MODULE 8

Ergonomics and Facilities Planning for the Hospitality Industry

LESSON: NOISE CONTROL, HEAT, VENTILATION AND AIR CONDITIONING

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student can:

1. Discuss what is noise and noise control, heat, ventilation and air conditioning.
2.
3. Identify the factors to consider in foodservice design.

Content

NOISE AND SOUND CONTROL

Both the dining area and the kitchen pose numerous challenges when it comes to noise
reduction. Unfortunately, the challenges usually are not obvious until the space is
occupied and someone, either employees or guests, starts complaining.

Typical restaurant sounds are many and varied: people conversing; waiters reciting the
day’s specials or picking up orders; cleaning of tables and bussing of dishes; kitchen
equipment grinding, whirring, and sizzling; the hum of the lights or the HVAC system; the
strains of background music or a live band. If you’re located on a busy street, add traffic
noise; if it’s an airport—well, you get the point. Music is also an integral part of many
restaurant concepts. Where would the Hard Rock Cafés or Joe’s Crab Shacks be without
it?

It’s interesting that, while too much noise can cause discomfort, an absence of noise is
just as awkward. It feels strange to sit at a table and be able to hear every word of your
neighbors’ conversation and to know that your own conversation is probably being
eavesdropped on as well. In short, a restaurant’s noise level should never be accidental.
It is an important component of the environment and mood.

Some restaurant owners pump up the sound system volume in hopes of creating a sense
of “happening” in the dining area. The challenge here is not to have a loud restaurant but
to achieve a sound level of high enough quality and volume that guests will notice and
enjoy it yet can also comfortably converse through it. Juggling these priorities is harder

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 than it sounds. Even if yours is a fabulous sound system, a stimulating noise level is
bound to turn some customers away.

The Nature of Noise

In controlling noise, we need first to be aware that it has two basic characteristics:
intensity and frequency.

Intensity, or loudness, is measured in decibels, abbreviated dB. The lowest noise an

average person can hear close to his or her ear is assigned the level of 1 decibel, while
a 150-decibel level would cause pain to the average ear. A “noisy” restaurant averages
70 to 80 decibels, as shown in Table 7-1. In Europe, where noise pollution is becoming a
concern in larger cities, the World Health Organization estimates about 40 percent of the
population lives with an ambient daily noise level above 55 decibels, comparable to a
commercial dish machine running day and night. This is significant because, even at
tolerable volumes, a relentless drone of noise can raise blood pressure, interfere with
sleep patterns, cause stress, and hinder children’s development and classroom learning.

Frequency is the number of times per second that a sound vibration occurs. One vibration
per second is a hertz (abbreviated Hz). Humans hear vibrations that range all the way
from 20 per second (low frequency) to 20,000 per second (high frequency). In a restaurant
setting, a high-frequency sound is more objectionable than a low-frequency sound. Even
sounds that are low intensity may be objectionable to guests if they are also high
frequency. Sound travels from the source to the listener and back again in very speedy
fashion—about.

1100 feet per second. Inside a building, sound can be either absorbed or reflected by all
the other things in that space: walls, ceilings, floors, furniture, or equipment. If it reflects

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 or “bounces off” of surfaces (called reverberant sound), the area can build up a sound
level that is much higher than if the space was not enclosed.

It is not just dining areas where noise is problematic. At the back of the house, everything
seems to conspire to create noise. Dishes clatter, chefs bark their orders, dishwashers
whoosh, toilets flush, refrigerators hum, and the kitchen exhaust system drones on and
on. It can become a real cacophony. Your goal is not only to keep it from reaching the
guests but to keep it from driving your own staff crazy.

A study on restaurant noise levels by the University of California at San Francisco raises
the issue of potential health hazards to employees of consistently loud eateries. Although
the findings are inconclusive, the study authors measured everything from a low of 50
decibels in a Chinese bistro, to almost 91 decibels in a busy microbrewery. A noise
volume of 75 decibels or more requires that most people raise their voices to be heard in
conversation— which, ironically, just creates more noise—and OSHA guidelines require
employees in other fields of work to wear earplugs with noise levels of 90 decibels or
more

To determine problem areas, the primary concerns of the designer are those points at
which noise is most likely to emerge from the kitchen. This means the pass window area,
where expediters and/or waitstaff are positioned to call out orders and pick up food.
Computerized ordering systems have already improved and quieted this process. The
other problem site is the dishwashing area, where doors that are too thin or opened too
frequently permit the clatter to emanate into the dining room.

