Experiment No.

2 Manual Transmission and Torque Converter

Objective
To understand the working of manual transmission system and torque converters in the power
transmission of engine.

Manual Transmission
Introduction
A manual transmission is a type of transmission used in motor vehicle applications. It uses a driver
operated clutch engaged and disengaged by a foot pedal (automobile) or hand lever (motorcycle),
for regulating torque transfer from the engine to the transmission; and a gear selector operated by
hand (automobile) or by foot (motorcycle).

Key Components of a manual transmission are given below

 Gear Selector fork

 Input Shaft
 Output shaft
 Counter Shaft
 Synchronizer Assembly
 Reverse Idle Shaft

Figure 1: Working of Manual Transmission

Working of Manual Transmission
In the ETL, I understand how manual transmission works and what are the basics ideas behind it.
The input shaft comes from the engine through the clutch .On this shaft a gear is mounted and
both of them act as a single unit. Counter Shaft is also connected as a single unit. So all, the
gears on counter shaft spin as one unit. The input shaft and counter shaft are directly connected
through each other through their meshed gears. In this way, the counter shaft extracts its power
directly from engine through input shaft. The output shaft is the splined shaft that is connected to
the counter shaft. Power is transmitted to the wheels from output shaft. If the wheels are are
rotating then output shaft must be rotating.

When the collar is between two gears, the transmission is neutral, both of the gears at the output
shaft freewheel on output shaft at different speeds which are determined by gear ratio with the gear
of countershaft.

When we intended to change a gear, firstly we press the clutch pedal to separate the transmission
and engine .Then by moving the gear selector fork, we combine any one collar to a gear which is
freewheeling on output shaft rotating at that speed.

Synchronizer
A synchronizer purpose is to eliminate the need for double clutching and allow the collar and the
gear to make frictional contact before the dog contact make contact. This lets the collar and gear
synchronizer their speed before the teeth engage.

The cone like shape of the gear fits into the cone shaped area in collar and friction between the
cone and the collar synchronize the collar and the gear.

Reverse Gear
Reverse gear is controlled by a small idle gear which is mounted on reverse idle shaft. The counter
shaft rotates idle gear, then this idle gear rotates one gear at output shaft which rotates reverse than
all other gears.

Figure 2: Reverse Gear Operation

Torque Converter
Introduction
Torque converter is a counter part of clutch in automatic transmission. A torque converter is a type
of fluid coupling which allows the engine to spin somewhat independently of the transmission.
Torque converter is basically the replacement of clutch system.

Working
Four major components of torque converter are:

 Pump
 Turbine
 Stator
 Transmission Fluid

The housing of the torque converter is bolted to the flywheel of the engine, so it turns at whatever
speed the engine is running at. The pump inside a torque converter is a type of centrifugal pump.
As fluid is plunge to the outside, a vacuum is created, that draws more fluid in the center.

The fluid is then enters the blades of turbine, which is connected to the transmission to the spin
which actually moves the wheels. The fluid exit the turbine at the center, moving in a different
direction than when it entered. The fluid exiting the turbine moves opposite to the direction of

Figure 3: Working of Torque Converter

pump and engine. So this fluid must not allowed to hit the pump again. This is why a torque
converter has a stator.

The stator can be found in the center of torque converter. Its job is to redirect the fluid returning
from turbine before it hits the pump again.

Around 40mph(64 kph),at which both pump and turbine are spinning at almost same speed, the
fluid returns from the turbine ,entering the pump, already moving in same direction as the pump,
so the stator is not needed.

Advantages of Torque Converter

Use of torque converter is very advantageous in the power transmission of an engine. Some of its
advantages are listed below:

 Convenience: Torque converters allow a car to start and stop without user intervention. It
is this feature that makes an automatic truly "automatic" and the main reason that torque
converters are used.
 Torque Multiplication: In the moments before full engagement, torque converters act as
a sort of continuously variable transmission. This torque multiplication means that a
vehicle so equipped can accelerate faster and smoother than one with a clutch.
 Flywheel Effect: Because torque converters are very heavy, they tend to act as a sort of
inertial flywheel. This flywheel effect means that vehicles with torque converters have a
steadier idle and smoother operation than clutch cars.
 Infinite Slippage: To a point, a torque converter can slip almost indefinitely without
damage. This compares sharply with a manual transmission's tendency to burn clutches if
allowed to slip too much.
 Fluid Reservoir: Torque converters hold several quarts of transmission fluid, and can help
to decrease transmission overheating by providing a source of cool fluid when required.
Experiment No. 1 Inspection of major Engine Components using Gauges

Objective
To understand the procedure for the inspection of major engine components using different
gauges.

Apparatus
 Engine Block
 Piston
 Crankshaft
 Camshaft
 Dial Gauge
 Mercer Gauge
 Straight Edge
 Feeler Gauge
 Screw Gauge

Procedure and Observations

Cam Shaft

Run-out of cam shaft was measured using dial gauge. The dial gauge was placed on steel stand
and magnetized so that it does not move and give accurate measurements. Initial reading was
noted. Then the camshaft was given a full rotation and maximum and minimum readings of dial
gauge were recorded. And finally run out was measured as follows:

Initial Reading = 16 mm
Minimum Reading = 10 mm
Maximum Reading = 26 mm
Runout = (26 - 10) × 0.01 mm = 0.16 mm

Engine Block

Straightness of engine block is checked using straight edge and feeler gauges. The straightness
was checked on six positions:

 four edges
 two diagonals

At four edges no feeler gauge could pass so these were perfectly straight. In case of diagonal it
cannot be perfectly straight because cylinder end is a little bit raised and it is mentioned in the
engine manual that what is the height of raised end. So its straightness is determined according to
that.

Piston

Piston diameter was measured using screw gauge.

Main scale Reading = 90 mm

Circular Scale Reading = 32 Divisions
Piston Diameter = (90 – 32) mm

Cylinder

Ovality and tapper of cylinder was measured using mercer gauge. Ovality is the difference in
diameter at thrust and non-thrust sides whereas; tapper is the difference of diameter at top and
bottom of cylinder at either thrust or non-thrust side.

Ovality = 0.075 mm
Thrust Side Reading = 95
non-Thrust Reading = 87.5
Top End Reading = 79
Bottom End Reading = 81
Tapper Reading = 0.02 mm

Wear: Since Ovality is greater, so wear = 0.075 mm

Crankshaft

Ovality and tapper were measured at big ends using screw gauge as it was measured for camshaft
using mercer gauge.

 Big End No. 1

Non-thrust Diameter = 60.45 mm

Thrust Diameter = 60.435 mm
Ovality = 0.015 mm

 Big End No. 2

Non-thrust Diameter = 60.405 mm

Thrust Diameter = 60.42 mm
Ovality = 0.015 mm

 Big End No. 3

Non-thrust Diameter = 60.435 mm

Thrust Diameter = 60.445 mm
Ovality = 0.010 mm
Experiment No. 3 Timing of an Engine

Objective
To understand what is engine timing and the procedure of detecting and setting engine timing.

Introduction
Engine timing also refers to ignition timing of an engine as well.

 In case SI (spark ignition) engine it is angle measured in crankshaft degrees relative to

piston position at which the spark plug ignites the air fuel mixture before TDC (top dead
center).
 In case CI (compression ignition) engine it is the angle measured in crankshaft degrees
relative to piston position at which the fuel injector will inject fuel in the combustion
chamber before TDC.

Environment in the combustion chamber is extremely violent. Therefore, if the ignition timing
goes wrong the controlled combustion turns into a violent explosion and destroys anything on its
way. As the mixture burns, it expands and creates pressure in the combustion chamber. The goal
is to have the maximum cylinder pressure occurring after TDC when the piston starts to make its
way back down the bore.

