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Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman Science and Technology University,

Gopalganj.

Assignment on
Map Projection

Course Code: ESD 319

Course Title: Geographic Information System

Submitted By Submitted To

Name: Abir Hasan Shovon Samsunnahar Popy

Student ID: 16ESD025
Year: 3rd Lecturer,
Semester: 1st Department of Environmental Science
Department: Environmental Science and and Disaster Management
Disaster Management

Date of Submission: 17 February, 2019

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Table of Contents

No. Topics Page

1 Introduction 3

2 Some basic definitions 3-4

3 Creation of a Map Projection 4

4 Metric properties of maps 4

5 Projections by preservation of a metric property 4-5

6 Classification of map projections 5-6

7 Projection parameters 7

8 Projection Distortions 7-8

9 Commonly used map projections 8-9

10 Conclusion 10

11 References 10
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Introduction: A map is a representation of all or part of the Earth drawn on a flat surface at a
specific scale. It is a visual representation of an area- a symbolic depiction highlighting
relationships between elements of that space such as objects, regions and themes. Maps cannot
be created without map projections. All map projections necessarily distort the surface in some
fashion. Depending on the purpose of the map, some distortions are acceptable and others are
not; therefore, different map projections exist in order to preserve some properties of the sphere-
like body at the expense of other properties. There is no limit to the number of possible map
projections.
More generally, the surfaces of planetary bodies can be mapped even if they are too irregular to
be modeled well with a sphere or ellipsoid. Even more generally, projections are a subject of
several pure mathematical fields, including differential geometry, projective geometry, and
manifolds. However, "map projection" refers specifically to a cartographic projection.
Map scale: Map refers to the relationship (or ratio) between distance on a map and the
corresponding distance on the ground. For example, on a 1:100000 scale map, 1cm on the map
equals 1km on the ground. The map scale may be expressed in three ways and the pictorial
representation of these three types is shown in the figure-

Scale factor: Scale factor (SF) is the ratio between actual scale and principal scale. Where,
actual scale is the distance between the two points on Map and principal scale is the distance
between the two points in the Earth. The scale factor is 1.0 along a standard line.
Geographic Coordinate system: A location reference system for spatial features on the earth’s
surface.
Parallels: Lines of latitude that measure locations in the N-S direction on the geographic
coordinate system.
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Meridians: Lines of longitude that measure locations in the E-W direction on the geographic
coordinate system.
Map projection: A map projection is one of many methods used to represent the 3-dimensional
surface of the earth or other round body on a 2-dimensional plane in cartography (mapmaking).
A map projection is a systematic transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations from
the surface of a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane.
Creation of a Map Projection: The creation of a map projection involves three steps in which
information is lost in each step:
1. Selection of a model for the shape of the earth or round body (choosing between a sphere or
ellipsoid)
2. Transform geographic coordinates (longitude and latitude) to plane coordinates (eastings and
northings).
3. Reduce the scale (in manual cartography this step came second, in digital cartography it comes
last)
Metric properties of maps: Maps assume that the viewer has an orthogonal view of the map
(they are looking straight down on every point). This is also called a perpendicular view or
normal view. The metric properties or a map are-

 area
 shape
 direction
 distance
 scale

Projections by preservation of a metric property: Map projections are designed for specific
purposes. One map projection might be used for large-scale data in a limited area, while another
is used for a small-scale map of the world. Map projections designed for small-scale data are
usually based on spherical rather than spheroidal geographic coordinate systems.

Conformal projections: Conformal projections preserve local shape. To preserve individual

angles describing the spatial relationships, a conformal projection must show the perpendicular
graticule lines intersecting at 90-degree angles on the map. A map projection accomplishes this
by maintaining all angles. The drawback is that the area enclosed by a series of arcs may be
greatly distorted in the process. No map projection can preserve shapes of larger regions.

Equal area projections: Equal area projections preserve the area of displayed features. To
do this, the other properties—shape, angle, and scale—are distorted. In equal area projections,
the meridians and parallels may not intersect at right angles. In some instances, especially maps
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of smaller regions, shapes are not obviously distorted, and distinguishing an equal area
projection from a conformal projection is difficult unless documented or measured.