One simple noise control strategy, often overlooked, is to make equipment operate more
quietly by keeping it properly maintained, as we discuss in more detail in Chapter 9. This
includes careful examination of basic mechanical systems. The heating, ventilation, and
air conditioning (HVAC) system has ducts that can act as chambers for sound
transmission, amplifying the motor noise from the system’s fan and condenser and
sending it throughout the building. Metal plumbing pipes also transmit noises, as rushing
water makes them vibrate and trapped air creates knocking sounds.

Now let’s look at ways you can choose “sound smart” alternatives, inside and outside of
the kitchen. General sound control can be accomplished in two ways: Either suppress the
sounds from their source, or reduce the amount of reverberant sound by cutting the travel
direction of the sound waves. Sound engineers use hard concave surfaces to concentrate
sound. The hard surface traps the sound, then sends it in the desired direction. If a soft
convex surface is used, the sound is absorbed and deadened. These principles can be
adapted to the ceilings, walls, and furnishings of any room.

Ceilings

The ceiling of a room is a natural choice for sound control treatment, because there is not
much on the ceiling that would get in the way. Spray-on acoustic surfaces, acoustical tile,
fiberglass panels padded with fabric, wooden slats, or perforated metal facings are less
noisy alternatives to plain plaster or concrete ceilings. Panels and slats should be at least

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 [3 /4] inch to one inch thick and suspended instead of being directly attached to the ceiling.
Be sure not to paint acoustical tile, or it will lose its sound-absorbent effect.

Walls

Covering walls with padding, fabric, or carpet helps a great deal to muffle sound.
Organizing the dining room on different levels also helps somewhat. And the use of
movable partitions, which can be purchased up to 5 feet in height, can contain sound as
well as create intimacy by breaking up a large dining area into smaller spaces. Walls and
partitions can even be decorative and see-through, to maintain the open feeling of a room.

Draperies and Furnishings.

Fabric can be used in many parts of the dining area, chosen for its sound absorption
qualities. Window coverings can muffle sound if they’re made of heavy material. Tables
can be padded and covered with cloth, minimizing clanking dish noise. Chairs can also
be padded and covered; although a porous fabric allows sound waves to penetrate, it
also absorbs dirt more quickly. High-backed booths absorb noise. Even something as
simple as choosing a slightly smaller table can have an impact on sound, as it prompts
diners to talk closer and more quietly to each other.

Carpets

Floor coverings have a major impact on noise. If yours is carpeted, choose a carpet with
high pile. It will be more expensive to purchase and maintain, but it won’t wear as readily
as cheaper carpets.

Use of Music

Finally, because music is so often viewed as a marketing tool, we can’t overlook its role
in the restaurant environment. Many casual and theme restaurants make a considerable
investment in sound systems, making music a part of their atmosphere. It can be used to
muffle the ambient noise levels of guests and kitchen clatter and to add to the desired
ambience of the place.

Make music selections based on the demographic mix of your guests and your overall
concept. A direct satellite music feed is probably the best way to ensure employees don’t
hear the same song several times during a work shift—a surprisingly common employee
gripe. A subscription takes the hassle out of keeping your music selections “fresh” and
current, and offers a wide range of choices. You can change the style of music by time of
day, with the touch of a button. Of course, some casual eateries still opt to play a local
radio station on their sound systems, but it’s unwise. Why would you want customers to
hear advertisements, for your competitors or anything else, while they eat?

