VETERINARY ASSISTANT TRAINING

COURSE I:
OUTPATIENT

SESSION V:
ANATOMY
AND
PHYSIOLOGY
VETERINARY ASSISTANT TRAINING
COURSE I: OUTPATIENT
SESSION V: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

STUDENT OBJECTIVES

At the conclusion of the session, students should be able to:

 Discuss the major anatomical body structures of various animal species

 Discuss the function or physiology of the body anatomy

VETERINARY ASSISTANT TRAINING

COURSE I: OUTPATIENT
SESSION V: ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Lecturette Information

Key terms for this session:

Anatomy: The study of the structures of living organisms
ology – suffix meaning “the study of”
Physiology: The study of the functions and vital processes of the body
Cytology: The study of cells
Histology: The study of tissues
Cytoplasm: The semi-liquid within the cell
Nucleus: The organelle of a cell, which contains DNA, its genetic blueprint
Cell Membrane: The outermost structure of a cell that forms an “envelope”
around the cell, holding all of the internal structures inside
Nucleolus: Found within the nucleus that contains the RNA and protein
Organelles: The small organ-like structures within a cell that carry out
specialized functions within the cell
Epithelial tissue: Cellular tissue that covers all body surfaces, inside and out
Connective tissue: Tissue throughout the body that binds together and supports
other tissues and organs
Quadriceps: Muscle groups located cranial or anterior to the femur
Semimembranosus, semitendinosus - Muscle group; common injection site:
caudal or posterior to femur
Biceps femoris - Muscle group: caudal or posterior to the femur
Triceps - Muscle group: caudal to the humerus
Saphenous vein - Medial and lateral; blood vessel common for blood collection
Cephalic vein – Located in front leg, common for blood collection
Jugular vein - Located in neck, common for blood collection

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CYTOLOGY
Before discussing anatomy and physiology, it is necessary to spend some time
exploring the basics of life. Cytology is the study of the cell, the most basic
building block of life.

THE CELL
There are three main parts to a cell:

 Cytoplasm – Cytoplasm is a transparent, gel-like substance outside the

nucleus and within the cell membrane where the organelles reside. Each
organelle has a specific purpose in enabling the cell to function:

 Mitochondria: The “power plants” of the cell produce chemicals that

provide the energy for the cell to carry out its function.
 Endoplasmic reticulum: An internal network of flattened sacs studded
with ribosomes, which is involved in packaging proteins.
 Ribosomes: Small units that assemble the amino acid chains that form
proteins.
 Golgi apparatus: Stores, sorts and modifies products made within the
cell for transport to other organelles or to the cell surface.
 Lysosomes: Break down worn-out organelles and foreign substances
taken up by the cell into raw materials for use by other organelles.
 Centrosomes: A very small body near the nucleus that during cell
division divides in two with the two parts moving to opposite poles of
the dividing cell

 Nucleus – The nucleus directs the activity of the organelles; it is surrounded

by a nuclear membrane that functions like the cell membrane. The nucleolus
is an organelle within the nucleus composed of RNA (ribonucleic acid). RNA
is involved in making proteins. Also within the nucleus is DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid), which is the blueprint for the cell and the entire
animal.

 Cell Membrane – The cell membrane functions to contain the contents of the
cell and provides its shape. The cell membrane protects the cell from its
surrounding environment by working to keep certain substances out of the
cell while allowing other substances within the cell.

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THE CELL

HISTOLOGY
Histology is the study of tissues under the microscope. Body tissues are
composed of identical or very similar cells grouped together to perform a specific
task. For example, the muscle tissue in an animal’s body is made of cells called
myocytes. Myocytes work together to relax and contract a muscle allowing a
specific body part to move in a desired way.

ORGANS
Organs are body components made of different types of tissues. The liver, heart,
spleen, kidneys and intestines are some examples of organs. The variety of
different tissues that each organ is made up of allows the organs to perform more
than one function. For example, in the small intestine, enterocytes are cells that
form the tissue responsible for the final digestion and absorption of nutrients,
electrolytes and water.

ORGAN SYSTEMS
Organ systems are collections of organs that work together to perform specific
bodily functions. For example, the gastrointestinal organ system is composed of
many organs that enable the body to ingest and digest food, absorb wanted
materials and eliminate waste products. Organ systems successfully function
when cells, tissues, and organs work together to perform specialized tasks.

ANATOMY
Anatomy is the study of the structures of living organisms.

PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology is the study of the functions and vital processes of living organisms
and how these processes interact in the body.

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ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY
There are certain terms that must be defined before one can speak to the topic of
anatomy. The veterinary assistant needs to have a clear understanding of the
anatomical directional terms as they relate to the animal. The following terms are
used to describe anatomical direction:

 Cranial – Towards the head (the neck is cranial to the chest)

 Rostral – Once at the head, rostral refers to being closer to the nose (in a
dog, the tip of the nose is rostral to the eyes)

 Caudal – Towards the tail (the caudal abdomen of the dog has less hair than
the rest of the body)

 Anterior – Towards the front (a person’s belly button is anterior to their spine)

 Posterior – Towards the rear (a person’s buttocks are posterior to the hip
bones)

 Ventral – Towards the ground (a dog’s belly button is ventral to his spine)

 Dorsal – Towards the sky (a dog’s spine is dorsal to the abdomen)

 Internal – Inside (the heart is internal to the ribs)

 External – Outside (the external ear canal exists outside the ear drum)

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ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY (cont)