Equidistant projections: Equidistant maps preserve the distances between certain points.
Scale is not maintained correctly by any projection throughout an entire map; however, there are,
in most cases, one or more lines on a map along which scale is maintained correctly.

True-direction projections: The shortest route between two points on a curved surface such as
the earth is along the spherical equivalent of a straight line on a flat surface. That is the great
circle on which the two points lie. True-direction, or azimuthal, projections maintain some of the
great circle arcs, giving the directions or azimuths of all points on the map correctly with respect
to the center.

Classification of map projections: There are many kinds of maps made from a variety of
materials and on a variety of topics. Clay tablets, papyrus, and bricks made way for modern
maps portrayed on globes and on paper; more recent technological advances allow for satellite
imagery and computerized models of the Earth. Certain map projections, or ways of displaying
the Earth in the most accurate ways by scale, are more well-known and used than other kinds.
Three of these common types of map projections are cylindrical, conic, and azimuthal.

1. Cylindrical Projections: Cylindrical map projections are one way of portraying the Earth.
This kind of map projection has straight coordinate lines with horizontal parallels crossing
meridians at right angles. All meridians are equally spaced and the scale is consistent along each
parallel. Cylindrical map projections are rectangles, but are called cylindrical because they can
be rolled up and their edges mapped in a tube, or cylinder. The only factor that distinguishes
different cylindrical map projections from one another is the scale used when spacing the parallel
lines on the map. The downsides of cylindrical map projections are that they are severely
distorted at the poles. Types of cylindrical map projections include the popular Mercator
projection, Cassini, Gauss-Kruger, Miller, Behrmann, Hobo-Dyer, and Gall-Peters.
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Fig: A cylindrical map projection (Mercator)

2. Conic Map Projections: Secondly, conic map projections include the equidistant conic
projection, the Lambert conformal conic, and Albers conic. These maps are defined by the cone
constant, which dictates the angular distance between meridians. These meridians are equidistant
and straight lines which converge in locations along the projection regardless of if there’s a pole
or not. Like the cylindrical projection, conic map projections have parallels that cross the
meridians at right angles with a constant measure of distortion throughout. Conic map
projections are designed to be able to be wrapped around a cone on top of a sphere (globe), but
aren’t supposed to be geometrically accurate. The distortion in a conic map makes it
inappropriate for use as a visual of the entire Earth but does make it great for use visualizing
temperate regions, weather maps, climate projections, and more.
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Fig: A conic map projection

3. Azimuthal Map Projection: The azimuthal map

projection is angular- given three points on a map (A, B, and
C) the azimuth from Point B to Point C dictates the angle
someone would have to look or travel in order to get to A.
These angular relationships are more commonly known as
great circle arcs or geodesic arcs. The main features of
azimuthal map projections are straight meridian lines,
radiating out from a central point, parallels that are circular
around the central point, and equidistant parallel spacing.
Light paths in three different categories (orthographic,
stereographic, and gnomonic) can also be used. Azimuthal
maps are beneficial for finding direction from any point on the
Earth using the central point as a reference.
Fig: An azimuthal map projection