Perhaps the best thing about a music-by-subscription service is that the annual licensing
fees are included in the cost. This is important because businesses must pay these up-
front fees for the legal right to play almost any song in a public setting. The American
Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP) and Broadcast Musicians
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 Incorporated (BMI) are the two major music-licensing organizations in the United States;
for European artists, it’s the Society of European Stage Authors and Composers
(SESAC). They represent the people who create the music, ensuring that they receive
royalties for its use. Music licensing is a multimillion-dollar industry. The good news is,
purchasing the annual licenses entitles you to freely play millions of songs. The bad news
is, licensing is expensive. The cost is determined by a number of factors: the size of your
establishment, whether you include dancing or a cover charge or use a jukebox, and others, from
a minimum of about $300 to a maximum of more than $8,000 a year for each license. Discounts

Music licensing is nothing to neglect. If you’re not using a subscription-based satellite

service, you can be fined and even sued for playing tunes without paying the license fees.
The licensing companies, which refer to themselves as performing rights organizations,
have enforcement people whose jobs entail going into stores, restaurants, bus stations,
office buildings—anywhere music might be playing in the background—to check for
current licenses and cite business owners who don’t have them. Learn more about music
licensing specifics at the Web sites of these companies: ascap.com and bmi.com

Make sure you get expert advice in selecting the right-size amplifier—that is, one
designed to work with your space and size (by watts and number of channels) to
complement your number of speakers. The newest amplifiers are sophisticated enough
to allow programming sound levels based on time of day and/or day of the week. Some
have built-in microphones that sense the ambient sound level and automatically adjust
the music level to fit the background noise level. Proper placement of speakers is another
job for experts. In foodservice, ceiling-installed speakers are more common than wall-
mounted ones.

Kitchen Noise Control

Controlling loudness in the kitchen begins with the idea of having doors that separate the
kitchen from the dining room. Some kitchens don’t have doors, but passageways, making
it especially important to have acoustical treatments on both walls and ceilings in these
transition zones.

Of course, some restaurateurs believe that having customers witness kitchen sights,
sounds, and smells is part of the mystique and excitement of eating out. In the open or
display kitchen, noise levels are part of the atmosphere. The Macaroni Grill restaurant
chain is one concept that uses the open kitchen and its associated noise level as part of
the design and concept.

Inside a kitchen, consider these noise abatement options:

✓ Installing acoustical tile ceilings

✓ Undercoating all work surfaces
✓ Putting the dishroom in an enclosed area
✓ Installing all refrigerator compressors in a separate “mechanical room” or area
outside the kitchen
✓ Properly installing and maintaining exhaust fans to reduce humming and vibration
✓ Using plastic or fiberglass dish carts and bus containers instead of metal ones
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HEATING AND AIR CONDITIONING

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, commonly known as HVAC, are used to maintain a
level of comfort for both guests and employees. Today, environmental considerations are top of
mind in selecting a system—the type of refrigerants used, the potential energy savings, and so
on. Your building’s HVAC system must be carefully selected, properly operated, and
continuously maintained to do its job effectively. The key environmental comfort factors at work
here are:

▪ Indoor temperature
▪ Humidity
▪ Air movement
▪ Room surface temperature
▪ Air quality

To modify and control the factors listed previously, these types of equipment are part of
most HVAC systems:

▪ Furnaces (to produce hot air)

▪ Boilers (to produce hot air)
▪ Air conditioners (to produce cold air)
▪ Chillers (to produce cold air)
▪ Fans (to circulate and remove air)
▪ Ductwork (to move air)
▪ Filters (to clean air)

Individual comfort is a simple matter of balancing a person’s body temperature with that
of the surrounding environment. The body gives off heat in three ways: convection,
evaporation, and radiation. An example of heat loss by convection is when air moves over
a person’s skin. The movement creates a temperature difference between skin and air.
An example of heat loss by evaporation is perspiration, when heat causes liquid to turn
to vapor. Heat loss by radiation happens when two surfaces of differing temperatures are
placed right next to each other, like being seated by a window on a cold day. The right
combination of temperature and relative humidity to make people comfortable is referred
to by experts as the comfort zone. The parameters of this zone are highly subjective, but
let’s just say that, in finding your comfort zone, you’re trying to balance the environmental
conditions with the natural heat loss of the bodies of your guests, or workers. Comfort is
important in the kitchen too.

The challenge to foodservice managers and planners is to find the comfort zone while
also paying attention to odors, noise, and air quality. The HVAC system must also be
flexible enough to change if environmental demands change, whether that means a
change in season, a change in crowd size, or a change in building size. Select a system
that has a quick response time and can be controlled automatically and operated at low
cost. Another option, popular in Europe and catching on in the United States, is the use
of separate, smaller systems in different areas of the building. These are decisions that
can best be made with the help of engineers.

