FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENT

COURSE UNIT: GEOLOGY

EMINAT TITUS PRINCE S17B32/196

QUESTION
Tremendous work is being carried out in Dam construction in Uganda, and more Dams
are expected to be constructed, but recently they experienced problems from
workmanship and construction methods. STUDY Video Five and Six and Write a 15-
page report on how to construct proper Dams and overcome ISSUES that rose
during the CONSTRUCTION KARUMA DAM IN UGANDA

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to thank the omnipotent God for guiding us during the course of
accomplishing. Special thanks go to our dedicated lecturer Mr. Zzigwa Marvin for his
guidance and their unwavering support towards the entire course unit.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................................................ii
TABLE OF CONTENT....................................................................................................................................iii
Introduction.................................................................................................................................................1
Different parts & terminologies of Dams:................................................................................................2
Classification of dams..............................................................................................................................3
Based on the functions of dams, it can be classified as follows:..........................................................4
Based on structure and design, dams can be classified as follows:.....................................................5
Dam construction Sequence....................................................................................................................8
Conclusion.................................................................................................................................................15

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INTRODUCTION

A dam is a structure built across a river or stream to hold back water. People have
used different materials to build dams over the centuries. Ancient dam builders used
natural materials such as rocks or clay. Modern-day dam builders often use concrete.

Manmade dams create artificial lakes called reservoirs. Reservoirs can be used to
store water for farming, industry, and household use. They also can be used for
fishing, boating, and other leisure activities. People have used dams for many
centuries to help prevent flooding.

The ancient Mesopotamians may have been some of the first humans to build dams.
The oldest known dam is the Jawa Dam, located in present-day Jordan. It was built in
the fourth century B.C.E. Dams provided farmers with a steady source of water to
irrigate crops. This allowed ancient Mesopotamians to feed a growing population. A
dam is a structure built across a river or stream to hold back water. People have used
different materials to build dams over the centuries. Ancient dam builders used
natural materials such as rocks or clay. Modern-day dam builders often use concrete.

Manmade dams create artificial lakes called reservoirs. Reservoirs can be used to
store water for farming, industry, and household use. They also can be used for
fishing, boating, and other leisure activities. People have used dams for many
centuries to help prevent flooding. 

The ancient Mesopotamians may have been some of the first humans to build dams.
The oldest known dam is the Jawa Dam, located in present-day Jordan. It was built in
the fourth century B.C.E. Dams provided farmers with a steady source of water to
irrigate crops. This allowed ancient Mesopotamians to feed a growing population. 

The Romans were master-dam builders too. They used dams to divert water for
drinking, bathing, and irrigation. One of the oldest dams still in use is the Cornalvo
Dam in Spain. The ancient Romans built it in the first or second century C.E. 

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The force of flowing water creates mechanical power. People have harnessed this
power for centuries with the use of dams. Small dams powered paddle wheels in pre-
industrial Europe and America. These were used to help saw logs or grind corn and
other grains. 

During the Industrial Revolution, engineers began to build bigger dams. These
industrial-sized dams could hold back more water to power the big machinery of
factories and mines. They also could turn giant turbines to generate electricity.

The early 1900s ushered in an era of “big dam” building in America as demands for
electricity increased. During the Great Depression, President Franklin D. Roosevelt
put Americans back to work building massive dam projects. The most famous of these
is the Hoover Dam. 

The Hoover Dam sits on the border between Nevada and Arizona. It was completed in
1936. The Hoover Dam is regarded as an engineering marvel. It was the tallest dam
ever built at the time—222 meters (727 feet). The dam helped to control the flow of
water on the Colorado River by creating Lake Mead, one of the largest reservoirs in
the United States. Lake Mead provides drinking water for the city of Las Vegas. 

Dams have long been viewed as a symbol of human ingenuity. However, ecologists
who study rivers and lakes have uncovered some environmental downsides to dam
construction. Dams change the way rivers function, and in some cases, this can harm
local fish populations. 

Different parts & terminologies of Dams:

Crest: The top of the dam structure. These may in some cases be used for providing a
roadway or walkway over the dam.

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Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on the
crest.

Heel: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.

Toe: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.

Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of structure for
the passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.

Abutments: The valley slopes on either side of the dam wall to which the left & right
end of dam are fixed to.

Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at
transverse or longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water.
These are generally provided for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage
holes. These may also be used to accommodate the instrumentation for studying the
performance of dam.

Sluice way: Opening in the structure near the base, provided to clear the silt
accumulation in the reservoir.

Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the
top of the structure.

