m e n t , t hpeo w e rs u p p l yi s s w i t c h e do n
a n dt h e p l a t e sb e c o m e
charged.The potentialdifferencebetweenthe platesis about
O n ep a r t i c u l adr r o p l e ti s s e l e c t e da n dt h e p . d .b e t w e e nt h e p l a t e si s a d j u s t e ds o t h a t t h e
t e r m i n a vl e l o c i t yo f t h e d r o p l e td e c r e a s etso a v a l u €v z . T h ev i s c o u fso r c e
n o w a c t i n go n t h e
d r o pi s k v 2
T h et o t a l u p w a r df o r c ei s E q+ k v zw h i l et h e d o w n w a r df o r c ei s m g .
H o wd i d t h e d r o p l e t a s c q u i r ea c h a r g e ?
A n s w e rS : o m eo f t h e d r o p l e t sw e r ea b l et o g e t a c h a r g ew h e nt h e y m o v e d
t h r o u g ht h e a i r ,
k n o c k e de l e c t r o n o
s u t o f s o m eo f t h e a i r m o l e c u l easn dt h e s ef r e ee l e c t r o nw s e r et h e n , U i " i o '
a d h e r et o s o m eo f t h e o i l d r o p l e t s .
H o w e v e irn o r d e rt o i n c r e a steh e n u m b e ro f c h a r g e os n t h e d r o p l e t sa n d
t o f a c i l i t a t em o r e
d r o p l e t sb e i n gc h a r g e dt ,h e a i r i n t h e v e s s esl h o u i db e l o N l S E Db y X - r a v s
o r b y u s i n ga
radioactivesourceto ionizethe air.
(vr- vr)
213
SHEET
TUTORIAL
( 1 ) ( i )C a l c u l a tteh e r a d i u so f a d r o po f o i l o f d e n s i t y8 7 0 k g m -itf i t f a l l sw i t h a t e r m i n a l
velocityof 2.88mms-t in air wherethe viscosity is 1'.7gx l-O-s Nsm-2'
( i i ) l ft h e d r o p h a s2 0 e l e c t r o n os n i t a n dt h e p l a t es e p a r a t i oins 4 m m ,c a l c u l a tteh e
p . d .t h a t m u s tb e a p p l i e db e t w e e nt h e t w o p l a t e si f t h e d r o pi s t o b e h e l ds t a t i o n a r y .
( A n s :5 . 2 x 1 0 - 6 m6; 2 6 8 V )
s x p e r i m e na
( 2 ) l nt h e M i l l i k a n ' e y h e n i t a c q u i r efso u r e l e c t r o n s
t , d r o p i s h e l ds t a t i o n a rw
a n dt h e v o l t a g ea c r o s st h e p l a t e si s 2 2 5 0 V .
(i) W h a t i s t h e p l a t es e p a r a t i oinf t h e r a d i u so f t h e d r o p i s 1 . 7 5x 1 0 - 6 ma n dt h e
densitY o f o i l i s9 2 0 k g m - ' .
(ii) w h a t m u s tb e t h e r a d i u so f a n o t h e rd r o pi f i t i s t o b e h e l ds t a t i o n a ruy n d e r
t h e s a m e c o n d i t i o nas sa b o v ei f i t h a s8 e l e c t r o nas t t a c h e dt o i t ?
( A n s7 . L m m ; 2 . 2 P m )
. a l c u l a tteh e
( 3 ) E l e c t r o nasr ea c c e l e r a t ei dn a n X r a yt u b et h r o u g ha p . d .o f 8 0 0 0 V C
wavelengthassociafed the motionof the electrons.(mass of electrorl= 9.1 x L0-31kg,
charge=l-.6x10-1sC)
11m)
( A n s: L . 3 7x 1 0
h f 3 . 6x L 0 - 1m
(4) A n X r a y p h o t o nh a sa w a v e l e n g t o , a s sa n d
0 . C a l c u l a tteh e m o m e n t u mm
energyof the X raYPhoton.
1;6.14 5 . 5x 1o-16J;
x 1 0 - 3 3 k; g
A n s . (1 , . 8 4 x1 0 - 2 a k g m s
( 5 ) T h e K o Xr a y sh a v ea w a v e l e n g t oh f 6 . 8 8x L O - 1 0 m . l c u l a tteh e m i n i m u mp o t e n t i a l
Ca
differenceacrossan X raytube that will producetheseX rays'
W h a t i s t h e e n e r g yo f t h e X r a y p h o t o n si n e V ?
(Ans:1,807V; 1807eV)
s e a ta t
( 6 ) A n X - r a y t u b e i s o p e r a t e do n a d . cp o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e ' o3f8 0 0 0 Va, n d p r o d u c e h
a rate of 660w. lf only 0.4%of the energyof the incidentelectronsis convertedto X
r a y s c, a l c u l a t e :
(i) T h e r a t ea t w h i c he l e c t r o n s t r i k et h e t a r g e t '
(ii) T h es p e e do f t h e i n c i d e net l e c t r o n s
( A n s : 1 . 0x91 0 1 e s e r s e c o n d; 1 . 1 8x l - 0 8 m s - 1 )
7 l e c t r o np
214
SOLUTIONS
' 3 -!nr=
Hence 6m7rv pg
, IBrTv 1 8 x 1 . 7 9x 1 0 - sx 0 . 0 0 2 8 8
l - a l - 5.2 x 1,0-6m
+pg 4 x 8 7 0x 9 . 8 1
(ti")lf the drop i"sheld stati,on&ry,then the electrf.cf orce acttng upward"s,
would be equal to the wei"ght
Hence mg = Eq where E f"sthe Electric f teld strength
. Vq mqd
E_V ms-7; v -; 7;
V_ 1"" psd ! r c 6 . 2 x 1 0 - 6 ) 3x 8 7 0x 9 . 8 1x 0 . 0 0 4:
6268V
20x1,.6x10-1e
h e n c e m g : E qo r m g - r y t
u
- 2250x6'4x\o-Ie -7.Lx!o-3m
d-Y-
m +
" LAa //^
x 1 0 - 6 ) 3x 9 2 0 x 9 . 8 1
2ftQ.75
( i " i ) C h a r g e- B x 1. 6 x ! } - l e , p l a t e s e p a r a t i o n : 7 . t x L 0 - 3 m i p . d . 2250V
Vq 4 Vq
mg g
d ' 1 o ' =P d'
2 2 5 0x B x 1 , . 6 xL 0 - 1 ex 3
: 2.2 x L0-6 m
4 x 7 . 1 x 1 0 - 3x n x 9 2 0 x 9 . 8 1
215
(3)Work done on electron - Increase tn i,tsKE
1, 2 x I . 6 x 1 0 - 1 ex 8 0 0 0
h e n c eq V : ;v - : 5,3 x 107ms-I
r*u, 9 . 1x l - 0 - 3 1
6 . 6 3x 1 0 - 3 4
mornentumP: mv and 1- : L.37 x't0-11m
mv 9 . 1 x, 1 0 - 3 1x 5 . 3 x 1 0 7
h 6.63 x 1,0-34
(4) 1- mv * - 1 . 8x ! 0 - 2 a k g m s - 1
mv 3 . 6x 1 0 - 1 0
momentum
Momentum - mass x speed, hence ma"ss-
speed(of ltght)
1 . 8x ! 0 - 2 4 -
(ir)mass - 6 . 1 4x 1 0 - 3 3 k g
3x 108
hc 6 . 6 3 x 1 0 - 3 a x 3 x 1 0 B
(iii)Energy of a photon - : 5.5 x 1,0-16J
1 3 . 6x 1 0 - 1 0
T h ec h a r g eo f a n e l e c t r o ni s e a n dt h e p . d .a c r o s si t i s 1 8 0 7 Vh, e n c et h e e n e r g ys u p p l i e d
to the
electronis 1807eV.