Projection parameters: To define the coordinate system

completely, it is not sufficient simply to name the kind of projection used, it is also necessary to
specify the projection parameters. The set of parameters required depends on the kind of
projection. The parameters specify the origin and customize a projection for an area of interest.
Angular parameters use the geographic coordinate system units, while linear parameters use the
projected coordinate system units.
1. Linear parameters:
False easting— A linear value applied to the origin of the x-coordinates.
False northing— A linear value applied to the origin of they-coordinates.
Height—Defines the point of perspective above the surface of the sphere or spheroid for the
Vertical Near-side Perspective projection.
2. Angular parameters:
Azimuth— Defines the center line of a projection. Therotation angle measures east from north.
Used with the Azimuth cases of the Hotine Oblique Mercator projection.
Central meridian— Defines the origin of the x-coordinates.
Longitude of origin— Defines the origin of the x-coordinates. The central meridian and
longitude of origin parameters are synonymous.
Central parallel— Defines the origin of the y-coordinates.
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Pseudo standard parallel 1— Used in the Krovak projection to define the oblique cone’s standard
parallel.
XY plane rotation— Along with the X scale and Y scale parameters, defines the orientation of
the Krovak projection.
3. Unit-less parameters:
Scale factor— A unit less value applied to the center point or line of a map projection.
X scale—Used in the Krovak projection to orient the axes.
Y scale—Used in the Krovak projection to orient the axes.
Option—Used in the Cube and Fuller projections. In the Cube projection, option defines the
location of the polar facets. An option of 0 in the Fuller projection will display all 20 facets.
Specifying an option value between 1–20 will display a single facet.
Projection Distortions: All projections result in some distortion of the relationships between
features on the sphere when they are projected onto a flat surface. These distortions include:

 Areas — Relative size of objects (such as continents)

 Directions — Azimuths (angles between points and the poles)

 Distances — Relative separations of points (such as a set of cities)

 Shapes — Relative lengths and angles of intersection

Some classes of map projections maintain areas, and others preserve local shapes, distances, or
directions. No projection, however, can preserve all these characteristics. Choosing a projection
thus always requires compromising accuracy in some way, and that is one reason why so many
different map projections have been developed. For any given projection, however, the smaller
the area being mapped, the less distortion it introduces if properly centered. Mapping Toolbox
tools help you to quantify and visualize projection distortions.
Commonly used map projections: Hundreds of map projections are in use. Commonly used
map projections in GIS are not necessarily the same as those we see in classrooms or in
magzines. Some of them are discussed below-
Mercator Projection: The Mercator projection has straight meridians and parallels that
intersect at right angles. Scales can be used to measure distances and are true only along equator
or at two standard parallels equidistant at the equator. This projection is often used for navigation
for maps of equatorial regions.
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Fig: Mercator projection of the world between 82°S and 82°N

Universal Transverse Mercator: The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) geographic

coordinate system uses a 2-dimentional Cartesian coordinate system to give locations on the
surface of the earth. It is a horizontal position representation, i.e. it is used to identify locations
on the earth independently of vertical position. It divides the Earth into sixty zones, each a six-
degree band of longitude, and uses a secant transverse Mercator projection in each zone.

Fig: The UTM grid

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Lambert Conformal Conic: The projection seats a cone over the sphere of the Earth and
projects conformally onto the cone. The cone is unrolled, and the parallel touching the sphere is
assigned unitary scale in the simple case. It is based on infinite number of cones tangent to an
infinite number of parallels. The central meridian is straight whereas others are complex curves.

Fig: Lambert conformal conic projection with standard parallels 

Conclusion: Map is a visual representation or diagrammatic representation of the

earth's surface or part of it, showing the geographical distributions,
positions etc. of natural or artificial features. It has different scale and base on the range scale of
the map it can be either large, medium or small map. A map projection is a systematic
transformation of the latitudes and longitudes of locations on the surface of a sphere or an
ellipsoid into locations on a plane. There are mainly three main categories or classification of
map
projection i.e cylindrical, conic and planar/Azimuthal projection. Map projection is thus the basic
principle of map making.
References:
1. Remote sensing and image interpretation, Thomas M. Lillesand & Ralph W. Kiefer, fourth
edition, Page- 47.
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projection#Distortion
3. Snyder, J.P. (1989). Album of Map Projections, United States Geological Survey Professional
Paper. United States Government Printing Office. 1453
4. Stooke, P. J. (1998). "Mapping Worlds with Irregular Shapes". The Canadian Geographer. 42:
61.
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5. Nyrtsov, M.V. (August 2003). "The Classification of Projections of Irregularly-shaped

Celestial Bodies" (PDF). Proceedings of the 21st International Cartographic Conference (ICC):
1158–1164.
6. Snyder, John P. "Enlarging the Heart of a Map". Archived from the original on July 2, 2010.
Retrieved April 14, 2016.