Accepted Manuscript

Durability of ultra-high performance concrete in tension under cold weather conditions

Zhidong Zhou, Pizhong Qiao

PII: S0958-9465(18)30047-7
DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2018.08.019
Reference: CECO 3130

To appear in: Cement and Concrete Composites

Received Date: 14 January 2018

Revised Date: 23 August 2018
Accepted Date: 30 August 2018

Please cite this article as: Z. Zhou, P. Qiao, Durability of ultra-high performance concrete in
tension under cold weather conditions, Cement and Concrete Composites (2018), doi: 10.1016/
j.cemconcomp.2018.08.019.

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 ACCEPTED MANUSCRIPT

Durability of ultra-high performance concrete in tension

under cold weather conditions

Zhidong Zhou, Pizhong Qiao∗

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Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Washington State University, Sloan Hall 117,

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Pullman, WA 99164-2910, USA

Abstract

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Freezing and thawing resistance is a key characteristic for concrete materials in cold weather

conditions. In this study, the tensile properties and elastic modulus of ultra-high performance

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concrete (UHPC) under accelerated freeze-thaw cycles are characterized. Six series of UHPC
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specimens are experimentally tested with a well-designed direct tension test (DTT) method to

capture complete tensile stress-strain responses. Both the dynamic and wave moduli of elasticity
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of UHPC are measured at specific cycles using the standard impact test and self-designed “smart
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aggregate” technology, respectively. Long term freezing and thawing cyclic conditioning of
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UHPC samples results in reductions of elastic modulus, tensile strength, strain capacity, and

energy absorption capacity. The tensile stress-strain curves of UHPC demonstrate distinct
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descending with increasing freeze-thaw cycles, particularly in the strain softening region. The

energy-based approach is found to be more sensitive and effective than the elastic modulus-
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based approach when evaluating material deterioration over time and capturing accumulative
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material degradation subjected to rapidly-repeated freezing and thawing actions. As from the test

results, UHPC is characterized as a very durable cementitious material, but it is not inherently

unconquerable. Extended freezing and thawing actions can still lead to deterioration of the

material, with respect to its elastic modulus, tensile strength, energy absorption capacity, etc. As

∗
Corresponding author. E-mail address: qiao@wsu.edu (P. Qiao).

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demonstrated, the DTT method can be used to effectively characterize the long-term

performance of UHPC in tension under cold weather conditions.

Keywords: ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC); freeze-thaw; direct tension test (DTT);

tensile properties; dynamic modulus; wave modulus.

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1. Introduction

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Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), also known as reactive powder concrete (RPC),

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is an innovative cementitious composite with discontinuous steel fiber reinforcement that

possesses superior properties, such as enhanced mechanical strength, energy absorption capacity,

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and durability, compared with conventional concrete, and it can lead to tremendous opportunities
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in construction [1]. Although the initial unit quantity cost of UHPC is much higher than that of

conventional concrete, lighter and thinner sections are possible with UHPC for structural
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members due to its significant increased strength, stiffness, ductility and durability, which offer

great potential for longer service life and lower maintenance cost than using normal concrete and
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fiber-reinforced concrete [2]. Very limited studies have been conducted on the mechanical
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properties of UHPC under frost actions, because UHPC is characterized as very durable and

reliable. However, there are still some concerns about long-term durability performance of
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UHPC when subjected to aggressive loading or environment, among which durability of tensile
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properties of UHPC is of particular concern.

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UHPC has been known as a very durable cementitious material with very low permeability

of air, water, and chloride ions [3]. However, concrete structures for highway infrastructure

encounter not only various states of loading (such as static, impact and blast loadings) but also

environmental loading (such as freeze-thaw, wet-dry, deicing salt in cold regions) [4]. UHPC

shows larger autogenous shrinkage than normal concrete, since it owns high content of

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cementitious materials, and plenty of microcracks are formed during shrinkage process [5].