2r6
(6) 4o/oconverted"to X ray meqns that 99.6%Power conv'erted.to heat
662.65
number of electrons per second : : 1 . 0 9x 1 0 1 7
I . 6 x 1 0 - 1 ex 3 8 0 0 0
2qv 2 x 1 . 6 x 1 0 - 1 ex 3 8 0 0 0
( i i , )q v - ) ^ u ' ;v - - 1 . 1 5x L 0 8 m s - 1
m 9 . 1x 1 - 0 - 3 1
( 7 ) P o w e r s u p p l t e dP - V I - 5 5 0 0 0 x 0 . 0 1 8- 9 9 0 W
217
AND BINDINGENERGY
VIASSDEFECT
theorvof Relativity
Einstein,s ble,i.e.Masscanbe
showsthat massand energyare interchangea
convertedinto energy,and energycan be convertedinto mass'
with 1
aswell asthe Energyassociated
Thiseouationallowsthe massof a Jouleto be calculated
kg to be calculated.
,' = 1 . 1 1x L o - l 7 k s
H e n c e/ m : ; =
.,;|ry
THEATOMICMASSUNIT:
r h y s i ciss t h e U n i f i e dA t o m i cM a s sU n i t ,
l n i t o f m a s sa n d e n e r g yi n N u c l e aP
A v e r yu s e f u u
'u'.
which is alsocalledthe atomicmassunit and abbreviated
'ZC.
T h ea t o m i cm a s su n i t i s d e f i n e da s o n et w e l f t ho f t h e m a s so f t h e c a r b o na t o m
I n a m o l eo f c a r b o nt,h e r ea r e 6 . 0 2x 1 0 2 3a t o m sa n dt h e m a s so f 1 m o l ei s L 2 9 .
Hencethemassof1carbonatom''ffie=ffikg_12u;Hence
12
Lu: - L.66 xl0-27kg.
ffikg
1 ' 6 6 x L O - 2 7x 9 x 1 0 1 6
t- l'L - -93LMev
r-6x10-13
21.8
R e c a l:l
T h ep r o t o n sa n d n e u t r o n si n t h e n u c l e u sa r ec o l l e c t i v e l y
r e f e r r e dt o a s n u c l e o n s
T h ee n e r g y t h a m t u s tb e s u p p l i e dt o t h e n u c l e u tso c o m p l e t e l y
s e p a r a t teh e nvuvc'lsevuJsi n t o i t s
i n d i v i d u anlu c l e o n si ,s c a l l e dt h e B I N D I N G "'l'|
E N E R Goyf t h e n u c l e u s .
A c c o r d i ntgo E i n s t e i n 'm
s a s s -e n e r g yr e l a t i o n s h i p
i f ,e n e r g yi s s u p p l i e dt o t h e n u c l e u st ,h e n
w h e nt h e i n d i v i d u anl u c l e o n as r es e p a r a t e dt h, e t o t a l
m a s sw o u l di n c r e a s ei ..e i f e n e r g yi s
added,then this energyis convertedinto extramass.
T h i sm e a n st h a t t h e s u mo f t h e m a s s e o s f t h e i n d i vei vdvu' a'In'lvu c l e o niss g r e a t e tr h a nt h e
the nucleus.
m a s so f
T h ed i f f e r e n c ien m a s sb e t w e e nt h e s u mo f t h e m a s s e s
o f t h e i n d i v i d u anl u c l e o n as n d t h e m a s s
o f t h e n u c l e u si s c a i l e dt h e M A S SD E F E C T .
Example:
C a l c u l a tteh e b i n d i n ge n e r g ya n dt h e m a s sd e f e c tf o r
t h e h e l i u mn u c l e u s .
s y m b o fl o r h e l i u mn u c l e su i s
l H e ; t h e n u c l e o n u m b e ri s 4 a n dt h e p r o t o nn u m b e ri s 2 . H e n c e
i t h a s2 p r o t o n sa n d 2 n e u t r o n s .
T h em a s so f a p r o t o ni s 1 ' 0 0 7 3 ua n dt h e m a s so f a n e u t r o n
is1.00g7u.
T h et o t a l m a s so f t h e i n d i v i d u anl u c l e o n iss e q u a l t o(
m a s so f 2 p r o t o n s+) ( m a s so f 2 n e u t r o n s )
T o t a lm a s s= ( 2 x 1 . 0 0 7 3 u+) ( Z x 1 . 0 O g 7 u=)4 . 0 3 2 0 u
T h eh e l i u mn u c l e u si s f o u n dt o h a v ea m a s so f 4 . 0 0 1 5 u .
T h eM A S SD E F E Ci sTt h e r e f o r e4 . 0 3 2 0u - 4 . 0 0 1 5 u= 0 . 0 3 0 5 u .
R e c a ltih a t L u h a sd F €
: Q u i v a l e netn e r g yo f 9 3 1 M e V ,h e n c eo . 0 3 0 5 uw i l l
h a v ea n e n e r g y
€eu,''.,alence of
0.0305x 931MeV= 28.4MeV.