Dead Storage level: Level of permanent storage below which the water will not be
withdrawn.

Diversion Tunnel: Tunnel constructed to divert or change the direction of water to

bypass the dam construction site. The hydraulic structures are built while the river
flows through the diversion tunnel.

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Classification of dams

Dams can be classified in number of ways. But most usual ways of classification i.e.
types of dams are mentioned below:

Based on the functions of dams, it can be classified as follows:

1. Storage dams: They are constructed to store water during the rainy season when
there is a large flow in the river. Many small dams impound the spring runoff for later
use in dry summers. Storage dams may also provide a water supply, or improved
habitat for fish and wildlife. They may store water for hydroelectric power
generation, irrigation or for a flood control project. Storage dams are the most
common type of dams and in general the dam means a storage dam unless qualified
otherwise.

2. Diversion dams: A diversion dam is constructed for the purpose of diverting water
of the river into an off-taking canal (or a conduit). They provide sufficient pressure
for pushing water into ditches, canals, or other conveyance systems. Such shorter
dams are used for irrigation, and for diversion from a stream to a distant storage
reservoir. It is usually of low height and has a small storage reservoir on its upstream.
The diversion dam is a sort of storage weir which also diverts water and has a small
storage. Sometimes, the terms weirs and diversion dams are used synonymously.

3. Detention dams: Detention dams are constructed for flood control. A detention
dam retards the flow in the river on its downstream during floods by storing some
flood water. Thus the effect of sudden floods is reduced to some extent. The water
retained in the reservoir is later released gradually at a controlled rate according to
the carrying capacity of the channel downstream of the detention dam. Thus the area
downstream of the dam is protected against flood.

4. Debris dams: A debris dam is constructed to retain debris such as sand, gravel, and
drift wood flowing in the river with water. The water after passing over a debris dam
is relatively clear.

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5. Coffer dams: It is an enclosure constructed around the construction site to exclude
water so that the construction can be done in dry. A coffer dam is thus a temporary
dam constructed for facilitating construction. These structure are usually constructed
on the upstream of the main dam to divert water into a diversion tunnel (or channel)
during the construction of the dam. When the flow in the river during construction of
hydraulic structures is not much, the site is usually enclosed by the coffer dam and
pumped dry. Sometimes a coffer dam on the downstream of the dam is also required.

Based on structure and design, dams can be classified as follows:

1. Gravity Dams: A gravity dam is a massive sized dam fabricated from concrete or
stone masonry. They are designed to hold back large volumes of water. By using
concrete, the weight of the dam is actually able to resist the horizontal thrust of
water pushing against it. This is why it is called a gravity dam. Gravity essentially
holds the dam down to the ground, stopping water from toppling it over. Gravity
dams are well suited for blocking rivers in wide valleys or narrow gorge ways.
Since gravity dams must rely on their own weight to hold back water, it is
necessary that they are built on a solid foundation of bedrock. Examples of Gravity
dam: Grand Coulee Dam (USA), Nagarjuna Sagar (India) and Itaipu Dam (It lies
Between Brazil and Paraguay and is the largest in the world).

2. Earth Dams: An earth dam is made of earth (or soil) built up by compacting
successive layers of the earth, using the most impervious materials to form a core
and placing more permeable substances on the upstream and downstream sides. A
facing of crushed stone prevents erosion by wind or rain, and an ample spillway,
usually of concrete, protects against catastrophic washout should the water
overtop the dam. Earth dam resists the forces exerted upon it mainly due to shear
strength of the soil. Although the weight of the structure also helps in resisting the
forces, the structural behavior of an earth dam is entirely different from that of a
gravity dam. The earth dams are usually built in wide valleys having flat slopes at
flanks (abutments).The foundation requirements are less stringent than those of
gravity dams, and hence they can be built at the sites where the foundations are

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 less strong. They can be built on all types of foundations. However, the height of
the dam will depend upon the strength of the foundation material. Examples of
earthfill dam: Rongunsky dam (Russia) and New Cornelia Dam (USA).

3. Rock fill Dams: A rock fill dam is built of rock fragments and boulders of large
size. An impervious membrane is placed on the rock fill on the upstream side to
reduce the seepage through the dam. The membrane is usually made of cement
concrete or asphaltic concrete.

4. Arch Dams: An arch dam is curved in plan, with its convexity towards the
upstream side. They transfers the water pressure and other forces mainly to the
abutments by arch action. With strong flanks which are capable of resisting the
thrust produced by the arch action. The section of an arch dam is approximately
triangular like a gravity dam but the section is comparatively thinner. The arch
dam may have a single curvature or double curvature in the vertical plane.
Generally, the arch dams of double curvature are more economical and are used in
practice. Examples of Arch dam: Hoover Dam (USA) and Idukki Dam (India).