Microcracks continue to propagate in thin UHPC elements and provide preferential channels for

penetration of air, water and chloride ions, potentially resulting in accelerated corrosion of steel

fibers and rebars. Eventually, it influences the interfacial bond performance between

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cementitious matrix and rebars. All these hostile conditions affect the durability of UHPC and

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carry some risks in structural applications [6]. The durability of UHPC is generally investigated

through the dynamic modulus, mass loss, and permeability based on ASTM standards, but

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extended accelerated conditioning cycles are necessary since it is more durable than normal

concrete [1]. Besides deterioration of dynamic modulus and permeability following the

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conventional standard methods, some other mechanical characteristics, such as fracture energy,
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bond shear stress of rebar, and strain hardening durability using related destructive tests, can also

provide meaningful guideline for durability evaluation of fiber-reinforced concrete [4,7-8]. One
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major advantage of UHPC over the conventional concrete is its high strength and ductility under
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tension. It has been reported that UHPC is associated with high tensile resistance and energy
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absorption capacity due to its excellent strain hardening and softening behaviors, particularly

under impact and blast loadings [9-11]. Direct tension tests (DTT) provide an effective approach
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to determine the tensile strength and capture the completed tensile responses of UHPC. Using the

DTT, the effects of geometry and types of fibers, loading rates, and geometry of specimens on
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the tensile behaviors have been experimentally investigated [12-16]. But the tensile properties of
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UHPC under extended accelerated freeze-thaw conditioning cycles have not been fully

characterized.

Typical stress-strain relationship of UHPC in direct tension is illustrated in Fig. 1, which can

be distinguished into three phases: linear elastic phase, strain hardening phase, and strain

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softening phase [13]. Phase I is defined as the linear elastic domain until the first crack initiation;

Phase II represents a lot of microcracks being activated but not localized and reflects the fiber-

bridging and strain hardening behavior; and Phase III represents a localized crack being formed

and reflects the strain softening behavior until fibers are pulled-off. Based on the direct tensile

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stress-strain curves [17], several key material property-associated values can be obtained to

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characterize the tensile performance of UHPC, including tensile strength, strain capacity,

modulus of elasticity, and energy absorption.

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Fig. 1. Typical tensile response of UHPC [13]

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The present study aims to investigate the long-term durability of UHPC under rapid freezing
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and thawing actions. The specific objectives are: (1) to conduct an accelerated freeze-thaw
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conditioning on UHPC prismatic and dog-bone shaped direct tension specimens; (2) to evaluate

degradation of elastic dynamic and wave moduli of elasticity of UHPC by respective

nondestructive hammer impact [18] and embedded “smart aggregate” wave propagation tests of

conditioned prismatic specimens; and (3) to investigate effect of freezing and thawing actions on

tensile behavior of UHPC by the destructive direct tension test (DTT).

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2. Review of Durability of UHPC

Durability of concrete and cementitious composites can be defined as the ability to maintain

its original desired engineering properties without noticeable deterioration for centuries in severe

environment [19]. Since concrete is known as a porous engineering composite with respect to

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moisture and chemical substances penetrating into or out through the pores, its durability is

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greatly influenced by micro and macro structures, which control air, water, and ions permeability

of the material [20]. The main reasons that cause the deterioration of concrete in structures can

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be divided into two categories: physical attacks (freeze-thaw and abrasion actions) and chemical

attacks (sulfate attack and corrosion of steel fiber and rebar) [21]. Some standard methods for

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evaluation of frost and chemical resistances of concrete are commonly used to identify its
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durability performance. ASTM C1202 [22], ASTM C666 [23] and ASTM C672 [24] provide the

standard tests for evaluation of chloride ion permeability resistance, freeze-thaw resistance, and
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scaling resistance, respectively. Reductions of mechanical properties related to concrete, such as

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strength, fracture energy, bond stress, etc., have also been adopted to indirectly screen
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degradation and damage after accelerated conditioning. In addition, scanning electron

microscope (SEM) and X-ray computed tomography (CT) are capable of visually observing
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microcracks and material degradation.