What happen if ignition timing goes wrong?

If the ignition occurs too soon the expansion of the mixtures collides with the piston in a violent
explosion known as detonation. Detonation is caused by ignition timing that is too far advanced
and it is extremely detrimental to the engine. As a result power generated is reduced. Detonation
causes blown head gaskets and piston failure.

The amount of time it takes for air fuel mixture to burn remains same.

How to detect the timing of an engine?

Engine timings can be checked by timing light. A timing light is a stroboscope used to dynamically
set the ignition timing of an SI engine equipped with a distributer. The timing light connected to
the ignition circuit and used to illuminate the timing marks on engine’s flywheel. The position of
the marks, frozen by the stroboscopic effect, indicates the current timing of the spark. On most
automotive engines, timing is set according to the timing of No.1 cylinder in the engine block.
Setting the timing of an Engine
Setting the timing of an engine means the adjustment of the crankshaft angle at which spark ignites
the air fuel mixture so that we have maximum pressure in combustion chamber when the piston
starts to make its way down the bore. It should be kept in mind that knocking must be avoided
while setting the timing. Setting of timing depends on the type of engine and it involves timing
advance and timing retardation.

Timing Advance?
Timing advance refers to changing the timing so that fuel ignition in CI engine or spark in SI
engine happens earlier than the manufacturer’s specified time. For example if an engine is
manufactured to have the timing of 12o before TDC, then if it is to be set at 15o, this process is
timing advance.

Timing Retardation?
Timing retardation is defined as changing the timing so that fuel ignition in CI engine or spark in
SI engine happens later than the manufacturer’s specified time. For example if an engine is
manufactured to have the timing of 20o before TDC, then if it is to be set at 15o, this process is
retardation of timing.

In Case of SI Engine
In SI engines, a distributer controls the timing of an engine. And the timing can be advanced or
retarded by changing the relative position of rotor with respect to engine in the distributor. Usually
the distribution is camshaft driven.

Dynamic Timing Advance in SI Engines

With an increasing engine speed there is a need to advance the timing of an engine because the
ignition time remains the same but due to increased speed of the engine, position reaches at TDC
before the mixture is burnt completely. So, there are two ways of achieving this goal.

1. Mechanical Timing Advance

By using the law of inertia, it is possible to increase the timing with increasing engine
speeds automatically. Weights and springs inside the distributer rotate and affect the
engine timing advancement according to speed. This type of timing advance also called
as centrifugal timing advance. The amount of timing advance depend on centrifugal
force on the weights, which is dependent on the engine rpm.
2. Vacuum Timing Advance
The vacuum advance system consist of a vacuum diaphragm mounted on the distributer
body, the diaphragm is spring loaded in the zero advance position and has a rod which
connects to a hole in the breaker plate, which is a moveable plate on which points are
mounted. When vacuum is applied to the diaphragm, it pulls on the rod, which in turn
pulls on the plate rotating it with respect to the cam on distributer shaft. When viewed
from the top, the distributer shaft turns clockwise, when the vacuum advance rod pulls
on the breaker plate, it rotates the breaker plates anticlockwise; when advance the
timing.Hence by increasing engine speed, intake air increases which ultimately
increases the advancing of timing of an engine.
In Case of CI Engine
In case of compression ignition engines, timing refers to the No. of degrees before TDC, when the
fuel injector injects the fuel. To change the timing of a CI engines, we have to set the fuel injection
pump to inject fuel at proper time. Usually, the fuel injection pumps housing has the marks on it.
There are some bolts on the driven side of the pump. By rotating this plate, anti-clockwise, we can
advance the timing, and by rotating the plate clockwise we can retard the timing of a CI engine.

Factors affecting Engine Timing

There are several which greatly affect the engine timing.

 Type of engine
 Type of fuel
 Engine temperature
 Geometry
 RPM (speed of engine)
 Air-Fuel ratio
Experiment No. 4 Cooling System of a Vehicle

Objective
To understand how the optimum temperature of an engine is maintained by cooling system.

Introduction
A typical 4 cylinder vehicle cruising along the highway at around 50 miles per hour, will produce
4000 controlled explosions per minute inside the engine as the spark plugs ignite the fuel in each
cylinder to propel the vehicle down the road. Obviously, these explosions produce an enormous
amount of heat and, if not controlled, will destroy an engine in a matter of minutes. Controlling
these high temperatures is the job of the cooling system.

The engine runs best at an optimum temperature. If the engine temperature is too low, fuel
economy will suffer and emissions will rise. If the temperature is allowed to get too hot for too
long, the engine will self-destruct.

Types of Cooling System

Actually there are two types of cooling systems found on motor vehicles.

Air Cooling

The heat is transferred to the air present in the atmosphere through the extended surfaces
called fins.

Liquid Cooling

The heat is transferred to a coolant and this coolant operates on a close cycle.

Working of a Cooling System

The main components of a cooling system are given below:

 Water pump to circulate the coolant

 Thermostat valve to control the temperature of the coolant
 Radiator to cool the coolant
 Radiator cap to control the pressure in the system
 Coolant
 Cooling Fan
 Interconnecting hoses to transfer the coolant from engine to radiator
Cooling Cycle
Cooling cycle refers to the flow of water through the whole system which is driven by water pump.
The schematic of water flow is given as:

Water Engine Thermostat Radiator

Pump Valve

Thermostat valve is placed between radiator and engine. Thermostat valve opens fully at higher
temperature and closes at lower temperature.

Water Pump
A water pump is a simple device that will keep the coolant moving as long as the engine is
running. It is usually mounted on the front of the engine and turns whenever the engine is
running. The water pump is driven by the engine through one of the following:

 A fan belt that will also be responsible for driving an additional component like an
alternator or power steering pump
 The timing belt that is also responsible for driving one or more camshafts

Thermostat Valve

Thermostat valve controls the amount of water going in the radiator to maintain a certain preset
temperature of coolant. Thermostat is simply a valve placed between the engine and the radiator
that measures the temperature of the coolant and, if it is hot enough, opens to allow the coolant to
flow through the radiator. If the coolant is not hot enough, the flow to the radiator is blocked and
fluid is directed to a bypass system that allows the coolant to return directly back to the engine.

The bypass system allows the coolant to keep moving through the engine to balance the
temperature and avoid hot spots. Because flow to the radiator is blocked, the engine will reach
operating temperature sooner and, on a cold day, will allow the heater to begin supplying hot air
to the interior more quickly.

Radiator
Radiator has two main types:

 Vertical flow Radiator

 Cross flow radiator

Vertical Flow Radiator

In this type of radiator, the inlet and outlet valves of the radiator are placed at the top and
bottom of the radiator.

Cross Flow Radiator

In this type of radiator, the inlet and outlet valves are placed at right and left sides of the
radiator.

Working Principle

A radiator is a type of heat exchanger which is used to cool the water coming from the engine.
The hot water travels in the parallel tubes in the radiator and some extended surfaces are
attached to those tubes which are called fins to increase the surface area.

A fan is placed in front of radiator so that forced convection can take place. In this way, heat
is transferred by convection from water to the ambient air. If the car has a heating system, the
air coming from radiator can be used in heater by process.

Radiator Cap
Radiator cap performs two important tasks in a radiator:

 To increase the boiling point of the coolant

 To maintain the specific pressure in the radiator

Increasing boiling point of the coolant

When the pressure is increased, the boiling point of any liquid increases as well. The same
thing happens in the radiator. The radiator cap increases the pressure which consequently raises
the boiling temperature.
 Maintaining the pressure in radiator

Radiator cap has two valves has two valves in it:

 Pressure valve
 Vacuum valve

When the fluid in the radiator has higher temperature, it tries to expand which ultimately increases
the pressure in radiator. Now the only place where this pressure can be released is radiator cap.
So, the spring on pressure valve determine the maximum amount of pressure in the system.