2t9
OFTHENUCLEUS
STABILITY
t a s sn u m b e r t, h e f o l l o w i n g
W h e na g r a p ho f B i n d i n gE n e i g yp e r n u c l e o ni s p l o t t e da g a i n sm
s h a p ei s o b t a i n e d :
B i n d i n ge n e r g y
p e rn u c l e o n
238 M a s sn u m b e r
56
T h eg r a p hs h o w st h a t t h e e l e m e n F t eh a st h e h i g h e sbt i n d i n ge n e r g yp e r n u c l e o na n di s
t h e r e f o r et h e m o s ts t a b l e .
that
L i g h t eer l e m e n t s u c ha s H y d r o g e nh, e l i u m , A,l L i , e t c .a l l h a v em a s sn u m b e r sl o w e r t h a n
p e r T h e yc an
o f F e ,a n d a c c o r d i ntgo t h e g r a p h t, h e yw i l l h a v el o w e rb i n d i n ge n e r g i e s n u c l e o n .
i n c r e a steh e i rb i n d i n ge n e r g i epse r n u c l e o nb y i n c r e a s i nt hg e i rm a s sn u m b e rc l o s etro 5 6 ,a n d
f o r t h i st o h a p p e nt,h e ym u s tu n d e r g oF U S I O N '
220
Elements with massnumbersgreaterthan 56 for exampleUranium,havebindingenergiesper
nucleonlessthan that of Fe,and in orderfor elementssuchastheseto becomgmorestable(by
increasingtheir bindingenergyper nucleon), they mustdecrease
their massnumberto a varue
closerto 56.Thiscanhappenif the elementundergoes FISSION.
Example:
Findthe energyreleasedwhen a Poloniumnuclideemitsan alphaparticle.
tt|po -+ 23tpb+
lHe + E
T h em a s s eos f t h e v a r i o u sn u c l i d easr eg i v e na sf o l l o w s :
L e a d' | u r p a- 2 0 5 . 9 6 9 u ; q p a r t i c l e | H e - 4 . 0 0 4 u , p o l o n t u m z [ o n p-o z 0 g . 9 8 2 u
T h eT o t a lm a s so n t h e l e f t s i d eo f t h e e q u a t i o ni s 2 0 9 . 9 g 2 u
Thetotal masson the rightsideis (205.969+ 4.004)u= 209.973u
A n E N E R GTYE R Mm u s tb e i n c l u d e od n t h e r i g h ts i d es o t h a t i t s m a s se q u i v a l e n cweh e na d d e d
t o t h e o t h e rm a s s e o
s n t h e r i g h ts i d eo f t h e e q u a t i o nw, i l l b e e q u a lt o t h e m a s so n t h e l e f ts i d e
of theequation
Q u e s t i o n:
W h e na n a l p h ap a r t i c l es t r i k e sa n i t r o g e nn u c l e u st ,h e f o l l o w i n gN U C L E ArR
e a c t i o no c c u r s :
l u e + ' \ w - , 1 $ o+ \ n
B yc o n s i d e r i ntgh e r e s tm a s s e o s f t h e p a r t i c l egs i v e nb e l o w ,d e t e r m i n et h e K Ea n ds p e e dt h a t
t h e a l p h ap a r t i c l em u s th a v ei n o r d e rt o e f f e c t h e r e a c t i o n .
M a s s o f H e = 4 . 0 0 2 : t 0mua; s s o f N = 1 4 . 0 0 3 0 7 u ; m a s s o f H = 1 . 0 0 7 8 3 u ; m a s s o f O = 1 6 . 9 9 9 1 3 u
. of Alphaparticle= 4 x 1.66xtO 27kg;
\''l-,:ts
( A n s: 1 , . 9 2
x L O - 1 ;37J. 6 x l - 0 6 m s - 1 )
221,
RADIOACTIVITY
p e r n u c l e o nt,h e
(i) T h e b i n d i n ge n e r g yP e r n u c l e o n -T h e g r e a t e rt h e b i n d i n ge n e r g y
g r e a t e ri s t h e s t a b i l i t Y .
(ii) T h en e u t r o n -p r o t o nr a t i o .F o rl i g h tS T A B LnEu c l e suchi as 12uC and t[O tfre ratio is ]-.
F o rh e a v yn u c l e it,h e r a t i oi n c r e a s et so w a r d sl - ' 6 '
'.
T h e r ea r et h r e em a j o rt y p e so f n a t u r a rl a d i a t i o n
1. nlpha Radiation
A l p h ar a d i a t i o nc o n s i s tos f a s t r e a mo f p o s i t i v e lcyh a r g e dp a r t i c l e sc,a l l e da l p h a
p a r t i c l e sw, h i c hh a v ea n a t o m i cm a s so f 4 a n da c h a r g eo f + 2 ( a h e l i u mn u c l e u s ) .
W h e na n a l p h ap a r t i c l e i s e j e c t e df r o m a n u c l e u st h, e m a s sn u m b e r o ft h e n u c l e u s
d e c r e a s ebsy f o u r u n i t sa n dt h e a t o m i cn u m b e rd e c r e a s ebsy t w o u n i t s .F o r
example:
, 3 3 U- z l f t fn ; T h e h e l i u mn u c l e u si s t h e a l p h ap a r t i c l e .
|lle +
A l p h ap a r t i c l ee m i s s i o no c c u r sw h e nt h e n u c l e u sh a st o o m u c hp r o t o n sw , h i c hw o u l dc a u s e
causes
p a r t i c l ee m i s s i o n
t h e n e u t r o n -p r o t o nr a t i ot o b e t o o s m a l fl o r h e a v yn u c l e iT. h ea l p h a
d e c r e a sbev 2 '
t h e p r o t o nn u m b e r t od e c r e a sbey 2 a n da l s o t h en e u t r o nn u m b e r t o
2 3 r l Ut s ' f f - 1'587
F r o mt h e a b o v ee x a m p l et,h e n e u t r o n -p r o t o nr a t i o no f
2l[rn tt'# - r ' 6 , h e n c et h e a l p h ad e c a yc a u s e dt h e
T h en e u t r o n -p r o t o nr a t i oo r
n e u t r o n- p r o t o nr a t i ot o i n c r e a steo w a r d sL . 6w h i c hm e a n sa n i n c r e a s ien s t a b i l i t y .
222
(21 B e t aR a d i a t i o n, w h i c hh a st w o t y p e si . e .p a n d g * e m i s s i o n s .