 Lateral – Towards the outside, away from the midline (the ligament that holds
together the outside of the knee joint is called the lateral collateral ligament)
(the nipples on a dog are lateral to the belly button)

 Medial – Towards the inside, towards the midline (the medial collateral
ligament of the knee connects the inside of the thigh bone to the inside of the
tibia) (your armpit is medial to your arm when your arms are at your side)

 Proximal – Closer to the center of the body (your elbow is proximal to your
wrist)

 Distal – Further away from the center of the body (your toes are distal to your
knee)

 Oral – Towards the mouth (the esophagus is oral to the stomach)

 Aboral – Away from the mouth (as you exit the small intestine in an aboral
direction, you enter the large intestine)

 Abduct – To move away (when doing jumping jacks, the legs are moved
outward by abduction)

 Adduct – To move closer (to slap your hands on your hips, you adduct them
quickly)

 Ipsilateral – On the same side

 Contralateral – On the opposite side

It will be important for the veterinary assistant student to realize that the study of
anatomy and physiology cannot be taught solely from a book or through lectures.
It will be necessary for the student to use the clinical experience to reinforce
knowledge gained in the classroom. The student must see, visualize and identify
body structures on the patients they encounter at the clinic.

What follows is a very general discussion of anatomy and physiology. It is in no

way meant to be a complete overview. The topics discussed start with an
animal’s head and work caudal. The headings are general and not exclusive to
the topic discussed in each section.

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HEAD
The head has quite a few important structures. It contains the eyes, the ears, the
oral cavity and the brain case.

The nose has two external openings called nostrils that lead to each nasal cavity.
Inside the nasal cavities are scrolls of cartilage called turbinate. The turbinate
help filter and humidify the air. To do this they need an abundant blood supply.
When you get a nosebleed, it is usually from the turbinate. A thin bone called the
nasal septum separates the two nasal cavities. The flat area of the nose just
behind the pigmented rough area that contains the external nares or nostrils is
the planum nasale.

The mouth is supported by the upper and lower jawbones. The upper jawbone
or maxilla is larger than the lower jaw or mandible. Both the mandible and
maxilla contain tooth sockets, which are made of specialized bone called alveolar
bone. The portions of the teeth that are visible within the mouth are called
crowns. The tooth sockets and the gums cover the roots of the teeth. The gum
tissue is called gingiva, and the rest of the lining of the mouth is called the oral
mucosa. The tongue is attached to the floor of the mouth by a strong thin
membrane called the frenulum. The roof of the mouth is the floor of the nose and
is called the hard palate. Moving caudal within the mouth, the bone of the hard
palate is replaced by softer tissue called the soft palate. The end of the soft
palate is often shaped like a sack. This sack-like structure is called the uvula.
The hard and soft palates serve to separate the mouth and the nose. As you
travel caudal in the mouth, this division disappears and becomes one space.
This space is called the pharynx. The pharynx contains the tonsils, the front part
of the larynx called the voice box, and the opening to the esophagus.

NECK
The neck is vital to survival in that it contains the connectors from the chest and
abdominal organs to their controllers, the brain and nerves, and the connectors
from the nose to the lungs and the mouth to the stomach. It also contains all the
important structures that supply the brain with blood and oxygen.

In the neck is the continuation of the larynx. The larynx, called voice box or
Adam’s apple, connects to the trachea. The trachea or windpipe is composed of
cartilage rings that help maintain an open central cavity to pass air. The rings do
not completely encircle the trachea. They are about 20 degrees around with a
dorsal defect that is connected by a thin ligament.

Pressure on the neck can occlude the pliable trachea, which is how strangling
can occur. The trachea enters the chest cavity and disappears at the base of the
neck. The esophagus is the continuation of the food passageway from the
mouth; it is a thin muscular tube that helps push food to the stomach. The
esophagus enters the chest and disappears at the base of the neck. The cervical

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vertebrae support the neck, at its most dorsal aspect. The esophagus and
trachea are ventral to this.

Also found in the neck is the thyroid gland. This gland produces thyroid hormone
for the entire body. The gland has three parts: the left lobe, the right lobe and the
isthmus that connects the two lobes. In dogs and cats, the isthmus is so small
that we consider there to be two thyroid glands, left and right. They are found in
the mid-cervical area on each side of the trachea.

The parathyroid glands (named as such because they exist to the side [para-] of
the thyroid glands) are also in the neck. There are four parathyroid glands. One
external and one internal gland are present on each side. The internal and
external glands are so named because they exist either inside the thyroid gland
or just to the outside of it. These glands are responsible for calcium metabolism,
producing both parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.

Also found within the neck are the jugular veins, the carotid arteries and the
recurrent laryngeal nerve. The four jugular veins take blood from the head and
neck to the heart. The jugular vein we usually refer to is the external jugular vein.
There is also an internal jugular vein on each side. The external jugular vein is a
very important site for venipuncture or collecting blood. This vein runs within the
thoracic inlet, which is a small but defined space where blood vessels and nerves
enter the chest cavity beneath the first rib. The manubrium is the small
projection from the midline of the sternum or breastplate that exists at the base of
the neck. The thoracic inlet is the “dimple” that can be felt to each side of it. The
jugular vein runs in a straight path from the thoracic inlet toward the angle of the
jaw or the corner of the mandible. These are the primary landmarks for the
jugular vein. When one draws blood from this vein, pressure is applied to the
thoracic inlet to prevent blood flow back to the heart and to “fill the vein”. Using
the landmark of the angle of the jaw and feeling for a fluid filled tube helps to
locate the vein. The carotid arteries are likewise in two pairs, one internal and
one external located on each side. This is the arterial system that brings oxygen-
rich blood to the brain and head.