UHPC consists of different fine materials and owns very dense structures and low
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permeability. The low transport and presence of water and ions in UHPC structures in turn
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greatly improves the durability performance, such as chemical and frost resistance. The

permeability of UHPC has been commonly determined in terms of chloride ion penetration, air

penetration and water absorption. Graybeal and Hartmann [25] investigated the rapid chloride

ion penetrability of UHPC according to ASTM C1202 and reported 360 and 40 coulombs at 28

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days for steam and air cured specimens, respectively. Regardless of the curing condition, the

rapid chloride ion permeability was negligible compared to those of normal concrete. Dili and

Santhanam [26] also found that the chloride ion penetration was greater when the UHPC

specimens were heat-cured and the chloride penetration was due to incorporation of fibers in the

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specimens, leading to increased conductance of concrete. UHPC exhibited relatively lower

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coulomb passed values when compared to that of plain one, because steel fibers restrict

formation and growth of shrinkage induced microcracks [27]. Gu et al. [28] observed that the

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chloride concentration at surface (0-5 mm depth) was much higher than that inside of specimens.

Roux et al. [29] also found that the air permeability of UHPC had two orders of magnitude less

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than that of normal concrete due to its very dense microstructure system. Dili and Santhanam [26]
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also compared the water absorption rate of UHPC and high performance concrete (HPC), and

they observed a similar trend of decreasing water absorption with age; however, the percentage
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of water absorption by UHPC was lower compared with that of HPC.

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The presence of chloride ions near reinforcing steel in concrete structures is a major cause of
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corrosion. If the chloride ion concentration exceeds certain threshold value, the passivating layer

on reinforcing steel is destroyed and chloride ions act as a catalyst for corrosion. Hence, it is
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important to investigate corrosion rate for reinforcing rebar in UHPC [30]. An accelerated

corrosion test was usually conducted to determine the corrosion rate of the samples. Ishinaka et
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al. [31] evaluated the rebar corrosion resistance of UHPC and concluded that UHPC exhibited
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high corrosion resistance even at chloride content of 10 kg/m3. Ghafari et al. [32] found that

addition of nano-silica in UHPC mixtures enhanced the corrosion resistance of steel rebar. It is

reasonable since UHPC owns a reduced permeability and porosity. In addition to the corrosion

risk of rebar in concrete, corrosive environmental components can lead to corrosion of steel

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fibers and reduction of concrete properties [33,34]. The corrosion of single fiber is less

measurable since fibers are often inter-connected together in the matrix. Corrosion of steel fibers

is more probable when they are located at shallow surface of normal concrete. However, the

corrosion risk of steel fibers or other types of fibers in UHPC has been rarely studied. Holubová

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et al. [35] observed that UHPC incorporating glass fibers exposed to water for one year did not

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demonstrate any visually corrosion phenomena.

Ice forming due to presence of water in cold weather is another important issue regarding

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longevity of concrete structures. Ahlborn et al. [36] investigated the freeze-thaw durability of

UHPC in accordance with ASTM C666 Procedure B. After 300 freeze-thaw cycles, the relative

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dynamic modulus of elasticity (RDM) were 101.57% and 100.29% for air cured and thermally
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treated specimens, respectively. Graybeal and Hartmann [25] also studied the freezing and

thawing resistance of UHPC according to ASTM C666 Procedure A, and they found that the
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steam-cured specimens showed approximate 3% reduction of dynamic modulus after 300 freeze-
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thaw cycles, while ambient air-cured specimens displayed an increase in the dynamic modulus.
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They explained that the cement hydration with external moisture supply outcomes the frost

damage, resulting in increased dynamic modulus. The closer UHPC reaches its service life, the
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more tendency it would lose some properties when exposed to freeze-thaw cycles. Gu et al. [28]

evaluated the frost resistance of UHPC under extended freeze-thaw actions, and the mass losses
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and relative dynamic modulus of elasticity were approximately 1.3% and 92%, respectively,
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after 800 freeze-thaw cycles. Magureanu et al. [37] concluded that UHPC exhibited better

durability characteristics than plain one. Lee et al. [38] evaluated the bond durability of UHPC in

comparison with normal concrete and non-shrinkage high strength mortar. After 1,000 freeze-

thaw cycles, the compressive strength, steel pull-out strength, and dynamic modulus of UHPC

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deceased by 6%, 5% and 10%, respectively, which were much smaller than those of other

concrete. Lee and Huang [40] found that the bond strength between normal concrete and UHPC

decreased about 20% after 600 freeze-thaw cycles when using UHPC as a repairing material.