(3) GammaRadiation
Gammaraysare high-energy photonswith a veryshortwavelength(0.0005to 0.1
nm)' Theemissionof gammaradiationresultsfrom dn energv
changeof electrons
w i t h i n t h e a t o m i cn u c l e u sG
- a m m ae m i s s i o cn h a n g e ns e i t h r et h
r e a t o m i cn u m b e r
n o r t h e a t o m i cm a s sA . l p h aa n d b e t ae m i s s i o na r eo f t e na c c o m p a n i e d ' bg ya m m a
e m i s s i o na,sa n e x c i t e de l e c t r o ni n t h e n u c l e u sd,r o p s t oa l o w e r a n d
m o r es t a b l e
energystate.
A l p h a ,b e t a ,a n dg a m m ar a d i a t i o na l s oa c c o m p a niyn d u c e dr a d i o a c t i v i t y .
R a d i o a c t i vi seo t o p e s
a r e p r e p a r e di n t h e l a b u s i n gb o m b a r d m e nrte a c t i o ntso c o n v e r t
a s t a b l en u c l e u si n t oo n e
whichis radioactive. Positron(particlewith the samemassas an electron,but a charge
of +1
i n s t e a do f - 1 ) e m i s s i o n
i s n ' to b s e r v e di n n a t u r a rl a d i o a c t i v i tby u
, t i t i s a c o m m o nm o d eo f d e c a y
in inducedradioactivity. Bombardment reactions can be usedto produceveryheavyelements,
i n c l u d i nmg a n yw h i c hd o n ' to c c u ri n n a t u r e .
223
ACTIVITY
s i l l d e c a y b, u t i f a s a m p l ec o n t a i n sN
t h e n a p a r t i c u l anr u c l e u w
I t i s i m p o s s i b lteo p r e d i c w
g i v e nb y
n u c l e it,h e n t h e r a t eo f d e c a yc a l l e dt h e A C T-IdVt I TiYs p r o p o r t i o n at ol N w h i c hi s
A= x N.
dt
t h a t a st i m e i n c r e a s etsh, e v a l u eo f
s i g nt o i n d i c a t e N
T h e r a t eo f d e c a yi s g i v e na n e g a t i v e
decreases.
I
T h ep r o p o r t i o n a l i st yi g nc a nb e r e m o v e dt o g i v et h e g e n e r ael q u a t i o n :
-dN
= iN= A
dt
Y O N S T A NoTr D I S I N T E G R A TC
W h e r e . tirs c a l l e dt h e D E C A C . a su n i t so f ( t i m e ) - '
I OONN S T A NlTt h
N - No e - A t
sinceActivitYAo(N
Similarly
A - Aos-At
l c t i v i t yo f t h e
i r e s e n (t a tt = 0 ) , a n dA o i st h e i n i t i a A
w h e r eN oi s t h e i n i t i a ln u m b e ro f n u c l e p
s am p l e .
224
H A L FL I F E .
T h eh a l fl i f eo f a s a m p l ei s t h e t i m e t a k e nf o r b o t h t h e A c t i v i t yo f t h e s a m p l ea n dt h e n u m b e ro f
r a d i o a c t i vneu c l eti o f a l lt o h a l fo f t h e i n i t i a vl a l u e .
l e a t h a l fl i f eN s ) f a n dA s ) + .
l f t h e s er e l a t i o n a
s r e s u b s t i t u t e idn t h e p r e v i o u e
s q u a t i o ntsh e n ;
A t t = T r / r , * = T , h e n c e b y s u b s t i t u t i n g N = f i n t h e e q u a t i o n w i t h A- / N s e - t t , w e g e t :
:-u - N69-AT112
z
g ow e g e t ;
B ye l i m i n a t i n N
t -
,-ATr/z
2
T a k i n gl o g sg i v e s- l n Z - -7Ttr OR
/2
LEARN
A very usefulequation
to learnis :
TL
r1t
A _ or\z) where n is the number of half ltves
si.mi.tarlyN-
"r(;)"
No
The graphto the left represents the
v a r i a t i o no f t h e n u m b e ro f a c t i v e
n u c l ew
i i t ht i m e .
I t i s a l s oa r e p r e s e n t a t i oonf t h e
v a r i a t i o no f t h e A c t i v i t yw i t h t i m e , i n
w h i c hc a s et h e N 6o f l t h e y - a x i s ,c a n
No
1 b e r e p l a c e dw i t h 4 6 .
No
4
A/o
I
a
T t^ ,/ 2 2Ttr 3Ttr
/2 /2
22s
SOMEPROPERTIES
OF RADIOACTIVE
EMISSIONS
ALPHAPARTICLES:
( 1 ) A l p h ap a r t i c l easr eh e l i u mn u c l e i .
(2) Theyhavea chargeof +2e (2 x L.6x10-1eC1.
( 3 ) F r o ma n yp a r t i c u l asra m p l et,h e a l p h ap a r t i c l eas r ee j e c t e dw i t h a p p r o x i m a t etl hy e s a m e
velocity.
( a ) T h ee n e r g i e os f a l p h ap a r t i c l e rsa n g ef r o m 4 M e Vt o 8 M e V ,a n dt h e r a n g ei n a i r i s a b o u t
8cm.
(5) Theyare deflectedby both magneticand electricfields.
( 6 ) A l p h ap a r t i c l eas r et o t a l l ya b s o r b e db y a t h i c ks h e e to f p a p e ra sw e l l a s b y h u m a ns k i n .
( 7 ) C a u s es i g n i f i c a ni ot n i z a t i o dn u et o i t s r e l a t i v e llya r g em a s sa n ds i z e -t h e y h a v ea h i g h
p r o b a b i l i toy f c o l l i d i n g
w i t h g a sm o l e c u l easn d k n o c k i n o g f f e l e c t r o n sa,st h e i r
m o m e n t u mc a u s et h e m t o k e e po n t r a v e l l i n a g f t e ri t s f i r s tf e w c o l l i s i o n s .
Beta Particles:
GammaRays:
(1) Theyare not particlesbut insteadthey are electromagnetic wavesof very highenergy.
(2) Theytravelat the speedof light.
(3) Theyare muchmore penetrating than beta particlesand canpenetratea few metresof
concrete.Theycanbe stoppedby a wall of leadthat is at least10cmthick.
( a ) T h e r a n g ei n a i r i s u p t o s e v e r ahl u n d r e dk i l o m e t e r s .
( 5 ) T h e yc a u s ev e r yl i t t l ei o n i z a t i o on f g a sm o l e c u l e s .
(6) Theyare deflectedby neitherelectricnor magneticfields.