EYES
The eyes exist in orbits, the bony cavities called eye sockets. The eyeball fits
into the orbit and has an upper and lower eyelid. The orbit in the dog and cat is
not completely made of bone. The ventral border of the orbit is made of soft
tissue, which allows externally applied pressure to be transmitted to the orbit.
This pressure can be created by overzealous restraint of brachiocephalic dog
breeds like the pug-nosed breeds. Overzealous restraint with pressure applied
across the head or neck can cause the eyeball to proptose or pop out of the orbit.
Pressure can also be transmitted to the orbit in any breed by widely opening the
mouth. A dog with a painful eye or orbit may resent having its mouth opened.

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The eyelids form an ellipse about the eye. The corner of the ellipse to the
outside of the head is called the lateral canthus, and the corner of the ellipse to
the inside of the eye is called the medial canthus. The lacrimal, or tear ducts,
exit through small holes called punctum in the medial canthus. Tears are drained
to the nose through the nasolacrimal duct.

The white of the eye is the sclera, a fibrous tissue that surrounds the contents of
the eye. The surface of the eye we see through is clear, devoid of blood vessels,
and is called the cornea. The part of the eye where the cornea meets the sclera
is the limbus. Behind the cornea is the anterior chamber of the eye filled with
aqueous humor. If too much aqueous humor is produced or something causes
the drainage of fluid to be impeded, the pressure in the anterior chamber may
increase. This increase in intra-ocular pressure is called glaucoma.

The colored part of the eye is made of a thin membrane called the iris. It is
circular with a hole in the center. The pupil gets wider as the iris contracts and
smaller as it relaxes. A dilated or mydriatic pupil is a larger hole. A constricted
or miotic pupil is a smaller hole. The lens of the eye rests behind the iris. The
purpose of the lens is to focus whatever image exists in front of the animal upon
the retina. The lens acts like the zoom lens of a camera and has the ability to
become almost flat if focusing on the horizon or round if focusing up close. The
lens is ordinarily clear and does not reflect any light. When dogs and cats get
older, the lens thickens and begins to reflect some of the light. This is called
nuclear sclerosis and is a benign change that will not progress to blindness.
Compare this to a true opacity in the lens known as a cataract. Cataracts can
create a lens that is unable to pass light onto the retina causing blindness. The
retina is the back surface of the eyeball that contains photoreceptor cells that
take the image of light focused upon it by the lens and translate it into electrical
impulses that travel via the optic nerve to the brain. The vision center of the
brain then interprets these impulses to be whatever the image was and sends it
to the thinking part of the brain to register the image. This is how we know at
what we are looking. A significant defect in the transmission of light, the focusing,
the retinal cells, the optic nerve, or the visual center of the brain can result in
blindness.

EARS
The pinna is the part of the external ear made up of cartilage and skin that is
often referred to as the earflap. The purpose of the pinna is to help protect the
ear and direct sound into the ear canal. The opening at the base of the pinna
leads into the external ear canal. The external ear canal, although within the skin
of the pinna, is located outside the skull. The ear canal spirals downward and in
toward the eardrum in two parts: the vertical canal and the horizontal canal. The
horizontal ear canal leads straight to the tympanic membrane or eardrum.

The middle ear and the inner ear come off the eardrum to the inside: they are
medial to the tympanum. The middle ear canal is surrounded by bone called the

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tympanic bulla and is connected to the pharynx via the eustachian tube. The
inner ear has three small bones that are important for transmitting vibrations to
the cochlear nerve, which sends electrical impulses to the brain for sound
interpretation. The inner ear also consists of a maze or labyrinth full of fluid that
is responsible for equilibrium or balance.

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The brain is the central processor of the central nervous system (CNS), which
consists of the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system consists of
the nerves outside the CNS. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls
breathing, blood pressure, heart rate and other things that are imperative for
survival but work automatically whether your conscious brain tells them to or not.
For example, if you hold your breath, eventually your body will sense an increase
in carbon dioxide in the blood, and whether you want to or not, the ANS will force
you to take a breath. You may faint but your breathing will start again.

The brain has many different parts. The cerebrum, the largest area of the brain
in humans, contains what we classically call the right and left hemispheres of the
brain and is where conscious thought is derived. If you decide to walk
downstairs to get a drink, the action begins in your cerebrum. The message is
communicated to the proper areas of your body, and if the rest of your body
works, you will go and get your drink.

The midbrain is responsible for many of our emotions, hunger and thirst. The
pituitary gland hangs down from the midbrain and exerts tremendous control over
other organs via hormones. Nervous impulses, like electrical circuits, can only
affect that with which they directly connect. The pituitary gland sends hormonal
messages into the blood, and when those hormones reach the desired recipient,
they cause an effect. Typically, neurological responses are immediate and the
effect short lived. Take a reflex like the knee jerk. Touch the knee properly and
your leg will kick. That is a neurological signal in the form of a reflex. Yet the leg
doesn’t stay kicked nor does it kick again unless you hit it again. Hormonal
effects take longer to show up, but the effects are longer acting as well. Eat a lot
of sugar, and the sugar level in your blood stimulates insulin secretion by the
pancreas. Insulin drives sugar into cells correcting the sugar level in the blood.
It is not an immediate effect, but the insulin level will remain high until the body
and its natural feedback mechanisms slow its release.