The coupled frost and chemical actions have more aggressive effects on concrete service life

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[40-42]. ASTM C 672 [24] was utilized as the protocol to induce accelerated conditioning and

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evaluate combined freeze-thaw and chemical resistance of UHPC. Surface scaling and other

mechanical properties of UHPC after weathering were measured. Bonneau et al. [43] reported a

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cumulative mass loss of 0.3% in RPC after 50 freeze-thaw cycles in 3% NaCl solution.

Vaitkevicius et al. [44] found that the compressive strength and dynamic modulus of elasticity of

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UHPC decreased up to 8.75% and 9.02%, respectively, after 200 freeze-thaw cycles in 5% NaCl
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solution, which was equivalent to approximately 800 freeze-thaw cycles in distilled water. No

visible surface change was revealed in this period. Inclusion of large amount of micro steel fibers
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had negative influence on the salt-scaling resistance [44].

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As demonstrated in aforementioned studies regarding durability of UHPC, it can be

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concluded that UHPC is much more durable than normal and high strength concrete but still

exhibits some degradation characteristics after long-term frost and chemical actions. Traditional
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test methods, such as nondestructive dynamic modulus test, may not be effective in

characterizing the long-term performance of durable UHPC, because degradations in different

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material components and fiber-matrix interface may be less affected on stiffness than strength.
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Therefore, it is significant to evaluate the long-term durability of UHPC in tension under

extended cyclic freezing and thawing actions, when both the stiffness and strength of UHPC as

well as its energy absorption are fully evaluated.

3 Materials and Experimental Program

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3.1 Materials

High packing density of a particle mixture is the key characteristic to achieve a very dense

micro structure of UHPC, and carefully tailoring particle sizes and gradations of all of its

constituents is thus extremely essential [45,46]. UHPC is often composed of Portland cement,

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silica fume, quartz flour, fine quartz sand, high-range water reducing admixture (known as

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superplasticizer), water, steel fiber, etc. [47]. Very high amount of cementitious materials and

fine sands and very low water-to-cementitious materials (w/cm) ratios are used to produce

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UHPC, and high dosage of high-range water reducing admixtures (HRWRA or superplasticizer)

is also considered to achieve sufficient rheological properties. Micro-scale silica fume is

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employed to increase density as a filler between cement and fine sand and improve hydration
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products as well. Coarse aggregate is fully eliminated from UHPC to facilitate the dense

microstructure and improve homogeneity of the material. Steel fibers are responsible to enhance
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tension and bending strength and provide excellent post-cracking ductility instead of brittle
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failure by bridging cracks and resisting crack opening.

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The constituent materials of the UHPC mixture in this study are provided in Table 1, and

they include cement, silica fume, fine sand, steel fibers, high-range water reducing admixture
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(HRWRA) and water. The Portland cement Type I-II with a specific gravity of 3.15 was used to

prepare the UHPC samples, and commercially available silica fume (Rheomac SF 100) provided
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by BASF Construction Chemicals, LLC was used as a partial replacement of cement to improve
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the mechanical properties and durability of UHPC. Local natural sand was provided by the Atlas

Sand & Rock, Pullman, WA. The sand passed through the ASTM No. 30 (0.6 mm) sieve and

over the No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve was washed to remove clay/silt particles and then oven-dried

at 110°C to achieve zero moisture content. Straight smooth steel fibers (NYCON-SF Type I)

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supplied by Nycon Corporation were used to enhance durability and toughness of UHPC. It had

13 mm in length and 0.2 mm in diameter. The physical properties of steel fibers are provided in

Table 2. Glenium 3030 NS, a commercially available polycarboxylate-based HRWRA produced

by BASF Construction Chemicals, LLC was used in the UHPC mixes to achieve desired

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workability.