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 When discussing an HVAC system, the air that runs through it is known by different
names, depending on its location and use. In alphabetical order, common terms include:

Conditioned air. Air that has been cooled or heated mechanically (by HVAC) and
released into the building’s interior.

Desiccant air. Desiccants are drying agents, which may be included in the HVAC system
to reduce humidity.

Exhaust air. Air that must be removed from cooking sources (e.g., ranges and fryers) or
enclosed spaces (e.g., restrooms). Once exhaust air has been removed from the building,
it should not be reused. The volume of air removal (how fast it is removed) is measured
in cubic feet per minute (cfm)

Makeup air. Air that must be supplied to an area to replace the exhaust air that has been
removed.

Outdoor air. Air that is taken from outdoors.

Return air. Air that is removed from an interior space, then returned to the HVAC system
for recirculation or exhaust. Sometimes called recirculated air.

Once the HVAC system is installed, several of your staff should always be aware of how
the system operates. Now, let’s talk briefly about each part of an HVAC system and how
it contributes to the overall heating and/or cooling process.

How HVAC Systems Work

The two major HVAC components that heat cold air are the heating plant and the heating
system. The heating plant is where fuel is consumed and heat is produced. The heating
system is the means by which the heat is distributed and controlled. The heating plant will
use one of several heat sources: electricity, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG),
fuel oil, or steam.

Electricity is available everywhere. While it is safe and clean, it tends to cost the most. If
the need for heat is low and other fuel sources are not reliable, electricity may be your
first choice. Natural gas, fuel oil, and LPG all produce heat by combustion, a combination
that requires special equipment, such as boilers and furnaces. So, while fuel costs are
lower, equipment and maintenance costs are higher. Also, the availability of these fuels
is not as widespread in some areas as electric power.

ILLUSTRATION 7-7 Layout of a year-round HVAC system. Source: Frank D. Borsenik

and Alan T. Stutts, The Management of Maintenance and Engineering Systems in the
Hospitality Industry, 4th ed. (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1997).

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 Most climates require both heating and air conditioning. When you think of air
conditioning, you probably think of cold air. However, the typical air-conditioning system
does both cooling and heating, plus all the same filtering and humidifying that a heating
system does. Mechanical cooling equipment works by extracting heat from air or water,
then using the cooled air or water to absorb the heat in a space or building, thus cooling
that space.

Refrigerated air conditioning is similar to commercial refrigeration in that air is cooled in

the same way—in a room or inside a refrigerated cabinet. The components of the system
may be assembled in several different ways, but they accomplish the same goal: to
produce refrigerated air that cools a given space. The main components are a metering
device, an evaporator, a compressor, and a condenser (see Illustration 7-8).

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 Here’s how the system works. The refrigerant (which is, at this point, about 75 percent
liquid and 25 percent vapor) leaves the metering device and enters the evaporator. This
is called the “low side” (meaning low pressure) of the refrigeration system.

The refrigerant mixture moves through the coiled tubing of the evaporator. As its name
suggests, the liquid evaporates as it moves along. By the time it leaves the evaporator, it
should be 100 percent vapor. (This is known as the saturation point of the refrigerant.)
Typically a fan is used to cool the evaporator area.

The vapor is drawn into the compressor by the pumping action of pistons and valves. It
is superheated by the time it leaves the compressor, or the “high side” (meaning high
pressure) of the system. The hot vapor travels through more tubes to the condenser,
where it begins to turn back into liquid. Another fan is used here to help the condensing
process, cooling the hot gas to help it return to its liquid state. By the time the refrigerant
reaches the end of the condenser coil, it should be 100 percent liquid again. From here,
an expansion valve controls the flow of the liquid refrigerant. Its pressure drops as it is
forced through the valve, which causes its temperature to drop. The cold, low-pressure
liquid refrigerant then cycles back into the evaporator and the process begins again.

An air-conditioning system is chosen primarily based on the size of the space you intend
to cool and on the overall climate of your area. You will purchase a unit that provides a
certain number of refrigerated tons. A ton sounds like a lot, doesn’t it? For measurement
purposes, one ton of refrigeration is equivalent to the energy required to melt one ton of
ice (at 32 degrees Fahrenheit) in a 24-hour period.