5. Buttress Dams: Buttress dams are of three types:

(i) Deck type,

(ii) Multiple-arch type, and

(iii) Massive-head type.

A deck type buttress dam consists of a sloping deck supported by buttresses.

Buttresses are triangular concrete walls which transmit the water pressure from
the deck slab to the foundation. Buttresses are compression members. Buttresses
are typically spaced across the dam site every 6 to 30 meter, depending upon the
size and design of the dam. Buttress dams are sometimes called hollow dams
because the buttresses do not form a solid wall stretching across a river valley.
The deck is usually a reinforced concrete slab supported between the buttresses,

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 which are usually equally spaced. In a multiple-arch type buttress dam the deck
slab is replaced by horizontal arches supported by buttresses. The arches are
usually of small span and made of concrete. In a massive-head type buttress dam,
there is no deck slab. Instead of the deck, the upstream edges of the buttresses
are flared to form massive heads which span the distance between the buttresses.
The buttress dams require less concrete than gravity dams. But they are not
necessarily cheaper than the gravity dams because of extra cost of form work,
reinforcement and more skilled labor. The foundation requirements of a buttress
are usually less stringent than those in a gravity dam. Examples of Buttress type:
Bartlett dam (USA) and The Daniel-Johnson Dam (Canada).

6. Steel Dams: Dams: A steel dam consists of a steel framework, with a steel skin
plate on its upstream face. Steel dams are generally of two types:

(i) Direct-strutted, and

(ii) Cantilever type.

In direct strutted steel dams, the water pressure is transmitted directly to the
foundation through inclined struts. In a cantilever type steel dam, there is a bent
supporting the upper part of the deck, which is formed into a cantilever truss. This
arrangement introduces a tensile force in the deck girder which can be taken care
of by anchoring it into the foundation at the upstream toe. Hovey suggested that
tension at the upstream toe may be reduced by flattening the slopes of the lower
struts in the bent. However, it would require heavier sections for struts. Another
alternative to reduce tension is to frame together the entire bent rigidly so that
the moment due to the weight of the water on the lower part of the deck is
utilized to offset the moment induced in the cantilever. This arrangement would,
however, require bracing and this will increase the cost. These are quite costly
and are subjected to corrosion. These dams are almost obsolete. Steel dams are
sometimes used as temporary coffer dams during the construction of the
permanent one. Steel coffer dams are supplemented with timber or earth fill on

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 the inner side to make them water tight. The area between the coffer dams is
dewatered so that the construction may be done in dry for the permanent dam.
Examples of Steel type: Red ridge Steel Dam (USA) and Ash fork-Bainbridge Steel
Dam (USA).

7. Rubber Dams: A symbol of sophistication and simple and efficient design, this
most recent type of dam uses huge cylindrical shells made of special synthetic
rubber and inflated by either compressed air or pressurized water. Rubber dams
offer ease of construction, operation and decommissioning in tight schedules.
These can be deflated when pressure is released and hence, even the crest level
can be controlled to some extent. Surplus waters would simply overflow the
inflated shell. They need extreme care in design and erection and are limited to
small projects. Example of Rubber type: Janjhavathi Rubber Dam (India).

Dam construction Sequence

This is a typical sequence of events for constructing a dam and creating a reservoir:

1. Diverting the river

A dam is usually constructed across a river to create a reservoir in the valley behind
by storing the water that flows into it naturally. Sometimes, they are built across dry
valleys, or valleys with small streams, to create a storage area for water that is
transported from elsewhere.

Streams and rivers have to be diverted to create a dry area to construct the dam.
Small rivers and streams are usually diverted through a tunnel, or a channel that is
constructed around the side of the dam. Soft soils and rocks are excavated to form
the route, while harder rocks have to be blasted with explosives.

Sometimes, dams are built across wide rivers with large volumes of flowing water. It
would be impracticable and too expensive to construct a separate channel to divert
the water. Instead, a dry construction pit is formed on one side of the river, leaving

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the other side open for the water to flow through. The first portion of the dam is
constructed in the dry pit. When it is finished, another dry area is formed on the
other side of the river, and the remaining part of the dam is built. Meanwhile, the
river flows through openings in the completed portion of the dam, and the reservoir
can start to fill behind it.