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Table 1. UHPC mixture proportions

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Material Unit Amount

Type I/II Portland Cement kg/m3 890

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Silica Fume kg/m3 157

kg/m3
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Fine Sand 934

Steel Fibers kg/m3 140

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HRWRA L/m3 57

Water kg/m3 193

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w/cm - 0.18
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Table 2. Physical properties of steel fibers

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Parameter Steel fiber

Fiber Length, mm 13
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Filament Diameter, mm 0.2

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Specific Gravity 7.8

Aspect Ratio 65

Tensile strength, MPa 2,660

Flexural strength, GPa 203

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3.2 Specimen preparation

It is not only good to have the aforementioned constituent materials in UHPC mix but also

to have them mixed together properly and thoroughly for the expected results associated with a

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high strength concrete like UHPC to be achieved. Therefore, mixing is to maintain uniformity of

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these constituents in the UHPC mix. A portable mixer with a volume of 37.85 L was used to mix

constituents to produce specimens of UHPC. The entire mixing time was relatively longer than

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that for conventional concrete due to elimination of coarse aggregate and use of low w/cm ratios.

Mixing time also depended on the power of mixer. The mixing time of the considered portable

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laboratory mixer in this study ranged from 16–20 minutes and consisted of four stages: (1) mix
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the dry constituents 2–3 minutes, (2) add 75% of the water and mix 4–5 minutes, (3) add the

HRWRA and the remaining 25% of water and mix 2 minutes, and (4) add the steel fibers and
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continue mixing 8–10 minutes till thoroughly combined.

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As soon as the completion of mixing, the fresh UHPC was poured into oiled wooden molds
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to cast specimens in accordance with ASTM C192 [48]. Specimens were externally vibrated for

approximately 5–10 seconds using a vibrating table. The amount of vibration time depended on
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the consistency of the mix. After approximately 24 hours, specimens were demolded and curing

period begins. Due to very low water content of UHPC, it was extremely critical to prevent loss
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of internal water due to evaporation and keep specimens in a high moisture environment
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immediately after casting. The curing of UHPC specimens consisted of two phases: initial curing

after casting and standard curing prior to testing. All specimens were moved to a vibration-free

fog room with temperature 23.0 ± 2.0 °C from the time of casting. After 24 ± 4 hours from

casting, they were demolded and then soaked in lime-saturated water storage tanks with

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temperature 23.0 ± 2.0 °C until testing age. It should be mentioned that the mixing, casting and

curing processes all follow the same condition to ensure equivalent covering condition.

3.3 Testing program

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The experimental testing program was designed to investigate effect of rapid freezing and

thawing actions on the tensile behavior of UHPC. Apart from standard test protocol following

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ASTM C215, smart aggregates and direct tension test (DTT) were proposed to evaluate frost

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resistance of UHPC. The UHPC prismatic and dogbone specimens were subjected to extended

accelerated freeze-thaw conditioning up to 1,500 cycles. In parallel, the dynamic and wave

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moduli of elasticity of prismatic samples at different defined freeze-thaw cycles were
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accordingly obtained. The DTT [17] was accordingly conducted on dogbone specimens with

certain freeze-thaw cycles to characterize durability of the specimens in terms of tensile strength
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and strain hardening. For all tests, at least three replicates were performed.
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3.3.1 Rapid freeze and thaw test

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Both prismatic and dogbone samples were conditioned using the rapid freeze and thaw test

in accordance with ASTM C666 Procedure A [23], which was designed to evaluate potential
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frost resistance of concrete in cold climates. The temperature range of -18 to 4 °C was

considered in the freeze and thaw cycles, and the cycle frequency was about 6 cycles per day.
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Three prismatic samples were conditioned in the chamber as the “conditioned group”, and
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another three were soaked in water as the “control group”.