Another part of the brain is the cerebellum. The second largest area of the brain,
the cerebellum is responsible for coordinating muscle movements and
maintaining balance. Without its proper function, the body may experience
tremors or jerky movement.

The last part of the brain to be discussed here is the hindbrain or brainstem. The
hindbrain is responsible for neurological control of the ANS. It connects the brain
to the spinal cord and regulates automatic activities that are vital for survival,

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such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, and sleeping and waking as well
as reflex actions such as swallowing and vomiting. We can survive without
proper midbrain and cerebellar function; however, survival is not possible without
a functioning brainstem.

The spinal cord can be thought of as bundles of fibers having different electrical
pathways connected to various sites in the body. The spinal cord exists in a
circular canal protected by bone. The spinal canal is comprised of different
bones called vertebrae stacked and fashioned with joints that allow for
movement. Shock absorbers between the vertebrae are called discs. Between
each junction of two vertebrae there is a hole called the foramen through which
nerves pass that facilitate the signaling of messages between the spinal cord and
the body. In essence, the spinal cord is the messenger cable system. It routes
electrical signals in the proper direction, to or from the brain, and to or from the
muscles or organs. This cable system has been mapped so well that we know
where the nerves that provide information to and from your arm originate. In the
dog, nerves that exit the spinal cord somewhere between the 4 th cervical and 2nd
thoracic vertebrae control the front leg or thoracic limb. We know the nerves that
control the pelvic limb or the rear leg originate from the 4 th lumbar vertebra to the
1st or 2nd sacral vertebrae. With this knowledge, we can deduce where a problem
in the nervous system exists if the dog’s front or rear legs are not functioning
properly. We can check the reflexes to see how the body responds to external
stimuli.

Reflexes are involuntary reactions that have no conscious control. If hits your
kneecap tendon, called the patellar tendon, you will kick in a knee jerk fashion.
The signal to the tendon is transmitted through nerves to the spinal cord and then
directly back through nerves to the muscle. A signal is sent causing the knee to
jerk. This is called a reflex arc. Note that neither the incoming signal from the
leg nor the signal making the leg move ever reached the brain. This is an
involuntary reflex arc that cannot be consciously affected. Reflexes can
increase, decrease or be normal in intensity. The intensity of the reflex
movement is used to help determine if and where a problem exists in the nervous
system.

All mammals possess seven cervical or neck vertebrae. These are numbered
C1 through C7. C1 is called the atlas, and C2 is called the axis. The dog and
cat have 13 thoracic vertebrae (T1-T13). Next are the seven lumbar vertebrae
(L1-L7). The sacral vertebrae are often fused onto one bone called the sacrum
but are considered three bones (S1-S3). The tail vertebrae, also referred to as
the coccygeal or caudal vertebrae, are variable in number and form the tail.
Humans have four coccygeal vertebrae that are fused together to form the
coccyx or tailbone.

Each vertebra has a number of processes or bony projections. The cervical

vertebrae have prominent lateral spinous processes that flare out to each side.

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Thoracic vertebrae have prominent dorsal spinous processes that project up from
the spine, similar to dinosaur scales. The lumbar vertebrae have prominent
lateral spinous processes. The discs that exist between the junctions of each
vertebra are similar to jelly donuts: they have a firm exterior made of fibrous
tissue called annulous fibrosis and a soft, semi-liquid center called nucleus
pulposus. A “slipped disc” is when the disc nucleus bulges, so that it changes
the shape of the disc and creates pressure on the spinal cord. Also, discs can
explode, and the nucleus can be released under pressure and come to lie beside
or under the spinal cord, thus the term “ruptured disc.” The spinal cord is
enclosed in the bony canal of the vertebral column and has no room to swell.
When it does swell, it comes in contact with the bone, creating more pressure.
Spinal cord dysfunction occurs when pressure reaches a point where electrical
impulse transmission is affected.

SKELETON
Four legged animals have two front legs called thoracic limbs and two rear legs
called pelvic limbs. The thoracic limb is made up of the following bony
structures: scapula – shoulder joint called the scapulohumeral joint; humerus –
elbow joint; radius/ulna – carpus or wrist; two rows of carpal bones; four long
metacarpal bones; and phalanges (three for each digit – P1, P2, and P3, which
has the nail attached). The joint between the radius and the first row of carpal
bones is called the radiocarpal joint. There is an intercarpal joint between the
two rows of bones, and then the carpometacarpal joint follows. The proximal and
then distal interphalangeal joints follow the metocarpal-phalangeal joint.

The pelvic limb begins with a specialized structure called the pelvis, which is
made up of three fused bones: the ilium, the ischium and the pubis. These three
bones on each side of the body form the pelvic canal. This canal allows the
abdominal organs like the colon and urethra to exit the abdomen. There is a
special part of the pelvis called the acetabulum. This area is where the
thighbone or femur joins the hip. This is the hip joint that is also called the coxo-
femoral joint. The femur leads into the stifle or knee joint, where there is a
special structure called the patella or kneecap. The knee joint is the junction of
the femur and tibia/fibula. The shinbones or tibia and fibula join the first row of
tarsal bones of the ankle at the hock called the tibiotarsal joint. The last row of
tarsal bones joins the four metatarsal bones at the tarsal-metatarsal joints. The
ankle is also called the hock or tarsus and includes the tibiotarsal joint, the
intertarsal joint and the tarso-metatarsal joint. The long metatarsal bones join the
phalanges of the rear foot similar to the way the metacarpal bones join the
phalanges of the front leg.