If the pressure is raised above this point the spring will be compressed causing the valve to open
and let the fluid escape to the reservoir. When the radiator cools back down, a vacuum is created
in the system which opens the vacuum valve and the water comes back to make up efficiency of
coolant.

Cooling Fan
The speed of the cooling fan should be related to the amount of hot water coming in radiator to
save the energy. Its speed should be directly proportional to the amount of cooling required. But
usually in most cars, the fan rotates with a constant speed.

Also the fan should be kept working when the thermostat valve opens. It should not be directly
connected to the electrical system of the car.

Coolant
The coolant must not freeze in the tubes at cold weather and it should not react with the system
component. So, in order to achieve that target, following additives are added in water:

 Anti-freeze agents
 Anti-rust agents
Experiment No. 7 Clutch System

Objective
To understand the working principle of clutch system.

Introduction
The first stage in the transmission of a car with manual gearbox is the clutch. Mechanical car
clutches are any of various devices for engaging and disengaging two moving parts of a shaft, or
of a shaft and a driving mechanism. While many things contain clutches of some sort, we'll be
focusing on the type that sits between the engine and the transmission of an automobile equipped
with a manual transmission.

Clutch Assembly
The moving parts are engine crankshaft and the transmission input shaft. The engine is the driving
mechanism and the transmission is driven mechanism. Since the engine rotates at varying speeds
and manual transmission have gears that must be shifted to transfer engine’s power to the wheels,
the clutch has a crucial task when it comes to carefree motoring.

A clutch assembly consist of many small parts. Some major components are:

1. The Clutch Flywheel: the clutch flywheel is connected directly to the engine
crankshaft and, therefore, spins with the engine’s motion.
2. The Clutch Pressure Plate: Bolted to the clutch flywheel is the second major
component: the clutch pressure plate. The spring-loaded pressure plate has two jobs: to
hold the clutch assembly together and to release tension that allows the assembly to
rotate freely.
3. The Clutch Disc: Between the flywheel and the pressure plate is the clutch disc. The
clutch disc has friction surfaces similar to a brake pad on both sides that make or break
contact with the metal flywheel and pressure plate surfaces, allowing for smooth
engagement and disengagement.
4. The Throw-out Clutch Bearing and Release System: These components work
together simultaneously and are key to the engaging and disengaging process.

They are the release, or throw-out bearing, and the release system itself. The clutch
release bearing is connected to one end of the hydraulic (or clutch fork mechanism)
and rides on the diaphragm spring of the clutch. Depending on the type of release
system, the throw-out bearing either pulls or pushes on the pressure plate diaphragm
spring to engage or disengage the pressure plate's grip on the clutch disc when the
clutch pedal is depressed and released.
Working Principle of Clutch
It transmits engine power to the gearbox, and allows transmission to be interrupted while a gear is
selected to move off from a stationary position, or when gears are changed while the car is moving.
Most cars use a friction clutch operated either by fluid (hydraulic) or, more commonly, by a cable.

When a car is moving under power, the clutch is engaged. A pressure plate bolted to
the flywheel exerts constant force, by means of a diaphragm spring, on the driven plate. Earlier
cars have a series of coil springs at the back of the pressure plate, instead of a diaphragm spring.
The driven (or friction) plate runs on a splined input shaft, through which the power is transmitted
to the gearbox. The plate has friction linings, similar to brake linings, on both its faces. This allows
the drive to be taken up smoothly when the clutch is engaged.

When the clutch is disengaged (pedal depressed), an arm pushes a release bearing against the center
of the diaphragm spring which releases the clamping pressure.

Clutch Disengaged
Clutch Engaged

The outer part of the pressure plate, which has a large friction surface, then no longer clamps the
driven plate to the flywheel, so the transmission of power is interrupted and gears can be changed.

When the clutch pedal is released, the thrust bearing is withdrawn and the diaphragm-spring load
once again clamps the driven plate to the flywheel to resume the transmission of power.

Some cars have a hydraulically operated clutch.

Pressure on the clutch pedal inside the car activates
a piston in a master cylinder, which transmits the
pressure through a fluid-filled pipe to a slave
cylinder mounted on the clutch housing. The slave-
cylinder piston is connected to the clutch release
arm.
Experiment No. 7 Wheel Balancing and Alignment

Objective
To understand the working principle of wheel balancing and alignment.

Wheel Balancing
Introduction
Wheel balancing describes the distribution of mass within an automobile tire or the entire wheel.
Wheels that are not balance generally produce a vibration that is uncomfortable to drive in and
result in excessive wearing at suspension and steering components, rotating parts and tyres.

Correctly balanced wheel help to eliminate vibrations and wear caused by an imbalance in the
rotating wheel and tyre assembly.

Symptoms of Unbalanced Wheel

 Steering wheel vibrations at higher speeds.

 The modern light weight cars can not dampen out the vibrations caused by unbalanced
tyres.

Wheel Balancing Machine

If the wheel is mounted on a spindle and spin by hand, then an unbalanced wheel always stop at
the same point with the heavier imbalance being at the bottom of the wheel. This is the working
principle of wheel balancing machine.

The machine rotates the tyres wheel assembly and automatically calculates the weight and location
of the counter weights. When one rotates the wheel and when it stops, a pointer from the wheel
balancing machine determines the location of counter weight and its amount in grams is shown on
the screen. The counter weights are usually made up of lead.

How Unbalanced Wheel Produce Vibrations?

Whenever a rotor or disk is forced to rotate about an axis that is not its geometrical principle axis,
an external torque is needed. This is not the torque about rotation axis, but it is perpendicular to
that direction. If the rotor is suspended by bearings this torque is produced by the reaction in the
bearing which are acting perpendicular to the main spindle. These reaction forces turn with the
shaft as the rotor turns, at every point, producing exactly the torque needed to keep the rotor
moving about the known principle axis. These reaction forces can excite the structure to which
they are attached. In case of an automobile these forces produce unwanted vibrations.
Wheel Alignment
Wheel alignment refers to the checking and maintaining of suspension parameters like toe,
caster, camber, SAI etc.

Wheel Alignment Parameters

Wheel alignment apparatus consisted of four clampers, which have different scales and laser lights
to them. All the four clampers should be perfectly straight for measuring suspension parameters
readings. To accomplish this goal all clampers, have a flatness meter. Set the apparatus by help of
flatness meter such that apparatus is perfectly straight.

There is one laser light at each clamper which point at the particular reading on the scale of the
other clamper. The equipment in lab is designed as the caster reading are shown on red scale and
camber readings at a green scale. There are two green scale, one for smaller tyres other for larger
tyre. Reading on the right scale actually represent the camber of left wheel.

Toe reading can be measured at a circular scale on the clamper of the rear wheels.

Methods of Adjusting Suspension Parameters

Caster:

 Shims  Strut rod

 Cams
Camber:

 Shims  Ball joint rotation

 Cams  Slotted Frame
 Strut rotation
Toe:

 Front Toe  Rear Toe

 Tie Rod  Cam bolt
 Shims
 Manufacturer built in adjuster
 Usually, SAI, turning angle, set back cannot be adjusted.
Effects of Suspension Parameters
Camber:

Camber is expressed in degrees. Camber plays an important role in car performance. For
straight line motion, slightly positive camber is preferred, because when the car is loaded
a moment is produced, which flattens the tyres and make maximum contact of tyres with
road possible.

For high speed cornering, negative camber is preferred. Because by having negative
camber, centrifugal forces cause the tyres to be flat and hence maximum contact between
tyres and roads provide necessary centripetal force.

Formula-1 CARS always have a large negative camber to help them at high speed
cornering.