226
EXPERIMENT
TO DISTINGUISH
BETWEEN
THETHREE
TYPES
OF RADIATION:
sincethe 3 typesof rad.iation havedifferentpenetratingpowers,then this property
can be
incorporated in an experimentto distinguish betweeneachtype.
A n a r r a n g e m e notf t h e a p p a r a t uiss g i v e nb e l o w :
C{ A l u m in u m
88
A G e i g eM r u l l e rt u b e i s p t a c e db e h i n de a c hb a r r i e (r G M
t , G M z , G M :G , M+).
F o ra l l r a d i o a c t i vm
e e a s u r e m e n ttsh,e B A C K G R o u NcDo u N T
R A T Ei s f i r s tm e a s u r e da,n dt h i s i s
t h e n s u b t r a c t efdr o m a l l s u b s e q u e nr te a d i n g s .
l f t h e G M r g i v e so n l yt h e v a l u eo f t h e b a c k g r o u ncdo u n t
r a t e ,t h e n t h e s a m p l ew o u l dh a v eh a d
o n l ya l p h ap a r t i c l e s .
l f h o w e v e rt,h e r e a d i n go n G M 1i s g r e a t e tr h a n , t h eb a c k g r o u n d
r a t et h e n t h e r ew o u l db e
p a r t i c l eps a s s i n tgh r o u g ht h e t i s s u ew h i c hw o u l d
b e e i t h e rb e t ap a r t i c l eos r g a m m ar a y so r
b o t h 'T h er e a d i n gos n G M za n d G M : w i l l a l l o wt h e o b s e r v e r
t o d e t e r m i n et h e n a t u r eo f t h e
e m i s s i o ntsh a t a r e n o t a l p h a .
227
from
T h ed e f l e c t i o nisn e l e c t r i ca n d m a g n e t i fci e l d sa l s oa l l o wt h e e m i s s i o ntso b e d i s t i n g u i s h e d
o n ea n o t h e r :
228
EXPERIMENT
TO DETERMINE
THEHALFLIFEOFA RADIOACTIVE
ISOTOPE
WITHA SHORTHALFLIFE:
T h eh a l fl i f ec a nb e m e a s u r e d by monitoring t h e i o n i z a t i o cnu r r e n tp r o d u c e db y t h e s a m p l eo f
r a d i o a c t i vm
e aterial.
A t y p i c a sl a m p l et h a t i s u s e di n t h e l a b o r a t o riys R a d o ng a s .
Centra I e l e c t r o d e
valves
1-2Vbattery
m i c r o am m e t e r
d . c .a m p l i f i e r
Polythene
bottle
R= 1011e
w i t h r a d o ng a s
T h ev a l v e sa r es e tt o t h e o p e np o s i t i o na n dt h e p o l y t h e n eb o t t l e
i s s q u e e z etdo f o r c es o m e
r a d o ng a si n t ot h e i o n i z a t i o cnh a m b e rm ( e t a lc a n ), a n dt h e v a l v e sa r et h e n c l o s e d .
T h ec u r r e n to n t h e a m m e t e ri s r e c o r d e da n d a s t o p w a t c hi s
started.
R e a d i n gosf c u r r e n ta r e r e c o r d e da t e v e r y1 0 s e c o n dfso r a p e r i o d
o f a b o u t5 m i n u t e s .
229
A graphof currentversus timeis plottedanda smoothcurveis drawnthroughthe points.
T h ev a l u eos f I o ; 2 , ? t a n df r o mt h et h r e el a t t e rv a l u e st,h e h a l fl i f ec a nb e f o u n di n e a c h
f,
c a s ea, n dt h ea v e r a gvea l u et h e nc a l c u l a t e d .
16
! ------'l
2
r!
I
4 I
I
rI 0 ---t-
I
B I
.l
230
SAFETYPRECAUTIONS
FOR HANDLINGAND DISPOSALOF RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL
S i n c ea l p h aa n d b e t ap a r t i c l e ds o n o t p e n e t r a t et h e s k i nt h e y a r e u n l i k e l yt o b e h a r m f u fl r o m E X T E R N A L
S O U R C Ei .Se .f r o m s o u r c e so u t s i d eo f t h e h u m a nb o d y .
T h e yw i l l h o w e v e rp o s ea s e r i o u st h r e a ti f t h e y a r e i n g e s t e do r i n h a l e d .
Personh s a n d l i n gr a d i o a c t i vm
e a t e r i a l sm u s tn o t e a t s m o k eo r d r i n ki n t h e v i c i n i t yo f t h e r a d i o a c t i v e
s a m p l e sM ' a s k sa s w e l l a s d i s p o s a b lgel o v e sa n d p r o t e c t i v ec l o t h i n gs h o u l db e w o r n .
I n t h e c a s eo f X r a y sa n d g a m m ar a y s ,p e r s o n sm u s tb e s h i e l d e dt,h e r em u s tb e a l a r g ed i s t a n c eb e t w e e n
t h e p e r s o na n d t h e s o u r c ea, n d e x p o s u r et i m e sm u s tb e a s s h o r ta s p o s s i b l e .
P e r s o nw s o r k i n gi n r a d i o a c t i vaer e a ss h o u l dw e a r a F I L MB A D G Ew h i c hd a r k e n sa s i t i s e x p o s e dt o
r a d i a t i o nT. h e d a r k n e s os f t h e f i l m g i v e sa n i n d i c a t i o n
o f t h e e x p o s u r et i m e .
l n t h e c a s eo f r a d i o t h e r a payn d d i a g n o s i st h, e i s o t o p et h a t i s c h o s e nm u s t h a v ea s h o r th a l f l i f ea sw e l l a s
i t m u s tp a s st h r o u g ht h e b o d ya n d b e e x c r e t e do u t i n a v e r ys h o r tt i m e .
W o r k e r sm a y a l s oh a n d l er a d i o a c t i vm
e a t e r i a l sb y u s i n gr e m o t ec o n t r o l l e dt o o l s .
RADIOACTIVE WASTE
RadioactiveWaste Description
Radioactive
Waste Management
23r
RADIOACTIVITYDETECTO
RS
( 1 ) T h eS p a r kC o u n t e r :
anode +
cathode€
tI
I n s u l a t i nbga s e Radium
-+
source
H i g hv o l t a g e
supply
232
( 2 ) T h e D I F F U S I OCNL O U D
CHAMBER:
l f t h e g a sc o n t a i n sa s a t u r a t e d
v a p o u r f o re x a m p l ea l c o h ovl a p o u r a, l c o h odl r o p l e t sw i l l
condensa e r o u n dt h e t r a i lo f p o s i t i v ei o n st o s h o wa v i s i b l et r a c k .
perspex
Saturated
vaDour
\ F e l ts o a k e dw i t h a l c o h o l
Metal base
sponge
T h e r ew i l l b e a s u p e r s a t u r a t ev da p o u r a b o v e t h e c o l db a s e a , n dt h e r a d i o a c t i vseo u r c ew i l l
p r o d u c ev i s i b l et r a c k st o a n yo b s e r v elro o k i n gf r o m t h e t o p o f t h e c h a m b e r .