Each of these bones has certain projections or grooves on its surface. Muscles
originate on one bone and attach to a different bone. A muscle’s origin and
insertion are defined by many of these projections. To completely understand
the muscular system, one must know the origins and insertions of the muscles

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and where these are located on the bones. A discussion of muscle origins and
insertions is not within the scope of this course.

Muscles insert upon bones by way of tendons, which are specialized attachment
tissues that allow the muscle and bone to connect and function properly.
Ligaments are tissues that connect bones to bones. The support of almost all
joints involves ligaments. There are many very important ligaments in the
musculoskeletal system, but naming and describing them also goes beyond the
scope of this course.

The clavicle is commonly referred to as the collarbone. Cats have a very small
vestigial clavicle, and dogs do not have one at all.

Most animals have thirteen ribs (numbered one to thirteen), which are thin bones
that support the chest cavity. The space between each consecutive rib is called
the intercostal space. The ribs curve down towards the ventral midline about one
to three inches off the midline. There is a junction of cartilage to bone called the
costochondral junction. The ribs then insert upon the thin breastplate called the
sternum. The sternum in dogs and cats is not one sheet of continuous bone like
the keel of a bird; it is made of small bones, called sternebrae, with cartilage
joints between them. There are two projections of the sternum that are important
as landmarks for finding other structures. The first projection, the manubrium,
has been discussed as being a landmark for the thoracic inlet. The other
projection comes off the caudal-most aspect of the sternum and is called the
xyphoid process. It is connected to the sternum by way of a cartilaginous joint
and in some animals can be mobile. The xiphoid process is often most
noticeable when an animal is lying on its back for surgery and the hair is clipped
away from the area behind the last set of ribs: it is the bone that points caudal
from the end of the sternum beyond the last set of ribs.

THORACIC CAVITY
The thoracic cavity is the chest cavity, which houses the heart and lungs and
receives the structures leaving the neck in a caudal direction, including the
trachea and esophagus. There are many nerves, lymphatic and blood vessels
and lymph nodes that enter the thorax from the neck as well. A discussion of
them is beyond the scope of this course.

The chest cavity is defined as the space between the thoracic inlets cranially, the
sternum ventrally, the vertebral column dorsally and the diaphragm caudally.
The entire cavity is lined with a thin membrane called the pleura. As structures
enter through the thoracic inlet, the pleura envelops them and covers their
exterior as well.

The trachea continues as a semi-rigid single lumen pipe until it reaches the area
just over the heart. Here it forks into two tubes called the primary bronchi. The
area where it branches is called the bifurcation of the trachea. Like the

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branches of a tree, the bronchi branch again and again as they enter the lungs.
They divide into secondary and tertiary bronchi and then into bronchioles. Each
successive division creates a smaller tube until eventually they empty into a thin
walled sac called the alveolus. The lung is composed of clusters of alveoli that
look like grapes on a vine. The alveoli facilitate the transfer of oxygen and
carbon dioxide across the thin single celled, alveolar lining to the blood vessels
involved in pulmonary circulation on the other side. Blood vessels that come
from the heart tend to need to loose carbon dioxide and add oxygen; those
returning to the heart contain oxygen-rich blood. From the outside, the lungs
appear to be glistening, pink fleshy organs because they are also covered by
pleura, a thin serous membrane that covers a lung and lines the chest cavity in
mammals.

The pleural space is the space around the organs within the chest cavity. This
space is completely lined by pleura and has exudes a slight negative pressure to
allow the lungs to expand. A lung collapses when there is too much pressure in
the pleural space, which is commonly caused by a hole in the lung creating air
leakage into the pleural space. This air occupying the pleural space most
commonly occurs after trauma and is called a pneumothorax.

The pleural space can also fill with fluid. There are multiple kinds of fluid within
the body and any can “leak” into the pleural space surrounding the lungs and
heart, causing what is called a pleural effusion.

The mass of tissue in the front of the chest cavity between the two lungs contains
the trachea, esophagus, blood vessels, nerves and lymphatic vessels going to
and from the neck. It also contains either a large lymph gland, called the thymus
in young animals or the thymic remnant in older animals. This mass of tissue as
a group is covered on the outside with pleura. It is called the anterior
mediastinum.

The esophagus travels from the thoracic inlet to the diaphragm essentially
unhindered by other structures. It exits into the abdomen through a major hole in
the diaphragm. As the esophagus travels through the diaphragm, so do some
other structures. There are three holes in the diaphragm for these structures,
including blood and lymph vessels and nerves, to pass through. The aorta must
travel caudal to the diaphragm. The caudal vena cava, the large vein from the
body that dumps blood into the right atrium, also traverses the diaphragm.

HEART
heart is the last major structure within the chest cavity. It is covered with
specialized pleura called the pericardial sac, which contains the four chambers of
the heart. All the chambers are composed of heart muscle and contain an
elaborate electrical system designed to elicit an organized impulse and
contraction or heartbeat. The heart has two sides: the left and the right. In

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essence these are physiologic divisions; the chambers do not solely exist on the
left or right side of the body.

The four chambers of the heart are the left atrium, the left ventricle, the right
atrium and the right ventricle. There are also four valves that separate these
chambers. The left atrium and left ventricle are separated by the mitral valve.
The aortic valve separates the left ventricle and the aorta. The right atrium and
right ventricle are separated by the tricuspid valve, and the pulmonic valve
separates the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery. The valves are open when
blood flows through the opening and are shut whenever blood does not flow
through preventing the backward flow of blood.