2. Preparing the foundation for the dam

A dam is built on a soil or rock foundation, depending on the type of dam. The
foundation must be strong enough to carry the weight of the dam, and the water
pressures acting on the dam. The dam foundation is below the original ground level. It
is covered by weaker soils or rock that have to be removed either by excavation or by
blasting with explosives.

Sometimes, areas of weaker soils or rocks are found below the planned foundation
level and these have to be removed and replaced with stronger materials.

Some rock foundations have cracks and fissures in them. These have to be filled with
grout to stop water leaking out from the reservoir through the cracks once the dam is
completed. This is done by drilling holes down into the rock, and by pumping grout
into them, which spreads outwards to fill the cracks.

3. Building the dam

a) Concrete dam

As so much concrete is required in a concrete dam, it is mixed together in a special

building called a concrete batching plant, which is built on the construction site. For
very large dams, there may be a number of batching plants. The concrete can be
placed in the dam by two different methods

The traditional method is to pour a wet mixture of concrete into a mould made in the
required shape of the dam. The mould, called formwork, is usually made from sheets
of timber. The mould is not made to the full height of the dam, as the dam is built
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upwards in stages of about 1 to 2 meters at a time. The concrete is left to dry before
the next section is formed on top.

The concrete can be transferred from the batching plant to the dam by a number of
methods. Sometimes, a system of conveyor belts is used and sometimes the concrete
is taken by trucks to the bottom of the dam where it is poured into skips which are
lifted to the top of the dam by cranes.

Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) dams are formed by spreading a drier of mix of
concrete and compacting it down using rollers. The dam is raised in steps of about
600 mm. The edges are formed first, by making low concrete walls on the upstream
and downstream faces of the dam. Concrete is then transported to the area between
the walls and spread in a thin layer using bulldozers. Rollers are then driven over the
concrete to compact it down.

b) Embankment dam

Embankment dams are constructed upwards in a series of thin layers. For each layer,
the fill material is transported to the dam by trucks and dumped there. Then
bulldozers are used to spread the material in a thin layer. The thickness of the layer
depends on the material being used. Earth fill layers are about 300 mm thick and rock
fill layers can be up to 1 meter thick. The layers are compacted down using rollers.

4. Testing that valves and floodgates work.

Valves are used to control the water flow in pipes. When the valve is closed, the
water flow is stopped. When it is open the water flows through. When you turn a sink
tap on and off, you are opening and closing a valve inside the tap.

The downstream side of a dam is the opposite side to the one that holds back the
reservoir water. (See upstream). Downstream of a location on a river is the direction
in which the river water is flowing, i.e. towards the sea from the hills.

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 5. Monitoring the behavior of the newly built dam.

Monitoring the behavior of the newly built dam diverting the river a dam is usually
constructed across a river to create a reservoir in the valley behind by storing the
water that flows into it naturally.

The purpose of dam management is to obtain the effectiveness of the dam as greatly
as possible by operating the dam safely and appropriately. The dam project should be
planned considering other projects or river facilities in its river basin to demonstrate
its purpose effectively. Furthermore, it is necessary to execute the investigation
carefully from the early stage so as not to generate stagnation or retreat because the
dam project is large-scale and needed much cost for construction. Because the
appearance of the dam reservoir exerts a big influence on the environment, the
mitigation or conservation should be considered to decrease the influence as much as
possible. As the dam reservoir is forming by damming of the existing river, the
management and operation of the dam should be carried out safely and properly
unlike other facilities. In addition, the dam should be operated for a long period of
time in proper condition, so the countermeasure for the sedimentation is important
for the longevity of dam reservoir, At this topic level contribution, summary and
evaluation of seven themes at article level contribution concerning the environmental
impact, hydrological surveys, predictions of the maximum precipitation and the
maximum flood, the feasibility study, accumulation of sediments, instrumentation
and monitoring, and dam safety are described.

The issues that rose during the construction of karuma dam in Uganda which were
mainly cracks due to climatic conditions can be overcome through the following
advancements.

Aggregate Production - The acceptability of natural aggregates is judged upon the

physical and chemical properties of the material and the accessibility, proximity to
the site and economic workability of the deposit.

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Concrete Handling, Placing and Consolidation - The procedure to be adopted for
moving concrete from the mixers on to the dam will be governed by site conditions.
The problem is to transport it to the dam with the least possible segregation or
change in its consistency so it may be compacted uniformly into the dam without
unreasonable effort. The cableway is probably the simplest arrangement. The tilting
mixers will feed the buckets; these are then moved to a pick up point under the
cableway, transported smoothly to the block and emptied quickly through an air
operated gate.