Caster:

The caster angle identifies the forward or backward slope of a line drawn through the upper
and lower steering pivot points when viewed directly from the side of the vehicle.
(Typically, the upper and lower ball joint and the strut tower mount of a McPherson strut
design).

Caster angle settings allow the vehicle manufacturer to balance steering effort, High speed
stability and front-end cornering effectiveness. Increasing the amount of positive caster
will increase steering effort and straight-line tracking, but, the vehicle will require greater
force at cornering.

Toe:

Toe is expressed in either degrees or fractions of an inch and an axle is said to have
positive toe-in when imaginary lines running through the center lines at the tyres intersect
in front of the vehicle and have negative toe-out when they diverge. The toe settings is
typically used to help compliance to enhance tyre wear. Toe can also be used to adjust
vehicle handling.

Thrust Angle:

The thrust angle is an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the rear axle centerline. It
compares the direction that the rear axle is aimed with the centerline of the vehicle. It also
confirms if the rear axle is parallel to its front axle and that the wheel base on both sides of
the vehicle are same.
Experiment No. 6 Engine Compression Test

Objective
To understand what is the need of running an engine compression test and how it should be done.

Introduction
The power stroke of an engine cycle is the key to how an engine turns explosive energy into
mechanical energy. If any of the parts that confine the explosion inside the cylinder becomes worn,
engine performance will be affected. The reason for this can be one of the following:

 First, the engine cannot compress the fuel/air mixture enough to get the required pressure.
 Second, the exploding mixture can escape past worn valves, seals, piston rings and worn
cylinder walls. Due to this, engine cannot burn the fuel efficiently and produces less power.
 The engine may also began to burn oil due to leakage of oil into combustion chamber.
 Leakage of fuel/air mixture into sump and mixing with engine oil thus leaving the less
amount of mixture into combustion chamber and results into production of less power.

When to run an engine compression test?

If the engine is running rough or is suffering from a lack of power and no faults can be
found in the ignition system, fuel system, exhaust system, then there is time to run a
compression test.

Compression test can confirm or eliminate the possibility of worn piston rings, worn
cylinders, worn crankshaft, worn valves or a faulty gasket.

Procedure of Testing
There are four main steps in running an engine compression test.

 Preparing for the compression test

 Performing engine compression test
 Interpreting the results
 Wet compression test

To compare the results from original cylinder pressure, we have to calculate the maximum cylinder
pressure.

Calculating the maximum pressure from compression ratio

We can find the maximum cylinder pressure from the engine manual or we can get it from the
following calculation:
 𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑟𝑐 × 1.38 (𝑏𝑎𝑟𝑠)

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑟𝑐 × 20 (𝑝𝑠𝑖)

Where rc is compression ratio.

Preparing for the Compression Test

 One should perform this test with a fully charged battery. If battery power decreases as you
are testing the last cylinders, you will get a false compression reading on these cylinders.
 Make sure to have correct compression gauge. Diesel engine need a gauge with a higher
compression tolerance.
 Warm up the engine or one can have 20 minute drive and allow the engine to be at idle.
This will allow the valves to sit tight and piston to expand and seal properly.
 Turn off the engine and open the head.
 Disable the fuel circuit by turning the ignition off and removing the supply of the fuel
pump.
 Disable the ignition system by unplugging the spark wire from the coil.
 Install the compression gauge on the first cylinder in the place of spark plug by hand and
tighten the gauge connector snugly to seal the cylinder so that the compression won’t leak.

Performing Engine Compression Test

Engine compression is performed as follows:

 Start the engine and allow it to idle until it runs out of fuel and stalls.
 Remove the spark plug cover. Disconnect the distributor supply loads.
 Fit the compression gauge in the No.1 cylinder of the engine.
 Crank the engine using the starter motor for a small time. In compression gauge there
is non-returning valve. So, the gauge will show the maximum pressure during this
interval.
 It can be seen that the pressure builds up on the gauge and reaches its maximum point
in 4 to 5 compression strokes. One thing should be kept in mind that whether you use
4 to 6 strokes to test the first cylinder’s compression, use the same number of
compression of strokes for the rest of the cylinders.
 Note how far on the scale the needle on the gauge moves.
 Record the compression reading on the last stroke (amount of compression indicated
by the needle).
 Repeat the above steps for each of the remaining cylinders.
 Compare your results to the maximum and minimum compression manufacturer
specifications for the particular engine.
Deducing the Results

 If there is less than 66% pressure on the 2nd revolution and less than 80% pressure on the
4th or 6th revolution, this is the sign of piston ring/cylinder bore wear.

 If any cylinder shows more than the maximum pressure, then there is probability of carbon
deposits in the chamber. In this case, head removal and decarburizing may be required.

 If adjacent cylinders show low pressure this could be due and internally cracked cylinder
head or an internally blown head gasket between those cylinders. This can also be
confirmed by the presence of the coolant in the oil and will be recognized by a whitish
coloring to engine oil.

 If not all but any one or two cylinders show less pressure readings, then the most probably
the reason is a damaged gasket and this issue can be resolved by replacing the gasket.

Common causes of low compression

Common causes of low compression are:

 Cracked block or cylinder head

 Valve train problems
 Valve or valve seat problems
 Worn out rings or cylinders
 Blown head gasket

Wet Compression Test

If one or more cylinders registered a compression below the manufacturer specification, perform
a wet compression test on those cylinders to narrow down the potential cause of the problem.

The test is basically same as before, except this time, 5 to 10 ml of engine oil is poured down the
cylinder through the spark plug hole just prior to fitting the compression gauge. Give some time
to allow oil to settle around the piston rings and form a seal.

With this test one the two things will happen:

 Cylinder compression won’t change at all, indicating a compression leak through a head
gasket or a valve or ---- or less common, through a cracked cylinder head or block.
 Cylinder compression will rise, indicating a compression leak through a worn out cylinder
or piston rings.
Experiment No. 10 Lubrication System of an Engine

Objective
To understand the working of different lubrication system components and lubrication cycle.

Introduction
In an IC engine moving parts rub against each other causing frictional force. Due to heat and
friction the engine parts wear easily. So, to reduce the power loss and wear, a lubricant is
introduced between rubbing surfaces.

Purpose of Lubrication
The engine lubrication system:

 Minimizes power loss by reducing the friction between the moving parts.
 Reduces the wear and tear of the moving parts.
 Provides cooling effect to the hot engine parts.
 Provides cushioning effect against vibrations caused by the engine.
 Carries out the internal cleaning of the engine.
 Helps piston rings to seal against high-pressure gases in the cylinder.
 Reduces the noise created by moving parts.

Lubrication Components
Usually any lubrication system consists of following components:

 Oil gallery  Pickup tube

 Oil pump  Pressure relief valve
 Oil filter  Spurt holes
 Oil sump

Oil Sump

An Oil Pan / Sump is just a bowl-shaped reservoir. It stores the engine oil and then circulates
it within the engine. Oil sump sits below the crankcase and stores the engine oil when the
engine is not running. It is located at the bottom of the engine in order to collect and store
the engine oil. The oil returns to the sump by pressure/gravity when the engine is not in use.
Oil Pump

Oil pump serves the purpose of sucking the fuel from sump and pressuring it so that oil can go
against gravity and can lubricate all engine parts. The three main types of engine oil pump:

 Crescent pump
 Rotary pump
 Gear pump

Oil Gallery

This is the place, where filtered oil is supplied and all engine parts are lubricated from oil
gallery. Oil galleries consist of big and small passages drilled inside the cylinder block. The
bigger passages connect to the smaller passages and supply the engine oil up to the cylinder
head and overhead camshafts. The oil galleries also supply the oil to the crankshaft, crankshaft
bearings and camshaft bearings thru holes drilled in them as well as to valve lifters/tappets.