The right side of the heart pumps blood to the lungs. The pulmonary system is a
low-pressure system relative to the high-pressured system that supplies the rest
of the body with blood. Therefore, the right side of the heart does not tend to be
as muscular as the left side. Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood to tissues
throughout the rest of the body. The aorta leaves the left ventricle and gives rise
to the major arteries of the head and neck. The aorta then travels caudal down
the midline of the dorsal surface of the thorax and abdomen. The aorta is the
largest artery in the body. All the arterial supply of blood to the caudal body
comes from this vessel or its branches.

The heartbeat is stimulated by an organized conduction of electricity throughout

the heart muscle. The atria both beat first. Since the atria do not do much more
than fill and empty passively, the walls of these chambers are very thin and not
very muscular. The electrical impulse starts in the right atrium at the sinoatrial
(SA) node. The SA node is also known as the natural pacemaker. When the
body senses the need for more blood, it sends nervous signals to the SA node to
tell it to speed up. The SA node conducts its signal to the atrioventricular node or
AV node. This node is at the junction of the atria and ventricles. The impulse is
then directed evenly and smoothly to the ventricles for the major “oomph” needed
to pump blood. The fibers that carry the impulse to the heart muscle in the
ventricles are called Purkinje fibers.

When stimulated, the atria contract and empty into each ventricle through both
the mitral and tricuspid valves. Just before the ventricles contract, the mitral and
tricuspid valves slam shut. When they shut, they cause a sound that can be
heard with a stethoscope, called a “lub”. The thick muscles of the ventricles
then pump their contents into the pulmonary artery and aorta through the open
pulmonic and aortic valves. Just after the contents of the ventricles are ejected,
the pulmonic and arotic valves slam shut. This valvular closure emits a second
sound. When heard with a stethoscope, it is called a “dub”. Thus a normal
heartbeat sounds like “lub-dub”. When listening to the heart, we do not hear the
sound of muscles contracting, valves opening or blood flowing; we only hear the
sound of valves closing. This electrical stimulation cycle combined with the
chambers contracting and the blood flowing is known as the cardiac cycle. With

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a stethoscope, a veterinarian can listen to the sounds of the heart and detect
abnormalities in blood flow or valve closure. With an ECG machine, we can
record the electrical stimulation of the heart. With blood pressure machines, we
can check how well the heart pumps. With a pulse measurement, we can see
how often the heart is beating. With an ultrasound or echocardiogram of the
heart, we can monitor blood flow, heart chamber size and visualize in two
dimensions the actual movement of the chamber walls.

ABDOMINAL CAVITY
The abdomen is also known as the peritoneal cavity. The entire internal surface
of the cavity is lined with a special thin tissue call the peritoneum. Just like the
pleural cavity, the peritoneal cavity can have a fluid effusion or air within it known
as pneumoperitoneum.

The ventral abdominal wall is a common site for an abdominal incision. The first
layer of an incision cuts through the skin. The next layer is the subcutaneous
tissue, which is mostly fat but in the female can include the mammary tissue.
The muscular abdominal wall is made of three muscle layers, but on the midline,
they join to form the linea alba or white line. This is a firm, fibrous tissue made of
the sheaths around muscles with no muscle in between. Directly under the linea
alba is the peritoneum. Once the peritoneum is opened, the contents of the
abdomen are visible.

The kidneys and the ovaries are outside the peritoneal cavity. This seems
strange, but they exist dorsal to the peritoneal lining in a space known as the
retroperitoneal space, which is contiguous with the pelvic canal.

The structures that exit the abdominal cavity caudal excluding those that exit via
the inguinal rings do so via the pelvic canal. The pelvic canal is bordered on the
dorsal surface by the spine and on the ventral and lateral surfaces by the pelvic
bones. The peritoneum reflects off these structures, so there is a complete
peritoneal lining separating it from the pelvic canal.

The structures that exit the abdomen via the pelvic canal are the colon, the
reproductive tract and the urinary tract. In both dogs and cats, the colon leaves
the abdomen to exit the body in a straight line via the rectum and anus. This is
the dorsal-most orifice in the rear of the animal. The ventral-most structure is the
urinary tract. The urinary bladder sits at the rear of the abdomen in the most
ventral spot. The urethra exits in a straight line to enter the vagina in the female
cat or the penis in the male cat. The male dog’s urethra courses around the
pelvic bones, so that it ends up facing the front of the animal. This is how the
urethral orifice located at the tip of the penis comes to be on the ventral surface
of the dog’s body. The reproductive tract of the male and female is the middle
structure exiting the abdomen through the pelvic canal. Again in the female cat
and dog, it exits in a straight line. In the male cat, they also run a straight course.

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This is why the testicles in a male cat are situated above the penis and not
below.