Btu as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of one pound of water 1 degree
Fahrenheit. Well, the melting of one pound of ice absorbs 144 Btus, so the melting of one
ton of ice (2000 pounds) would take:

144 (Btus) 2000 (pounds per ton) 24 (hours) 12,000 Btus per hour

How many tons of refrigeration your system requires depends on many factors, including
the size of the space, the number of people you’ll serve at one time, and the type of
cooking you’ll do. A refrigeration specialist will do a heating and cooling load calculation
to determine the size of unit you will need. In the United States, federal law also requires
manufacturers to label air conditioners with an energy-efficient rating (EER) so you’ll know
how much power it will use. The EER is figured by dividing the Btus used per hour by the
watts used per hour. The higher the EER, the lower the energy consumption.

The most popular HVAC system is known as a packaged air-conditioning system, so

named because it is self-contained. A fuel, such as gas or electricity, provides heat, and
a refrigeration system provides cooling. Heating and cooling share the same ductwork,
dampers, and thermostat.

Speaking of air ducts, they must be properly sized to allow free passage of air. The fan
and motors in a system must work too hard if the ducts are too small.

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 Commercial Kitchen Ventilation

By law, all commercial kitchen equipment that produces any type of smoke, fire, or grease
must be ventilated. Professional advice is needed to create a ventilation system, and, in
fact, many cities require that licensed mechanical engineers design these systems.
Commercial kitchen ventilation (CKV) requires changing the ambient air to remove heat,
odors, grease, and moisture from the workspaces, primarily the hot line and dishwashing
areas. Without proper ventilation, heat and humidity become unbearable, grease slowly
but surely builds up on walls and other surfaces, and odors waft into the dining area
nearby. Because the doors between kitchen and dining room swing constantly, an
improperly cooled kitchen also means more work for the dining room HVAC system,
which must compensate for the blasts of hot air. Pilot lights and flame settings are affected
by negative pressure. And, perhaps most important, grease buildup in hoods and ducts
is the most common cause of kitchen fires. As you can see, there are lots of reasons to
get it right the first time.

Early kitchens were equipped with propeller-type exhaust fans that were mounted on
walls. As kitchen equipment became more complex, designers developed the hood or
canopy mounted directly over the cooking equipment, to draw smoke, moisture, heat, and
fumes up and away from the kitchen. This led to installation of ducts, completely separate
from other HVAC system ducts, connected only to the kitchen exhaust fans. For many
years, the nation al building codes mandated a fixed exhaust volume, determined by the
size and type of hood and the cooking equipment beneath it, whether cooking was taking
place or not.

Today’s CKV system can respond automatically to the amount of fumes and/or heat being
generated below it. Exhaust quantities can be adjusted from 33 to 50 percent with
vari able speed fans. The ducts, hoods, and fans do double duty, by bringing in fresh air
(replace ment air) and removing contaminated air (exhaust air). Known as a balanced
system, it requires expert design and upkeep to prevent wasting costly, treated air and
also to prevent drafts. The system regulates the amount of outside air introduced into a
kitchen area, based on a predetermined minimum level of carbon dioxide. If that level is
exceeded, the system increases incoming air velocity.

Hoods and fire protection systems have the most stringent legal requirements of any
foodservice equipment. The health department is concerned about sanitation; the fire
inspector wants to know fire hazards have been abated; environmental agencies want
assur ances that you’re not spewing pollution into the air. In most states, insurance
regulations also govern the design and operation of ventilation systems. A commonly
accepted procedure nowadays is that a third party (not you, in other words) must come
in every six months to inspect your system and make sure it’s clean and working
properly—or you may be denied fire insurance.

The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) sets the national norms, and Standard
96 applies to the construction and installation of hoods, canopies, exhaust fans, and their
fire protection systems. The NFPA does not make exhaust volume recommendations, but
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) and the Building Officials and Code Administrators
(BOCA) do. In an attempt to reconcile all these different codes and recommendations,
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 ASHRAE has created a new Standard 154 that is expected to become the industry
benchmark for CKV design.

REFERENCES

Katsigris, C., & Thomas C., (200). Design and Equipment for Restaurants and
Foodservice a management view. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New
Jersey.

Mendoza, L. O., (2021). Ergonomics and Facilities Planning for the Hospitality Industry.
“Safety and Security Systems”. Edric Publishing. Sta. Cruz, Manila

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