Pickup Tube

When the engine is switched on, it needs oil immediately. Oil gets sucked up by the pickup
tube and serves his purpose of lubrication immediately.

Pressure Relief Valve

If the pressure in a lubrication rises due to some reason, then pressure relief valve releases
some oil back into the oil sump thus reducing the pressure. There can be many reasons for
increase in oil pressure. For example:

 If recommended oil is not used such as a 10W/60 instead of 10W/40. Oil having more
viscosity will cause more pressure in the system.
 At lower engine speeds, when oil demand is lower but oil supply is greater from the
pump.

By-Pass Valve

By-pass valve is present in the filter passage. If the oil filter gets dirty and cannot maintain the
required supply of oil, then a by-pass valve will open. And the filter will be skipped from the
oil circuit and unfiltered oil will start lubricating the engine parts.

Oil Filter

Bypass Valve
 Sprut Holes

Sprut holes are the little holes in the crankshaft and other parts of engine. They allow to
lubricate the main bearings and cylinders of the engine.

Oil Filter

An oil filter is a filter designed to remove containments from engine oil. The oil enters the oil
filter through non-returning valve and then get filtered and supplied to engine parts. Main types
of oil filters are:

Cartridge and Spin-on: Early engine oil filters were of cartridge construction, in which a
permanent housing contains a replaceable filter element or cartridge. The housing is
connected to the engine oil supply. Engine oil enters the housing and stays between the
space of housing and cartridge, the more in the middle of cartridge gets filtered and more
goes out of the filter.

Magnetic: Magnetic filter use a permanent magnet or an electromagnet to capture

ferro-magnetic particle.

Sedimentation: A sedimentation filter allows containments heavier than oil to settle to the
bottom of a container under the influence of gravity.

Centrifugal: A centrifugal filter is a rotary sedimentation device using centrifugal force to

separate heavier particles from the oil. Pressurized oil enters the center of housing and
passes into a drum rotor free to spin on a bearing and seal. The rotor has two jet nozzles
arranged to direct a stream of oil at inner housing to rotate the drum.

Engine Lubrication Systems

The main lubrication systems are:

1. Mist lubrication system

2. Wet sump lubrication system

Mist Lubrication System

This system is used in small cars and motor bikes. About 3-6% of oil is added with petrol in the
petrol tank. When the petrol evaporated, the engine oil takes the form of a mist and lubricates the
cylinders, pistons, connecting rod etc.

 If added oil is less, proper lubrication will not take place.

 If added oil is greater, carbon deposits will form.
Wet Sump Lubrication System
In this system, oil is filtered in the sump of the engine and circulates in the whole engine and
finally returns back to sump. It is further divided into two system:

Pressurized System

In this system, oil is forced by oil pump through lines and drilled holes in the crankshaft,
connecting rod etc. The oil passing through the passage ways and sprut holes lubricate the
crankshaft, main bearing, connecting rod bearings, piston lines, cam shaft bearings and
rocker arms.

The Splash System

This system is only used in small four stroke engines. As the engine is operating, dippers
on the end of connecting rod enter the wet sump, pick up sufficient oil and splash oil to the
upper part of the engine.

The oil is splashed as droplets or fine spray, which lubricates the cylinder walls, piston,
and valve mechanism.

Schematic of Engine Oil Circuit

Sump Pickup Tube Oil Pump Oil Filter

Pressure Relief Valve By-Pass Valve

Piston & Crankshaft Oil Gallery

Cylinder Sprut Holes

Oil Cylinder Valve Mechanism,

Cooler Head Rocker, Cams

Oil Cooling System

In heavy vehicles and bigger engines, engine oil is cooled by two means.

Oil to Coolant

Oil heat is dissipated in coolant in some sort of heat exchanging equipment

Oil to Air

Oil heat is dissipated in air by increasing the surface area by installing fins.
Experiment No. 9 Fuel Injection System

Objective
To understand the basic construction and working of different types of fuel injection pumps.

Introduction
An Injection Pump is the device that pumps diesel (as the fuel) into the cylinders of a diesel engine.
Traditionally, the injection pump is driven indirectly from the crankshaft by gears, chains or a
toothed belt (often the timing belt) that also drives the camshaft. It rotates at half crankshaft speed
in a conventional four-stroke diesel engine. Its timing is such that the fuel is injected only very
slightly before top dead center of that cylinder's compression stroke. It is also common for the
pump belt on gasoline engines to be driven directly from the camshaft.

Diesel Fuel Injection

Many diesel engines, however, use direct injection in which the diesel is injected directly into the
cylinder filled with compressed air. Others use indirect injection in which the diesel fuel is injected
into the specially shaped pre-combustion chamber which has a narrow passage connecting it to
the cylinder head.

Only air is drawn into the cylinder. It is heated so much by compression that atomized fuel injected
at the end of the compression stroke self-ignites.

Petrol Fuel Injection

The fuel injection system in petrol engine cars is always indirect, petrol being injected into the
inlet manifold or inlet port rather than directly into the combustion chambers. This ensures that the
fuel is well mixed with the air before it enters the chamber.

All modern petrol injection systems use indirect injection. A special pump sends the fuel
under pressure from the fuel tank to the engine bay where, still under pressure, it is distributed
individually to each cylinder. Depending on the particular system, the fuel is fired into either the
inlet manifold or the inlet port via an injector. This works much like the spray nozzle of a hose,
ensuring that the fuel comes out as a fine mist. The fuel mixes with the air passing through the
inlet manifold or port and the fuel/air mixture enters the combustion chamber.

Some cars have multi-point fuel injection where each cylinder is fed by its own injector. This is
complex and can be expensive. It's more common to have single-point injection where a single
injector feeds all the cylinders, or to have one injector to every two cylinders.
There are two types of fuel injection systems:

1) Common rail fuel injection system

2) Rotary pump fuel injection system

Common Rail Fuel Injection System

Introduction

Common rail diesel systems can generate high pressure which offers a number of benefits over
traditional diesel systems. These high pressures improve the atomization of the fuel thus
improving ignition and combustion within the engine. In addition to the increased pressures,
the electronic control significantly improves the flexibility of the system over older mechanical
fuel injection systems – for example, during a single combustion stroke the injector may inject
up to seven times per cylinder per stroke.

Electronic control fuel systems were introduced mainly to meet emissions legislation, with
common rail systems being introduced to mainline manufacturing in the late 1990’s.

In addition to reduced emissions, later generation fuel systems, most especially common rail
has given:

 Improved performance
 Lowered fuel consumption
 Quieter engines

The evolution in the popularity in the diesel car as a result of common rail and its benefits are
mentioned.

The Common Rail System

Electronic control of the injectors in common rail systems provide higher pressures and better
atomized fuel on demand – this allows more precise and more frequent injection with between
5 to 7 injections per cylinder stroke in comparison to a mechanical system’s single injection
per stroke. Common rail systems are electronically controlled, giving far more scope for
adjustment and monitoring. These modern systems are a world apart from the mechanically
timed fuel systems of the past.

Common rail diesel engines have a significant amount of electronic components within the
system, allowing a wide range of monitoring through the sensors, enabling alterations to be
made through actuators. The sensors send information to the ECU on everything from fuel
pressure and temperature to how far the driver has the throttle depressed and if the brakes are
being applied or not – in fact, there could be in excess of 20 different variables monitored. The
ECU uses the information and will operate various components from injectors to cooling fans,
to EGR to meet the demands of the inputs, also taking into consideration other system demands
from other control units that may be on the vehicle system, i.e. ABS, air conditioning, auto
transmission.