The esophagus empties into the stomach, which empties into the small intestine.
The small intestine continues on to the large intestine, the rectum and anus
where waste is expelled. The stomach has a sphincter or muscular valve that
plays a role in when and how it empties. This sphincter is called the pylorus.
The upper small intestine is called the duodenum. The duodenum is closely
associated with the pancreas whose ducts provide digestive enzymes to the
upper duodenum. The common bile duct provides bile from the gall bladder to
aid in the digestion of fats in the upper duodenum. After a short course caudal,
the duodenum gives way to the jejunum. The jejunum is the longest part of the
small intestine. The ileum is the final part of the small intestine. There is a valve
at the end of the ileum. This ileocecal valve is the doorway into the colon or
large intestine. The cecum is the first part of the large intestine, which forms a
dilated pouch into which open the ileum, colon and vermiform appendix. The
cecum is small in dogs and cats but very large in horses, rabbits and some
lizards. The colon has three parts: the ascending colon, the transverse colon,
and the descending colon. In this order they ascend cranial from the mid-right
abdomen area, across to the left and then descend caudal to the rectum along
the left side. The colon enters the pelvic canal and gives way to the rectum and
then the anus.

The intestines are supported by and provided blood supply and lymphatic
drainage via a network of vessels in a fine tissue called the mesentery. The
intestines absorb nutrients from the ingested food, which get absorbed into the
blood and flow directly to the liver. The liver has many jobs within the body:
sugar metabolism and storage, protein production and metabolism and
detoxifying poisons are among its primary functions. The portal vein brings the
intestinal blood to the liver. The liver then acts upon any toxins and tries to
reduce their potential effects. In some cases, the liver is able to pass less toxic
byproducts into circulation or is able to act upon substances in such a way as to
get them placed into the bile. When they are put into the bile, they are
discharged into the duodenum along with the bile during a fatty meal. Some of
these products are then excreted as stool. Others circulate back through the
digestive process. This describes the hepatic portal system. We can measure
liver function specifically by measuring the concentration of bile acids in the
blood. When the liver and portal circulation functions properly, there is a low
amount of circulating bile acids outside the portal circulation. When there is liver
failure or failure of the portal circulation, the acid level of the circulating bile goes
up. This can occur with liver disease or a vascular problem where the portal
circulation does not empty into the liver but actually shunts around it. In the latter
case, the liver cannot remove toxins from the intestinal circulation because it
does not have access to the blood before the rest of the body.

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The abdomen also houses the urogenital system (discussed below), the spleen
and the adrenal glands. The spleen is a thin, elongated, blood- filled organ that
rests to one side of and is connected to the stomach by small blood vessels. The
spleen is responsible for destroying and producing blood cells as necessary and
houses enough of the immune system to be considered an important organ in
immune defenses. The interesting thing about the spleen is that almost every
function it performs is redundant, meaning its function is performed elsewhere in
the body. With rare exceptions, animals can live very well without their spleen.

The adrenal glands are important in the production of hormones. They are paired
glands with one on each side of the abdomen, each directly in front of the kidney,
ipsilateral to it. The adrenal glands have two different sections: the cortex or
outer layer and the medulla or inner layer. The adrenal cortex actually has three
layers within it: The outermost layer is involved with producing a hormone called
cortisol; the middle layer produces a number of steroids, and the inner layer
produces a hormone called aldosterone, which is very important in regulating
sodium and potassium levels in the blood. The adrenal medulla is important for
the production of adrenaline (epinephrine and norepinephrine) and is the major
body site responsible for instituting the “fright or flight” reflex.

UROGENITAL SYSTEM
The urogenital system is actually two complete systems: the urinary system and
the reproductive system. The urinary system begins with the kidneys. The right
kidney sits into a depression in the right side of the caudal liver. The left kidney
is further back in the abdomen on the left side. The kidneys receive blood from
the renal arteries that come off the aorta and filter it through a microscopic
mechanism called nephrons. Nephrons are composed of a filter called the
glomerulus and a system of tubules designed to selectively put certain things in
the urine and keep certain things out.

The nephrons lead into a system of collecting tubes much like any other
plumbing system. The largest of these collecting areas is called the renal pelvis.
The renal pelvis collects all the urine like a funnel and sends it down the tube to
the urinary bladder. The tubes that connect the bladder to the kidneys are called
ureters. The urinary bladder is a holding tank; it is like a balloon and shaped like
one when full. The ureters bring in urine and the bladder slowly fills. When the
bladder becomes large enough, the body is told through neurologic
communication that it is time to urinate, and the bladder contracts its muscular
wall. Urination, technically called micturition, is a conscious act with conscious
control. There are however, limits to urinary control, and once the process starts,
it is almost impossible to will it to stop until the bladder is empty. Urine flows
from the bladder through a tube called the urethra to the exterior body. In the
male, the urethra flows out through the penis. In the female, the urethra empties
into the vagina. Its opening cannot be seen from the exterior of the body.

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Essentially the kidney plays three large roles for the body. It is the organ to
conserve water when needed; when an animal starts to dehydrate, the kidney
compensates by conserving water and producing less urine volume. The kidney
and the gastro-intestinal tract (GI tract) are the major excretory organs of the
body; waste products leave the body via stool or urine. The kidney gets rid of
nitrogenous waste products, potassium and phosphorus, to name a few. The
third major function of the kidneys is to produce a hormone called erythropoietin.
This hormone stimulates the bone marrow to produce red blood cells. Thus
dilute urine, an increase in waste products in the blood and sometimes anemia,
or too few red blood cells, is evidence of kidney failure.

REPRODUCTION SYSTEMS
The reproductive system of the male begins at the testicles. Ordinarily, in the
embryo, the testicles begin up by the kidney and descend during gestation to the
back part of the abdomen and exit the abdomen through the inguinal ring. The
interior abdominal wall has a small opening on each side. In the male, blood
vessels and the spermatic cord exit through this hole. There is an external
inguinal ring on the outer muscular layer of the abdominal wall. Between these
rings there is a small tunnel. The normal embryonic testicle exits this tunnel and
ends up in the scrotum.

