Reflections on AIDS: Lessons for the Future

Thanks to a highly specific case definition (which was adopted worldwide) and strong support
from local health departments and concerned physicians, it was established that the syndrome
was new and increasing rapidly. By the end of 1982, the epidemiologic patterns strongly
suggested that AIDS was caused by an agent that could be transmitted sexually between men and
between men and women and transmitted by blood among injecting drug-users and recipients of
blood and blood products. Cases were also identified among infants born to women with AIDS.
It was also clear that AIDS cases represented only the “tip of the iceberg” of an epidemic with
persons in high-risk populations noting an increased frequency of generalized lymphadepathy,
idiopathic thrombocytopenia, lymphomas and other conditions.
Some lessons from the past can guide us in preventing HIV and providing care for those infected
in both the United States and throughout the world.
First, we must beware of complacency and of the tendency to underestimate the power of HIV to
spread among vulnerable populations—especially adolescents and young adults in all nations.
Continued education and motivation will be needed to overcome individual and community
ignorance and denial.
Second, HIV and its modes of transmission will continue to bear stigma, which fosters shame,
secrecy and mistrust. Effective HIV prevention and care approaches need to see this as a barrier
and attempt to overcome it.
Third, successful leaders will build consensus around science-based approaches to HIV
prevention. Concerns about saving lives must overcome political and religious differences in
dealing with scientifically proven approaches to prevention such as condom availability and
adequately funded programs for injecting drug users (including treatment and needle-and-syringe
exchanges).
Fourth, successful partnerships from the past must be re-energized. When most effective, persons
with HIV and other advocates, government officials and caregivers worked together to combat
the epidemic. This fosters trust and can assure that HIV treatment and prevention are linked and
both receive attention.
Fifth, HIV/AIDS and behavioral risk factor surveillance approaches need revamping in the era of
effective HIV therapy. In the 1980’s, AIDS surveillance and mortality was highly accurate, and
frequent reports were the “conscience” of the epidemic in the United States and the world.
Twenty first century surveillance of HIV and risk behaviors must closely monitor the epidemic
and risk behaviors while continuing to address privacy concerns.
Sixth, resources committed to science for vaccines, therapies and other tools must be enhanced
and continued.
Finally, the global HIV epidemic demands a global response—with expertise and resources
shared with populations in greatest need. We must work together to decrease suffering and death
due to AIDS and stop the spread of HIV infection.
 Importance of Studying Fossil
Fossils are traces of ancient life. For many people the word “fossil” probably conjures
an image of a bit of hardened bone or shell, but fossils can take many forms. An
imprint of a leaf, an insect preserved in amber or a footprint are all examples of
different types of fossils. Scientists use fossils to gather information about the lives
and evolutionary relationships of organisms, for understanding geological change and
even for locating fossil fuel reserves.

The Facts

The oldest fossils on Earth are about 3.8 billion years old, or almost a billion years
younger than the planet itself. Plants, animals and insects can all leave fossilized
remains, but organisms that are completely soft-bodied, such as jellyfish, are less
likely to leave fossils when they’re gone. Hard body parts like teeth, bone and shell are
most likely to be preserved (reference 1).

Peeking into the Past

Fossil remains can give us insight into how prehistoric plants and animals obtained
food, reproduced and even how they behaved. At times fossils can also provide
evidence for how or why the fossil organism died.

Dating Layers of the Earth

Fossils aren’t used only to understand individual organisms. Geologists also use
fossils for what’s called biostratigraphic correlation, which allows researchers to match
layers of rock in different locations by age based on how similar the fossils in each
rock layer are. This information can be used to help understand when different layers
of rock were formed even when large distances separate them (reference 1).

Documenting Changes

Environmental interpretation, or understanding how the Earth has changed over time,
is another area where fossils supply invaluable evidence. The type of fossil found in a
particular location tells us what kind of environment existed when the fossil was
formed. For example, if you find fossil marine animals like brachiopods in the
sandstone in your backyard, you know that there must have once been an ocean
where your house now stands (reference 1).