The key components within the common rail system are labelled in diagram and are as follows:

1. Electric feed pump: Supplies fuel to the high pressure pump

2. Filter: It is vital that this is replaced in line with manufacturers recommendations to
ensure system cleanliness and lifespan
3. Overflow valve: Enables excess fuel to overflow back into the fuel tank
4. Return manifold: Controls the return of fuel back to the fuel tank
5. High Pressure pump: The high pressure pump is the heart of the fuel system. This is
where diesel fuel has its pressure increased. It is engine driven, system dependent and
can generate very high pressure.
 This high pressure can be regulated by one of the two ways:

 Regulating the quantity of fuel drawn into the high pressure pump, limiting the
amount of pressure that can be generated.
 Regulation of the generated pressure within the pump by releasing some of the
pressure into the return lines back to the fuel tank.

In either case, the regulation of the pressure is controlled by the Electronic Control Module
(ECM) after taking into account various input signals from sensors around the system and
driver demands. Unlike mechanical systems these high pressure type pumps do not need
to be timed with the engine as the injections timing is controlled by the ECM firing the
injectors, and the pressure control valve is controlled by the ECU and varies rail pressure
according to load demand.

6. High pressure control valve: Controls pressure generated within the pump
electronically (ECM Controlled)
7. Rail pressure sensor: Monitors system pressure
8. Rail: This is the ‘common rail’ where fuel is stored and passed into the injectors for
injection
9. Injectors: The injectors in the common rail system are controlled and operated by the
ECM after taking into consideration multiple sensor and signal inputs. The
manufacturing tolerances and components remain the same as the high pressure pumps
and are critical to the operation and lifespan of the injector.
10. EDC control unit: Engine Control Module (ECM) which receives feedback from the
various sensors in the system and adjusts the pressure and fuel injection accordingly
11. Fuel temperature sensor: Monitors fuel temperature within the system
12. Other sensors

Rotary Pump Fuel Injection System

Introduction

Rotary pump fuel injection system is used in rotary engines. It is a positive displacement
pump which is also known as gerotor pump.

Rotary oil pump has an inner rotor that drives an outer rotor which is also known as stator.
The inner rotor is turned by a shaft which is connected to camshaft. The inner rotor is
shaped like a cross with rounded points that fit into the star shape of the outer rotor. The
inner rotor is slightly mounted off-center to outer rotor which forces the outer rotor to spin
at about 80% of the speed of the inner rotor.
Working

The eccentric action and the geometry of the two rotor positions the volume between them
into N different volumes which are dynamically changing. A large pocket is formed on the
inlet side of the pump.

The large volume lowers the pressure at inlet below atmospheric pressure. This forces oil
into the pump. As the rotor turns, the oil filled pocket becomes smaller, as it goes near the
outlet. This action squeezes the oil and makes its pressure greater. This action is iterated
again and again to maintain a constant flow of oil.
Experiment No. 12 Automatic Transmission

Objective
To understand the working principle automatic transmission.

Introduction
An automatic transmission is an automobile gearbox that can change gear ratios automatically
as the vehicle moves, freeing the driver from having to shift gears manually. Automatic
transmissions contain mechanical systems, hydraulic systems, electrical systems and computer
controls, all working together in perfect harmony.

Working
Most modern automatic gearboxes have a set of gears called a planetary or epicyclic gear train.
A planetary gear set consists of a central gear called the sun gear, an outer ring with internal
gear teeth (also known as the annulus, or ring gear), and two or three gears known as planet
gears that rotate between the sun and ring gears. The drive train is coupled to a mechanism
known as a torque converter, which acts as a fluid drive between the engine and transmission.
If the sun gear is locked and the planet gears are driven by the planet carrier, the output is taken
from the ring gear, achieving a speed increase.

If the ring gear is locked and the sun gear is driven, the planet gears transmit drive through the
planet carrier and speed is reduced. With power input going to the sun gear and with the planet
carrier locked, the ring gear is driven, but transmits drive in reverse. To achieve direct
drive without change of speed or direction of rotation, the sun is locked to the ring gear and the
whole unit turns as one. These different gear ratios are achieved using clutch packs. Different
combination of clutch packs are applied to achieve a particular gear ratio.

Classification of Automatic Transmission

 Automatic transmission using planetary gears

 Continuously variable transmission
Automatic Transmission Using Planetary Gears
Components

 Planetary Gear System

 Torque Converter
 Hydraulic System
 Governor
 Computer Controls

Working of Planetary Gear System

A gear set in which all of the gears are grouped around each other like the planets
around the sun. The central gear is called sun gear. In mesh with it is a circular grouping
of gears, called planet gears, mounted on a rotating carrier. By holding any one of the
three gear elements motionless, different ratios can be produced between the other two.
Planetary gear sets are common in automatic transmissions.

Torque Converter

Torque converter is located between engine and transmission/Transaxle and performs

the following functions:

 Transmits and multiplies engine torque.

 Acts as clutch between engine and transmission.
 Allows slippage which makes it possible for the transmission to be engaged in
gear even when the vehicle and wheels are stopped.

Torque converter can be divided into 3 main members:

Impeller: The impeller is the driving member and rotates with

the engine, and is located on the transmission side of the converter. The impeller inside
the torque converter is also called the pump.
Turbine: The turbine is located on the engine side of the converter. The impeller vanes
pick up fluid in the converter housing and direct it towards the turbine. Fluid flow drives
the turbine, and when the flow starts between the impeller and turbine is adequate, the
turbine rotates and turns the transmission input shaft.

Stator: Fluid flow drives the turbine, and the turbine rotates and turns the transmission
input shaft. Serves the purpose of charging the battery. Alternator is coupled to
crankshaft via a belt. Its output is electric current

The Hydraulic System

The Complex maze of passages and tubes that sends transmission fluid under pressure
to all parts of the transmission and torque converter. It works with some components:

 Oil pump
 Valve body
 Shift valves

Oil pump: The oil is then sent, under pressure to the pressure regulator, the valve body
and the rest of the components, as required.

Valve body: It is the brain of the automatic transmission.it contains a maze of channels
and passages that direct hydraulic fluid to the numerous valves. These valves activate
the appropriate clutch pack or band servo to smoothly shift to the appropriate gear for
each driving situation.

Shift valves: Supply hydraulic pressure to the clutches and bands to engage each gear.
It determines when to shift from one gear to the next. The 1 to 2 shift valves determines
when to shift from first to second gear.
Continuously Variable Transmission
A continuously variable transmission is a transmission which can change steplessly through an
infinite number of effective gear ratios between maximum and minimum values. CVTs operate
smoothly since there are no gear changes which cause sudden jerks .There are 25% fewer
moving parts to a CVT transmission

Computer Controls

It detect such things as throttle position, vehicle speed, engine speed, engine load etc.
to control exact shift point’s .Downshift automatically when going downhill, to control
speed and reduce wear on the brakes. Up shift when braking on a slippery surface to
reduce the braking torque applied by the engine. Inhibit the up shift when going into a
turn on a winding road.
Experiment No 13: Electrical System of a Car
Objective
To understand the working of different components of an electrical system of a car.

Introduction
For any engine to start, it must first be rotated using an external power source. It is the purpose
and function of the cranking circuit to create the necessary power and transfer it from the
battery to the starter motor, which rotates the engine.

The cranking circuit includes those mechanical and electrical components required to crank the
engine for starting. The cranking force in the early 1900s was the driver’s arm, because the
driver had to physically crank the engine until it started.

But modern cranking circuits include the following components:

Starter Motor:

It is a series DC motor which has a higher torque and less speed as compared to any
shunt motor. It serves the purpose of giving initial revolution to the crankshaft. The
starter is normally a 0.5 to 2.6 horsepower (0.4 to 2 kilowatts) electric motor that can
develop nearly 8 horsepower (6 kilowatts) for a very short time when first cranking a
cold engine.