The testicles produce sperm and testosterone. The tube leading from each of
the testicles and traversing to the abdomen starts with a squiggly white tube
called the epididymis. This tube stores sperm, aids in ejaculation and has a
limited ability to produce testosterone. The epididymis gives way to the
spermatic cord and then once in the abdomen is called the ductus deferens.
This duct leads into the prostatic urethra. The prostate gland exists just caudal to
the bladder and is situated around the urethra. The prostatic urethra is that part
of the urethra surrounded by the prostate gland. The prostate is one of three
accessory sex glands of the male. These glands help make the contents of
semen. The testicle is attached to the scrotum with a ligament called the
gubernaculum. The cremaster muscle, which in response to changes in ambient
and body temperature adjusts the testicle position relative to the body cavity,
runs through the gubernaculum.

The female reproductive system begins with the ovaries. The ovaries are paired
(left and right) and are attached by the suspensory ligament to the area on the
dorsal abdominal cavity wall just behind the kidney, ipsilateral to it. The ovaries
are also attached to the dorsal body wall by their blood vessels that come directly
off the aorta. When an ovary releases ova during ovulation, the ova are caught
within the fringed funnel of the uterine tube called the fallopian tube. The
fallopian tube carries the ova from the ovaries to the uterus. The uterine tube in
dogs and cats is quite short and difficult to see. The uterine tube leads directly
into the uterus where the ovum implants and grows. In dogs and cats, the uterus

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has a body and two long horns each of which extends caudally and joins in a
singular uterine body that leads to a singular cervix. The cervix is a powerful
muscular valve located at the caudal end of the uterus. It seals off the uterus
from the outside world. A singular vagina is the birth canal and leads to the
external genitalia called the vulva. The female rabbit is special in that it has two
uterine bodies and two cervices that lead into a single vaginal canal.

MUSCLES AND BLOOD VESSELS

It is not within the scope of this course to have an extended discussion of the
muscles or blood vessels of animals. It is important that the veterinary assistant
be able to locate the basic muscle masses and blood vessels of animals to assist
with sample collection and drug administration.

The following muscles are commonly used sites for intramuscular injection:

 Quadriceps group
 Semimembranosus, semitendinosus, biceps femoris
 Triceps
 Dorsal lumbar muscles

The following blood vessels are commonly used for sample collection:

 Jugular vein – located in the ventral neck area

 Cephalic vein – located in the forelegs
 Lateral saphenous – located on the outside of the hind legs
 Medial saphenous – located on the inside of the hind legs
 Tail vein – located on the underside of the tail

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BLOOD COLLECTION SITES

Animal Collection site Location Comment/

Precaution
Dog Jugular vein Neck Jugular vein:
Cephalic vein Front leg Requires good
Lateral saphenous Outside hind leg restraint
vein
Cat Jugular vein Neck Jugular vein:
Cephalic vein Front leg Good location
Medial saphenous Inside hind leg
vein

Cow (dairy) Jugular Neck Jugular: large vein

Small ruminants Tail vein Ventral side of tail Requires strength
to hold tail up
Rabbits Ear vein Edge of ear Use only vessels
Jugular vein on perimeter of
Toe nail ear, not midline
Cardiocentesis vessels
Lateral saphenous
vein Jugular: sedation
Lateral thoracic often required
vein
Pigs Ear vein Any part of ear Small volumes
Cranial vena cava “Blind stick” at only
bifurcation of neck Requires pig
snare restraint
Primates Femoral Inner thigh Do not hit artery
Ferret Jugular Vena cava:
Cephalic requires sedation
Vena cava
Tail vein
Horse Jugular Neck Watch for “head
shy” animals
Iguana or large Tail vein Ventral side of tail Toe nail and
lizards Axillary sinus ventral abdominal
Ventral abdominal vein are not
vein suggested
Toe nail Cephalic vein:
Cephalic vein often requires cut
down

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Turtles Occipital sinus Restraint or
Jugular, Cephalic sedation may be
or tail vein needed
Frogs Mid-abdominal Sublingual
vein vessels: small
Cardiocentesis volumes only
Sublingual vessels
Snakes Cardiocentesis
Tail vein
Palatine vessels
Jugular vein
Rodents Jugular vein Cranial vena cava:
Tail vein requires sedation
Cranial vena cava
Toe nail
Cardiocentesis
Orbital sinus
Waterfowl Medial metatarsal Leg area Good site, vessel
Chickens vein surrounded by
muscle mass -
watch for flying
feces
Raptors Jugular vein Neck Wing vein very
Cutaneous ulnar Wing vein over small in hawks
vein elbow
Medial metatarsal
vein

SUGGESTED READING
Anatomy and Physiology of Farm Animals, R.D. Frandson, Lea and Febiger
Publications, 1986.

Miller’s Anatomy of the Dog, Howard E. Evans and George C. Christensen, W.B.
Saunders Company, 1979.

Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Third Edition, Jesse F. Bone, A Reston Book,
Prentice Hall

Color Atlas of Veterinary Anatomy – The Dog & Cat – Volume 3, Stanley H.
Done, Peter C. Goody, Susan A. Evans, Neil C. Stickland

Clinical Anatomy & Physiology For Veterinary Technicians, Thomas Colville,

DVM, MSc and Joanna M. Bassert, VMD; Mosby – 2002

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