F o ra s o u r c ep r o d u c i n a g l p h ao n l y ,t h e r ea r es o m e t i m eds i f f e r e n lte n g t h so f t r a c k sd u e t o t h e
d i f f e r e n et n e r g i e os n e m i s s i o n .
233
( 3 ) T h e G E I G E R - V I u L lrrU
nBE:
l i r e A w h i c ha c t s
s t h i n c e n t r aw
T h i si n s t r u m e nits a l s or e f e r r e dt o a st h e G M t u b e .l t c o n t a i n a
a sa n a n o d ea n d i s i n s u l a t e fdr o m t h e s u r r o u n d i nMg E T A Lc y l i n d eC r w h i c ha c t sa st h e c a t h o d e .
The anodeA is kept at a potentialof about +400V relativeto the cathodewhichis earthed.
A r g o na n d
A n o d eA
Halogen
Protective
gauze To amplifier
Mica
cathode C
window
W h e na n a l p h ao r b e t ap a r t i c l ee n t e r st h e t u b e v i at h e m i c aw i n d o w ,e l e c t r o n as n d i o n sa r e
p r o d u c e dw h e nt h e i o n i z i n gp a r t i c l ek n o c k so f f e l e c t r o nfsr o m t h e g a sm o l e c u l e s .
T h i sn u m b e ro f e l e c t r o n as n d i o n sc a nb e i n c r e a s esdi g n i f i c a n tilfyt h e p o t e n t i a+l V o n t h e
a n o d e ,i s l a r g e rt h a nt h e b r e a k d o w n v o l t a g ei s t h e v o l t a g e
v o l t a g eo f t h e g a s .( t h eb r e a k d o w n
a t w h i c ht h e g a sb e g i n st o c o n d u c t .
T h ee l e c t r o n as r ea t t r a c t e dt o w a r d s t h eA N O D Ea n dt h e p o s i t i v ei o n sa r e a t t r a c t e dt o w a r d s t h e
CATH ODE.
T h e r ew o u l db e a p u l s ec u r r e n tp a s s i n tgh r o u g hR a n d h e n c et h e r ei s a p o t e n t i adl i f f e r e n c e
acrossR.
T h ep u l s ev o l t a g ei s a m p l i f i e da n d p a s s e dt o a n e l e c t r o n icco u n t e r .
234
lmportantfeaturesof the GM tube:
( 1 ) W h y i s a r g o na n d h a l o g e nu s e d ?
T h ed i s c h a r goec c u r so n l y f o r a s h o r t t i m e ,a n d s e c o n d a reyl e c t r o nas r ee m i t t e db y t h e c a t h o d e
w h e nt h e p o s i t i v ei o n sa r r i v et h e r e .
T h i sw o u l dt h e n u p s e t h e r e c o r d i n o particles.
gf t h e i o n i z i n g
T h eg a si n t h e t u b e s h o u l dt h e r e f o r eb e a m i x t u r eo f a r g o na n d h a l o g e nw h o s em o l e c u l e s
a b s o r be n e r g yo f t h e p o s i t i v ei o n so n c o l l i s i o a
n n d h e n c et h e d i s c h a r gies q u i c k l yq u e n c h e d .
( 2 ) T h e a n o d ew i r e m u s t b e t h i n s o t h a t t h e c h a r g eo n i t c a n p r o d u c ea n e l e c t r i cf i e l d o f
v e r y h i g h I N T E N S I TaYs a l l o f t h e c h a r g ew o u l d n o w b e c o n c e n t r a t e idn a v e r y s m a l l
v o l u m eo f w i r e . l f t h e c h a r g e sw e r e d i s p e r s e d o v e r a l a r g e rv o l u m e ,t h e e l e c t r i cf i e l d
i n t e n s i t ya r o u n dt h e w i r e w o u l dd e c r e a s e .
T h eh i g he l e c t r i cf i e l dw o u l dt h e n c a u s et h e e l e c t r o ni-o n p a i rt o b e a c c e l e r a t et d
o very
h i g he n e r g i e n s e a rt o t h e w i r e a n dw o u l dt h e r e f o r ec a u s et h e p r o d u c t i o n
o f m u c hm o r e
i o n p a i r sb y c o l l i s i o nws i t h g a sm o l e c u l e s
BACKGROUND
RADIATION
OF BACKGROUND
ORIGINS RADIATION:
W h e na l a r g ea m o u n to f c e l l sa r e d e s t r o y e dt h
, e o r g a n i s mm a yd i e .
T h e r ea r ea l s om a n yd e l a y e de f f e c t ss u c ha s c a n c e rl,e u k a e m i aa,n d h e r e d i t a rdy e f e c t sa n d
deformities.
235
U S E F UALP P L I C A T I OO
NFSR A D I O I S O T O P E S :
(1) Tracers:
A t r a c e ri s t h e t e r m u s e df o r a p a r t i c u l acro m p o u n dt h a t c a nb e d e t e c t e da s i t m o v e s
t h r o u g ha l i v i n gb o d y
Radloisotopa e rse u s e f u al st r a c e r sb e c a u s a
e p a r tf r o m b e i n ge a s i l yd e t e c t e di n t h e
b o d y ,t h e y h a v et h e s a m ec h e m i c apl r o p e r t i eas st h e i r n o n - r a d i o a c t i vi seo t o p e s .
F o re x a m p l es,o d i u mh a sa r a d i o i s o t o poef l l N a a n dt h i si s a l s oa b l et o f o r m N a C .l
H e n c ei f a p a t i e n ti n g e s t s o m er e g u l a sr a l tt h a t h a s . as m a l la m o u n to f s o d i um - 2 4 ,a
Geiger-Mulle t ur b e c a nb e u s e do v e rt h e p a t i e n t ' sb o d yt o t r a c et h e p a t ho f t r a v e lo f t h e
s o d i u mc h l o r i d e .