Battery:

The battery must be of the correct capacity and be at least 75% charged to provide the
necessary current and voltage correct starter operation.

Alternator:

It serves the purpose of charging the battery. Alternator is coupled to crankshaft via a
belt. Its output is electric current.

Starter solenoid or relay:

The high current required by the

starter must be able to be turned on
and off. A large switch would be
required if the current were
controlled by the driver directly.
Instead, a small current switch
(ignition switch) operates a
solenoid or relay that controls the
high current to the starter.
 Starter drive:

The starter drive uses a small pinion gear that contacts the engine flywheel gear teeth
and transmits starter motor power to rotate the engine.

Ignition switch:

The ignition switch and safety control switches control the starter motor operation.

Starter Drive:

 A starter drive includes small pinion gears that mesh with and rotate the larger
gear on the engine flywheel or flex plate for starting.
 The pinion gear must engage with the engine gear slightly before the starter
motor rotates, to prevent serious damage to either the starter gear or the engine,
but must be disengaged after the engine starts.
 The ends of the starter pinion gear are tapered to help the teeth mesh more easily
without damaging the flywheel ring gear teeth.
 All starter drive mechanisms use a type of one-way clutch that allows the starter
to rotate the engine, but then turns freely if the engine speed is greater than the
starter motor speed.
 This clutch, called an overrunning clutch, protects the starter motor from
damage if the ignition switch is held in the start position after the engine starts.

Over-running Clutch:

 Starter motor is driving the starter pinion and cranking the engine. The rollers
are wedged against spring force into their slots.
 The engine has started and is rotating faster than the starter armature. Spring
force pushes the rollers so they can rotate freely.

How the car battery is charged?

• The battery is charged by an alternator on modern cars, or by a dynamo on earlier ones.
Both are types of generator, and are driven by a belt from the engine.

• The alternator consists of a stator -a stationary set of wire coil windings, inside which
a rotor revolves.
 • The rotor is an electromagnet supplied with a small amount of electricity through
carbon or copper-carbon brushes (contacts) touching two revolving metal slip rings on
its shaft.

• The rotation of the electromagnet inside the stator coils generates much more electricity
inside these coils.

• Thus electrons now come from the alternator to the battery and enter the battery through
the negative grid of the cells. The reaction is reversed.

Preheaters:

In cold winter, when the temperature is very low, preheaters are required to start the engine
easily. When we switch on the preheaters it heats the intake manifold, hence fuel is atomized
efficiently and combustion starts easily. Preheaters are on every cylinder.

Gauges:

There are many electronic gauges which serves different purposes. For example,

 Temperature Gauge
 Fuel Gauge

Fuel Pressure Switch:

Fuel Pressure switch tells us about the purpose of fuel present in the system. When we start the
starter motor, the fuel light should be turned off, if it is not, then it’s mean that there is no oil
pressure in fuel delivery system, and either fuel pump is not working properly or there is a
blockage in filter or any other line.

Heater Timer:

When we turn on the pre heaters, it controls the heat of pre heaters and turn off the pre heater
at a specific temperature,

Side Lightening Relay:

These relays control the switching of side lights.

There are two other relays present in the electrical system of the car.

 Head light Relay

 Starter Relay

When we open a switch. Switch activate corresponding relay and do the task.

Fuse Box:

Fuse box is for the safety of whole electrical system. It is situated below dashboard. If there is
a short circuit due to any reason, then the corresponding fuse burnt and brakes the circuit.
Reverse Light:

When reverse gear is applied then reverse light is turned on because its switch is attached to
reverse gear.

Cutout:

When Battery voltage is increased, then it gives the safety. Charging of alternator is switched
off.

Ignition Coil:

IGNITION COIL WINDINGS Ignition coils use two windings and are wound on the same iron
core.

 One coil winding is connected to a battery through a switch and is called the primary
winding.
 The other coil winding is connected to an external circuit and is called the secondary
winding.
 When the switch is open, there is no current in the primary winding. There is no
magnetic field and, therefore, no voltage in the secondary winding. When the switch is
closed, current is introduced and a magnetic field builds up around both windings. The
primary winding thus changes electrical energy from the battery into magnetic energy
of the expanding field. As the field expands, it cuts across the secondary winding and
induces a voltage in it. A meter connected to the secondary circuit shows current.
 When the magnetic field has expanded to its full strength, it remains steady as long as
the same amount of current exists. The flux lines have stopped their cutting action.
There is no relative motion and no voltage in the secondary winding, as shown on the
meter.
 When the switch is opened, primary current stops and the field collapses. As it does,
flux lines cut across the secondary winding but in the opposite direction. This induces
a secondary voltage with current in the opposite direction.
  Mutual induction is used in ignition coils. In an ignition coil, low-voltage primary
current induces a very high secondary voltage because of the different number of turns
in the primary and secondary windings.
 Because the voltage is increased, an ignition coil is also called a step-up transformer.

How to test Battery and Alternator?

 Use a multimeter. Set the voltage to DCV - 20 V.
 Join black with –ve and red with +ve. The voltage should be around 12.6 to 12.7
volts.
 Now, keeping the terminals attached, start the car and the voltage should jump to
somewhere between 14.2 – 14.7 volts. If your meter is showing more than 14.7 V
that means your alternator is overcharging and it can affect your battery. If your
meter is under charging, depending on how much it is doing that, you can assess
the health of the alternator.
 Now put all load on the battery and the alternator, and see where the voltage is at.
If the voltage goes below 12.7, there is a problem, otherwise the alternator is
running great.
 If any of the above mentioned problem exists, first check the battery terminals.
 Check the back of the alternator and see if they are plugged in.
 Check for any corroded or kinked wire.
 Check the alternator voltage regulator if it is plugged in correctly.
 Check the belt of the alternator. It should not be loose.
Experiment No. 08 Brakes

Objective
To understand the working principle brakes and its types.

Introduction
Brakes are by far the most important mechanism on any vehicle because the safety and lives of
those riding in the vehicle depend on proper operation of the braking system. It has been estimated
that the brakes on the average vehicle are applied 50,000 times a year! Brakes are an energy-
absorbing mechanism that converts vehicle movement into heat while stopping the rotation of the
wheels. All braking systems are designed to reduce the speed and stop a moving vehicle and to
keep it from moving if the vehicle is stationary. Service brakes are the main driver-operated brakes
of the vehicle. Service brakes are also called base brakes or foundation brakes

Working Principle
Most vehicles use a brake on each wheel. To stop a wheel, the driver exerts a force on a brake
pedal. The force on the brake pedal pressurizes brake fluid in a master cylinder. This hydraulic
force (liquid under pressure) is transferred through steel lines and flexible brake lines to a wheel
cylinder or caliper at each wheel. Hydraulic pressure to each wheel cylinder or caliper is used to
force friction materials against the brake drum or rotor. The friction between the stationary friction
material and the rotating drum or rotor (disc) causes the rotating part to slow and eventually stop.
Since the wheels are attached to the drums or rotors, the wheels of the vehicles also stop.

Brakes Components
Following are the main components of braking system:

 Brake pedal
 Power booster
 Brake master cylinder
 Brake shoes/pads
 Brake fluid
 Brake drum/rotor
 Brake pipe line
 Caliper
 Figure 1: Typical vehicle braking system showing all components

Hydraulic Brakes:
All modern hydraulic systems are excellent example of pascal’s law and its applications. It is a
very effective method of force transfer through pressure transmission. Brakes also apply this
mechanism. Pressure may be transmitted to brake oil or air (in case of pneumatic brakes).