Fossils and Oil

Fossils also have practical and commercial applications. The oil used in our energy
and plastics industries tends to collect in specific types of rock layers. Because fossils
can be used to understand the age of different rock layers as described above,
studying the fossils that surface when digging oil wells can help workers locate oil and
gas reserves (reference 2).

And of course, coal, oil and gas are themselves called “fossil fuels” because they’re
formed from the organic remains of prehistoric organisms.

Evolution

Perhaps one of the most important functions of fossils from a scientific perspective is
that they constitute one line of evidence for understanding evolution. Using information
pieced together from fossil evidence, scientists can reconstruct body types of animals
that no longer exist and put together a “Tree of Life” to describe the evolutionary
relationships between organisms (reference 3).

The Fossil Record

Fossilization is a relatively rare process. Most organisms are not preserved in the
fossil record. Because soft-bodied organisms, for example, usually don’t form fossils,
there can be “gaps” in the fossil record.

Many exceptional deposits of fossils nevertheless provide a surprisingly detailed

glimpse into the past and allow scientists to piece together a more complete picture of
the history of life on Earth (resource 2).
 Life' Styles (a Gammo Kamba)
When animal flesh is eaten by man ~
worse, undercooked, even viral ~ it can
leave stomachs infected; blood, less immune.

Determined, disease will also spread fast

where present-tense stress knocks strength into past
and friendlier microbes aren't freely strewn...

Like roaches, we chomp through death and decay,

pick teeth with the bones, bleach blood stains away,
then suck dirty thumbs like a tired baboon!

Monkeys, however, adapted and so

can cope with contagion... "That's far too slow"
says science; like drugs are more opportune.

Flu is persistant and HIV rife

'cause we cannot hide  our fluids-of-life.

Cricket or Kuliglig In general, crickets have long,

 powerful hind legs that help them
jump. The hind legs are noticeably
thicker and larger than their front
legs. The mole cricket (Scapteriscus
sp. and Neocurtilla sp.) has enlarged
front legs that enable this species to
dig
Amamanggi To be able to get to it, they must be
able to dig and burrow their way
through rotting trees and branches.
Oregano Oregano adapted best to the shade-
enclosure with increase yield of fresh
and dry leaf weight of 165% and
118%, respectively, when compared
to open-field. Also, higher doses of
bokashi improved yield in both
environments but more so in shade-
enclosure.
Makahiya Nyctinastic movements - The leaflets
of Mimosa pudica are light and touch
sensitive, and has been noted to fold
inwardly when the sun has set and
remains folded in this way until
sunrise. in the evening the leaflets
fold together and the whole leaf
droops downward until dawn.
Pig Rely on their speed most of the time
to flee from predators.

Population
a population is a number of all the organisms of the same group or species who live in a
particular geographical area and are capable of interbreeding

Population density

Population density is a measurement of population per unit area, or exceptionally unit volume; it
is a quantity of type number density. It is frequently applied to living organisms, most of the time
to humans. It is a key geographical term.

Carrying capacity
The carrying capacity of an environment is the maximum population size of a biological species
that can be sustained by that specific environment, given the food, habitat, water, and other
resources available

Exponential growth

Exponential growth is a process that increases quantity over time. It occurs when the
instantaneous rate of change of a quantity with respect to time is proportional to the quantity
itself.

Logistic growth

A logistic function or logistic curve is a common S-shaped curve with equation {\displaystyle
f(x)={\frac {L}{1+e^{-k}}}, } where x_{0}, the x value of the sigmoid's midpoint; L, the
curve's maximum value; k, the logistic growth rate or steepness of the curve.

Density-dependent factors

Density-dependent factors include disease, competition, and predation. Density-

dependant factors can have either a positive or a negative correlation to population size. With a
positive relationship, these limiting factors increase with the size of the population
and limit growth as population size increases

density independent limiting factors 

The category of density independent limiting factors includes fires, natural disasters
(earthquakes, floods, tornados), and the effects of pollution. The chances of dying from any of
these limiting factors don't depend on how many individuals are in the population.