( 2 ) D i a g n o s t ilcm a g i n g :
l f a p a t i e n ti n g e s t a
s c o m p o u n dt h a t c o n t a i n a
s s m a l la m o u n to f g a m m a -e m i t t i n g
r a d i o i s o t o p teh, e n w h b nt h e c o m p o u n dr e a c h e as p a r t i c u l aor r g a nf o r e x a m p l et h e l i v e r ,
t h e g a m m ar a y se m i t t e dc a nb e u s e dt o c o n s t r u cat n i m a g eo f t h e o r g a n w , i t h t h e a i do f
a g a m m ac a m e r a .
T h eg a m m ae m i t t e ri s c h o s e nb e c a u s e i t e s c a p efsr o m t h e b o d yw i t h o u tc a u s i n g
any
i o n i z a t i od
n a m a g eA. l s oa r a d i o i s o t o pwei t h a s h o r th a l fl i f ei s u s e ds o t h a t t h e i n t e n s i t y
r e a c h ea s v e r yi n s i g n i f i c a vnat l u ea f t e r2 4 h o u r s .
(3) CancerTreatment:
G a m m ar a d i a t i o ins u s e di n a h i g hi n t e n s i t by e a mt o k i l lc a n c ecr e l l s .
T h e ' g a m m raa y sh a v eh i g hp e n e t r a t i npgo w e r sa n d c a nb e u s e dt o t a r g e ta l o c a t i o n
i n s i d et h e b o d y ,u n l i k et h e c a s eo f a l p h aa n db e t ap a r t i c l ews h i c ha r es t o p p e db y t h e
s k i no f a p e r s o n .
P r e v i o u s lXy- r a y sw e r e u s e dt o k i l lc a n c e cr e l l sb u t X r a y m a c h i n eas l a r g ea n d
c u m b e r s o mteo u s e , a n dt h e y a l s or e q u i r ev e r yh i g hv o l t a g e tso o p e r a t e .
A g a m m as o u r c eo n t h e o t h e rh a n dc a nb e v e r ys m a l w
l i t h d i m e n s i oonf a f e Wc m ,a n d
d o e sn o t r e q u i r ea h i g hv o l t a g es o u r c e .
236
TUTORIAL SHEET
( S o l u t i o nsst a r tf r o m p g 1 8 9 )
( 1 ) R a d i u m ( Rdae) c a y tso r a d o n( R n )b y t h e r e a c t i o n :
'33no--' ,|ZRn+
/He+ y
T h ea t o m i cm a s s e a s r e ;R a d i u
m 3 . 7 5 2 4x L O - 2 s kr ga ;d o n3 . 6 5 6x 1 0 - 2 s k hg e; l i u m0 . 0 6 7x
10 2skg.
P l a n c kc o n s t a n=t 6 . 6 3x 1 0 3 a i sa; n d s p e e do f l i g h ti n a v a c u u m= 3 x i - 0 8 m s - 1 .
(i) E s t i m a t teh e e n e r g yi n J o u l e sw h e na n a t o mo f 2 2 " $ ndae c a y s .
(ii) E s t i m a t teh e w a v e l e n g t oh f t h e g a m m ap h o t o ne m i t t e dd u r i n gt h i sd e c a yg, i v e n
t h a t 4 % o f t h e e n e r g yr e l e a s etdu r n st o g a m m ar a d i a t i o n .
( i i i ) w h a t h a p p e ntso t h e r e m a i n i n9g6 %o f t h e e n e r g y ?
( A n s: 2 . 6 4 6x l - 01 0 J; 1 . 9x 1 0 1 a mC ;
o n v e r t etdo K i n e t i ce n e r g yo f t h e p a r t i c l e s
a n da l s ot o h e a te n e r g y . )
( 3 ) O n eo f t h e d a n g e r sa s s o c i a t ewdi t h n u c l e a pr o w e rp l a n t si s t h e l e a k a g o ef plutonium
w h i c hi s a b y - p r o d u c ti n t h e r e a c t o rl.t h a sa h a l fl i f eo f a p p r o x i m a t e 2l y. 4 x 1 - g a y e a rAs .
l e t h a dl o s eo f p l u t o n i u mi s 1 . 6 5 m g .
(i) D e t e r m i nteh e a m o u n to f p l u t o n i u m n u c l eiin a l e t h a dl o s ei f i t s r e l a t i v e
atomic
m a s si s 2 3 9 .
(ii) C a l c u l a tteh e d e c a yr a t eo f t h i sd o s e
( A n s: 4 . 1 6x 1 0 1 81;, . 2x l - 0 l 4 d i s i n t e g r a t i o
pne sry e a r )
. ( 4 ) A r a d i o a c t i vsea m p l et h a t i s u s e df o r m e d i c i n apl u r p o s e hs a st o b e p r e p a r e di n a
l a b o r a t o r yb e f o r ei t s i n t e n d e du s e .T h es a m p l eh a sa h a l fl i f eo f 9 6 . 7h o u r s .
(i) W f r a ts h o u l di t s i n i t i a a
l c t i v i t yb e i f t h e s a m p l em u s th a v ea n a c t i v i t yo f 6 . 6x
L 0 ' B q ,w h e n i t i s u s e d 3 0 h o u r sa f t e ri t h a sb e e np r e p a r e d ?
(ii) W h a tw i l l t h e a c t i v i t yo f t h e s a m p l ei n p a r t ( i ) b e 2 4 h r sa f t e ri t h a sb e e n
administered?
( A n s 8: . 1 8x 1 0 s B q5; . 5 6x t O e a q . )
237
( 5 ) A r a d i o a c t i vsea m p l ei n a l a b o r a t o r y h aas m a s so f 2 0 ga n da n a c t i v i t y o f2 . 3 5x
1 0 6 B q . T hsea m p l eh a sa r a d i o a c t i vies o t o p ew h o s en a t u r aal b u n d a n cies 2 t % a n dw h o s e
m a s sn u m b e ri s 1 4 8 . C a l c u l a t e :
(i) T h ed e c a Yc o n s t a n t
(ii) T h eh a l fl i f ei n Y e a r s
( i i i ) T h et i m e r e q u i r e df o r t h e a c t i v i t yt o f a l lt o 1 . 2x 1 0 3 B q .
16s1 I.6 x 1Osyea rs;t'75x l0eyears)
(Ans:1'.37x 10 ;
( 6 ) A t t h e s t a r to f a n e x p e r i m e n a e a t e r i a lcso n t a i n s2 0 p g o fa
t , m i x t u r eo f r a d i o a c t i vm
r a d i o i s o t o pAe w h i c hh a sa h a l fl i f eo f 9 0 s e c o n d as n d 3 2 0I E o f r a d i o i s o t o pBew h i c hh a s
a h a l fl i f eo f 3 0 s e c o n d s .