There are two types of brakes:

 Disc Brakes
 Drum Brakes

Disc Brakes
These are the modern version of hydraulic brakes. They are usually used in small cars or
comparatively low momentum vehicles. In such applications, they are found very effective as
they allow a very effective heat transfer as well. Disc brakes are used on the front of most
vehicles and on the rear wheels of many vehicles. A disc brake operates by squeezing brake
pads on both sides of a rotor or disc that is attached to the wheel. Due to the friction between
the road surface and the tires, the vehicle stops. To summarize, the sequence of events
necessary to stop a vehicle include the following:
 Due to the friction between the road surface and the tires, the vehicle stops. To
summarize, the sequence of events necessary to stop a vehicle include the following:
 The driver presses on the brake pedal.
 The brake pedal force is transferred hydraulically to a wheel cylinder or caliper at each
wheel.
 Hydraulic pressure inside the wheel cylinder or caliper presses friction materials (brake
shoes or pads) against rotating brake drums or rotors.
 The friction slows and stops the drum or rotor. Since the drum or rotor is bolted to the
wheel of the vehicle, the wheel also stops.
 When the wheels of the vehicle slow and stop, the tires must have friction (traction)
with the road surface to stop the vehicle.

Disc pad Assembly:

Disc pad assembly, in which component of braking system are assembled, where disc, with
rough surface is also attached.

Disc Pad:

They are designed for high friction. Wear and tear may also be called in these pads with
the passage of time and also depending on its material and disc material, thus they can be
replaced.

Brakes Bleeding Nipple

Bleeding nipple is an opening for draining oil, specifically used to remove oil when air
bubbles enters into the pipe line. These air bubbles are highly undesirable as they do not
allow an effective hydraulic action (poor pressure transmission) and thus low performance
braking.

Figure2: Disc Brake Assembly

Drum Brakes
Drum brakes are used on the rear of many rear wheel-drive, front-wheel-drive, and four
wheel-drive vehicles. When drum brakes are applied, brake shoes are moved outward
against a rotating brake drum. The wheel studs for the wheels are attached to the drum.
When the drum slows and stops, the wheels also slow and stop. Drum brakes are
economical to manufacture, service, and repair. Parts for drum brakes are generally readily
available and reasonably priced. On some vehicles, an additional drum brake is
used as a parking brake on vehicles equipped with rear disc brakes.

Drum Assembly:

The brake drum is made of a special kind of a cast iron that is heat conductive and wear
resistant. It is positioned close to the brake shoe without touching it and it rotates with the
wheel and axle.

Brake Shoe:

They are typically made of two pieces of sheets steel welded together. It has friction lining
on it as well as the brake drum. Thus it helps in a very effective braking. Lining must be
resistant against heat and wear.

 Drum brakes have a drawback, and that is their poor heat loss as it has a closed
drum assembly.

Figure 3: Drum Brake Assembly

Antilock Braking System
Introduction

The purpose of an antilock braking system (ABS) is to prevent the wheels from locking during
braking, especially on low-friction surfaces such as wet, icy, or snowy roads. Remember, it is the
friction between the tire tread and the road that does the actual stopping of the vehicle. Therefore,
ABS does not mean that a vehicle can stop quickly on all road surfaces.

Working of ABS

ABS uses sensors at the wheels to measure the wheel speed. If a wheel is rotating slower than the
others, indicating possible lockup (for example, on an icy spot), the ABS hydraulic controller will
reduce the brake fluid pressure to that wheel for a fraction of a second the road surface than a
rotating wheel. A locked wheel has less traction to the road surface than a rotating wheel.

The ABS controller can reapply the pressure from the master cylinder to the wheel a fraction of a
second later. Therefore, if a wheel starts to lock up, the purpose of the ABS system is to pulse the
brakes on and off to maintain directional stability with maximum braking force. Many ABS units
will cause the brake pedal to pulse if the unit is working in the ABS mode.

The pulsating brake pedal is a cause for concern for some drivers. However, the pulsing brake
pedal informs the driver that the ABS is being activated. Some ABS units use an isolator valve in
the ABS unit to prevent brake pedal pulsations during ABS operation. With these types of systems,
it is often difficult for the driver to know if and when the ABS unit is working to control a locking
wheel. Another symptom of normal ABS unit operation is the activation of the hydraulic pressure
pump used by many ABS units. In some ABS units, the hydraulic pump is run every time the
vehicle is started and moved. Other types of units operate randomly or whenever the pressure in
the system calls for the pump to operate.

Figure 2: Components of an antilock braking system (ABS) used on rear wheel drive vehicles
Experiment No. 11 Working of Dynamometer

Objective
To understand the basic construction and working of a dynamometer.

Introduction
A dynamometer, or "dyno" for short, is a device for measuring force, moment of force (torque), or
power. For example, the power produced by an engine, motor or other rotating prime mover can
be calculated by simultaneously measuring torque and rotational speed (rpm). A dynamometer can
also be used to determine the torque and power required to operate a driven machine such as a
pump. In that case, a motoring or driving dynamometer is used.

The first and foremost purpose is to understand the purpose of a dynamometer. A dynamometer is
a device that is used to measure:

 Torque
 Power
 RPM

So in simple words, we can say that a dynamometer measures engine performance.

There are two types of dynamometer:

1) Absorption dynamometer
2) Universal dynamometer

Absorption Dynamometer

A dynamometer that is designed to be driven is called and absorption or passive dynamometer.

Universal Dynamometer

A dynamometer that can drive or absorb is called a universal dynamometer or active

dynamometer.

These are then often divided in their subtypes on the basis of technology. For example, absorption
dynamometer has types like eddy current type, hysteresis type, fan brake type, hydraulic type,
water brake type etc.

In addition to being used to determine the torque or power characteristics of a machine under test
(MUT), dynamometers are employed in a number of other roles. In standard emissions testing
cycles such as those defined by the US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA),
dynamometers are used to provide simulated road loading of either the engine (using an engine
dynamometer) or full powertrain (using a chassis dynamometer). In fact, beyond simple power
and torque measurements, dynamometers can be used as part of a test bed for a variety of engine
development activities such as the calibration of engine management controllers, detailed
investigations into combustion behavior and tribology.

Experimental Results and observation

 To measure the power of the engine, transmission is not used and output is directly
connected to the dynamometer.
 Lowest input power range in the equipment was 400 hp. This equipment is generally used
for high power diesel engine.
 Engine is fitted in a trolley and is connected via shaft.
 Air starter motor is also with the dynamometer which adds another function to it. It can
start the engine by turning its crank if a separate electric motor is not available.
 A speed sensor is also used in dynamometer which measure the rpm.
 Similarly, if it is required to fix one parameter and to find other values for graphing etc. it
can be controlled by the computer. For example, if one wants to fix the rpm at 4000, one
has to use computer to fix the set point and then everything is computer controlled. Above
400 rpm, loads will be added to the shaft by changing flow parameters.

Two types of circuit present in the setup are:

Pneumatic Circuit

Hydraulic Circuit
Water flow can be controlled thus varying loads. Hence different parameters can be set or varied,
thus finding out relationships.

Chassis Dynamometer
This kind of a dynamometer is used to measure transformation efficiency. It is also referred to as
rolling road. If you've ever set foot in a garage, you'll have noticed some metal rollers on the
ground (or on a movable stand) onto which cars and trucks can be driven for testing their engines.
Once the vehicle is in place, brakes on the rollers are disengaged. Now when the vehicle engine
starts turning its wheels, the rollers turn too but the vehicle remains stationary.

The rollers are actually very heavy metal drums connected up to

sophisticated electronic measuring instruments that figure out how much torque, horsepower, or
speed the engine is capable of producing by measuring how fast the drums take to accelerate. A
device like this is called a chassis dynamometer. It's a type of absorption dynamometer that uses
the drums' heavy inertia to soak up the car engine's power.