The use of a belt conveyor has also been considered, but problems occur in keeping
the belt temperature stable in warm weather and also in windy conditions. The
conveyors are usually covered and cold air is blown over the concrete to lower its
placing temperature.

Proper consolidation of low-slump concrete is laborious and requires continuous

supervision. The most efficient compactor is usually the two man hand-held high-
speed vibrator.

Formwork - Probably the most widely used lift is 1.5m, however, on large dams a
height of 2.3-3.0m is frequently used. With the larger lifts there are fewer
movements of forms and fewer horizontal lift surfaces to be cleaned. The high-lift
formwork is unique and expensive with less prospect for re-use, heavier equipment is
required for lifting the forms and the heat problems and risks of cracking in the
concrete are accentuated. Modern steel formwork is of cantilever design, see figure.
Where possible the use of slip forms will expedite the work and lower the costs. At
some locations it may be expedient to use precast concrete slabs for formwork with
set-retarding agent on the inner surface.

Built in items - The installation of built in items is always a major source of delay on
construction. Advance planning is required with close attention to detail. The
complication of installation of reinforcement, prestressing, gate hinges, drainage
wells and gate wells are common on spillways. There has been a tendency to use

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precast concrete units for galleries to save time, however this prevents the inspection
of the concrete in the interior of the dam. The simplest method of forming galleries is
vertical formwork extending the full height of a lift. When this is removed, precast
concrete beams or slabs can be laid over the opening and concreted into the next lift.
Reinforcement is usually required above and below rectangular galleries and this is
best installed as prefabricated units.

Cooling of Concrete - The method of cooling concrete during the first few days after
placing can be of the utmost importance if cracking is too avoided. It is essential to
give attention to both internal and external factors that may induce cracking;

 Temperature rise, which will depend upon the heat of hydration of the cement,
the quantity of cement per cubic meter, the concrete placing temperature and
the rate of construction;
 Heat dissipation, which will depend upon the conditions of exposure - including
the temperature of the underlying concrete and the thermal diffusivity of the
concrete. If it is considered necessary to heat the underlying concrete the rate
of rise of its temperature should not exceed 2° Celsius per day;
 The effects of restraint from a cold surface, i.e. rock or concrete say 14 days
old, it will depend upon the temperature gradient which can be reduced by
placing concrete in half lifts for a predetermined height, say 3m above the cold
surface;
 The arrangement of cooling pipes - at 0.25 and 0.75 of the height of the lift
may be more efficient than on the top of the old lift and at mid-height of the
new lift. The horizontal spacing will depend upon the rate of heat removal
required and the temperature of the cooling water (i.e. river water of varying
temperature or refrigerated water);
 The local weather conditions - humidity, temperature and wind.

Economical Construction - Concrete dams are expensive, however mechanization

over the last 40 years has reduced by a factor of four the number of man hours
required to place a cubic meter of concrete in a mass concrete dam. Although every

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Engineer strives for perfection, consideration must be given to the degree of
perfection that is really necessary. Close cooperation between the Owner and
Contractor will save time and money. Questions have to be asked at all stages such
as;

 Is it permissible to design for tensile stress in the concrete?

 Will arching of the dam result in overall economy?
 Are longitudinal contraction joints necessary in large gravity dams?
 Can the transverse contraction joints be omitted, located at wider spacing
etc.?
 What cleanup is necessary on horizontal construction joints?
 Should the height of lift be specified by the designer?
 Should the cement content of the concrete be specified or only the properties
required in the concrete?
 Can the dams of intricate shape be justified?
 Should ancillary works be separated from the dam to minimize interference
with a continuous or cyclic process of dam building?
 What is the optimum layout and design for galleries?

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Conclusion.
As we design dams in the future, it is crucial that we understand and account for our
changing climate. We now know that we cannot predict water levels and required
reservoir capacity based on historical data. We know that climate change is the
reality that we are living in, and that while some locations may become more prone
to flooding than previously thought, other regions are facing water stress and may not
be able to realize the benefits of damming over any reasonable period.
 
It is not enough to use historical data when planning a project like a dam. Engineers
should consider not just one future, but several possible futures when working on a
project that is so critical to local infrastructure.
A hydroelectric developer in Iceland recently commissioned a study that investigates
how it should develop a glacier-fed power generation facility. This study was deemed
necessary because glacial melt appears to be increasing and increased water flow is
anticipated in the coming decades.  The study concluded that the dam should be
“over-installed” – built with the capacity to handle more flow than currently exists.
This type of thinking should be applied across the world to build dams that will safely
and productively serve us in the uncertain times ahead.

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