(i) A f t e rw h a t p e r i o do f t i m e w i l l t h e m i x t u r ec o n t a i ne q u a lm a s s e o sf each
isotope? W h a t i s t h e m a s so f e a c hi s o t o p ea t t h i st i m e ?
(ii) C a l c u l a tteh e r a t ea t w h i c ht h e a t o m so f i s o t o p eA a r ed e c a y i n w g h e nt h e
massesare the same,giventhat the molarmassof A 2209 = and Avogadro's
c o n s t a n=t 6 . 0 2x 1 0 " ) 4,
( A n s: 1 8 0s d c o n d ;s5 t t g; 1 . 0 5 x1 0 ' " B q )
w h a t i s m e a n tb y t h e h a l fl i f ea n dt h e d e c a yc o n s t a not f a r a d i o i s o t o p e .
( g ) ( a )E x p l a i n
238
(9) T h er a d i o a c t i vneu c l i d e' 3 2 U i s p r e s e n itn s o m er o c k sa n d h a sa h a l fl i f eo f 4 . 5 x
lOeyears as it
decaysinto zf;lPb(lead)according to the nuclearequation,32u- 2fl$eb +
decay products
A s a m p l eo f r o c ki s f o u n dt o c o n t a i n4 g m go f 2llu ana32mgot zflfnn.
(i) C a l c u l a tteh e n u m b e ro f U r a n i u ma t o m si n t h e s a m p l e
(ii) c a l c u l a tteh e n u m b e ro f l e a da t o m si n t h e s a m p l e
(iii) Determine t h e i n i t i an
l u m b e ro f u r a n i u ma t o m si n t h e s a m p l ea t f o r m a t i o n
a s s u m i ntgh a t t h e r ew e r e n o i n i t i a l e a da t o m sp r e s e n t .
(iv) Determine t h e a g eo f t h e r o c k .
(Ans:1,.21, xL020;9.35 x 101e; 2.1,5x L020;3.73 x 10syr)
239
SOLUTIONS
WORKED
( 1 ) T h ed e c r e a s ien m a s sf r o m R a d i u mt o i t s o t h e rp r o d u c t si s g i v e nb y :
L m - t 0 - 2 sG . T S Z 4- [ 3 . 6 5 6+ 0 . 0 6 7 ] ): 0 . 0 2 9 4x 1 0 - 2 s k g
-
L E : L m c z : 0 . 0 2 9 4x 1 0 - 2 5x 9 x 1 0 1 6 2 . 6 4 6 x 1 0 - 1 0 /
EnergyduetoGammaradiationon|y=0.04x2.646x]-0-10=1.06x].0-1iJ
E -\,/ . t -ry-
nsi.ns
o'osx 19-34I ? x 1oB
E 1.06rro_rr::r.9x1o-14m
(2)
InZ 0.693
(i) Tr - : 3l-.Shr
2 1 0.022
(iii) F i r s tf i n dt h e n u m b e ro f h a l fl i v e si n 1 ' 4d a y s .
Numberof hoursin 3,4days= 1'4x24=336hr
336
Number of half ltves tn336 hr - - - L0.67Tt
31,5 z
(3)
H ence
#:(;)"" :6x L0-4
240
(4) (i)Halflife= 96.7hr.
Aftera 30 hourperiod,the numberof halflivesisequalto
30
: 0.31half li.ves
g6t
(Jsing the equati"onA - o,
(:)" ,
t - B.1B
we setAo: 1l#-- x Los
Bq
11)
(ii) 24 hrsafterit trasbeenadm,r,r,!?/O meansthata totattimeof 54 hr woutd
h a v ee l a p s eadf t e rp r e p a r a t i o n .
54tv - Y
g6i
- 0.558half ti"ves
'-
/ 1 1 0 ' s s-sB . 1 B x /l\o'sse
A- or\il lorx(;,) = 5.56xtoeBq
( 5 ) l f t h e s a m p l eh a sa m a s so f 2 O ga n dt h e r a d i o a c t i vpea r t i s c o n t a i n e d
i n 2 L % o ft h e
.sample, then the mass of the radioactive isotope is 20x0.21,= 4.2g
T h em a s sn u m b e ro f t h e r a d i o i s o t o pies L 4 g 9
1,48g contains6.02x L023particles.
4 . 2 e w i l cl o n t a i n
6.02 x 1,023
x4.2 - 1.7Ix1,\zzparti"cles
MB
(i)Usi.ngtheequationA_trN';^_#-m_]-.37x1g-16,-1
(ii) The half tif e i.sgi"venby Tr - Y
";1
0 . 6 93
= - 5 x L0lsseconds - L.6x !\Byears
T57 x 1n-r6
241
(iii) Useeither A - Ao(J)" or A : Aoe-At
(6) (i)
A B
80 + 40 90sec
4- 20 1-20sec
20 10 150sec
10 +$ L8Osec
(ii)22Oghas6.02x1.023particles;5pgwitln^u"ffx5x].0-6-I.37x].016
particles.
- ' # x 1 , . 3 7 x 1 0 1 6: 1 . 0 5 x 1 0 1 4 B q
t y- ) . N: ' # x N
A c t i " u tA
t
242
(7) Usethe equationN = Noe-rt
si.ncema"ssis proporti.onal to N we canwrite m: rftse-At
m:ffte€-trrt-Tftge-lzt
160
-:
800 ;h! - t(Ar- Ar):r(#-'#)
et(^r^z)
'J.86
t = seconds
The ma-ssx - 160 ,(#)186 - 3zttg
(ii) 1,409has6.02xL023atoms
32Vghas1.376x1,017 atoms
A = L N = X x 1 . 37 6 x 1 0 7 7- 1 . . 1 . 9
x 1,0rsBq
(8) 174 daysrepresents 3 half livesfor process(1) and two half livesfor process(2).
H e n c ei n a l l t h e s a m p l ew o u l dh a v eg o n et h r o u g h5 h a l fl i v e s .
lf initialactivityis 1400per minute,then after5 half lives,the activitywould be
243
( 9 ) ( i ) 2 3 8 g o f U r a n i u mc o n t a i n6 . 0 2x 1 0 2 3p a r t i c l e s
6.02 x L023
49mg wi"Ucontain x 48 x 10-3 : 1.2! x 1-\2oparticles
Zn
t'lrr=-nm1
,n
"'" ;n-s.I
L 0 0x L . L 6 /.
244
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THE END
245