3.3.2 Dynamic modulus test

The dynamic modulus of elasticity of UHPC prismatic samples was evaluated using the

transverse frequency test at every 30 cycles till 300 cycles and then every 300 cycles till 1,500

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cycles. The dynamic modulus test is an impact test method that measures the transverse

frequency using either an accelerometer or a piezoelectric sensor attached to one end of the

concrete prism. The relative dynamic modulus is then computed using the fundamental

transverse frequencies at 0 cycle and after a certain number of freeze-thaw cycles. The dynamic

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modulus of elasticity values of the UHPC prismatic samples at different cycles (up to 1,500

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freeze-thaw cycles) are compiled and compared. A decrease of the dynamic modulus of elasticity

values over accelerated freeze-thaw cyclic conditioning indicates degradation of the material. It

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is not recommended [23] that a sample continue being tested after its relative dynamic modulus

of elasticity has fallen below 60%.

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3.3.3 Wave modulus test with smart aggregates

The ceramic piezoelectric (so-called PZT - lead zirconate titanate) disk was cast with a
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cement and sand mix to form a cementing piezoelectric module (known as smart aggregate),

whose size and shape were similar to those of coarse aggregate, but which had functionality of
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sensors and actuators. Embedded smart aggregates were capable of in-situ exciting and receiving
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of elastic waves, from which the elastic properties, such as the wave modulus of elasticity based

on wave propagation, can be measured at any given conditioning cycles for in situ monitoring
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long-term performance as well as strength gain of hardened concrete [49]. The fabrication
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process of smart aggregates is depicted in Fig. 2, and the process involves: (1) Surfaces of PZT
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discs with dimensions of 10 by 0.4 mm are first coated with a thin epoxy layer for waterproofing;

(2) PZT discs are encased in fresh cement mortar for self-protection; and (3) smart aggregates

are cast into concrete beams to act as actuator and sensor. More detailed procedures of the

development and material property assessment technique using embedded smart aggregates can

be found in the previous report by the authors [50]. Prismatic UHPC samples considered in the

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dynamic modulus test were also encased with two embedded smart aggregates perpendicular to

the prism longitudinal direction: one as the actuator (transmitter) and the other as the sensor

(receiver) (Fig. 3). The adjacent distance between two embedded smart aggregates was kept as

350 mm approximately.

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Fig. 2. Fabrication process of smart aggregate

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Fig. 3. UPHC specimen with embedded smart aggregates

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In order to detect damage in UHPC due to freeze and thaw actions, a 3.5-cycle 100 kHz sine
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wave package was excited through the smart aggregate acting as actuator and windowed by a

Hanning window, and the response signal was captured by the other smart aggregate serving as
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sensor (Fig. 4a). Typical input and output wave signals are shown in Fig. 4b. Both signals were
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exported as .txt files through a software program, Agilent IntuiLink Data Capture. The time of

flight (TOF) of the wave package can be easily identified by the time interval between the peaks

of the input signal and the first package of the output signal. The wave modulus of elasticity

(Ewave) of UHPC samples can be thus calculated from the measured TOF and the known

Poisson’s ratio and density of UHPC prism, as shown in Eq. (1).

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=2 1+ 1

where ρ and υ are the density and Poisson’s ratio of UHPC, respectively, and l is the distance

between two embedded smart aggregates (i.e., the actuator and sensor).

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(a) (b)

Fig. 4. Wave moduls experiment by embedded smart aggregates: (a) Wave modulus test setup,
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and (b) Typical input and output signals from test

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3.3.4 Direct tension test

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An illustration of specific specimen geometry, measuring system and test setup used in the

proposed direct tension test (DTT) [17] is shown in Fig. 5. Based on the numerical finite element
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analysis and several rounds of trial-and-error experimental tests of dogbone-shaped DTT

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specimens, a suitable DTT specimen [17] was adopted for characterizing the tensile behavior of

UHPC under different freeze and thaw cyclic actions. The DTT specimen has dimensions of 450

mm in length, 50 mm in thickness, 75 mm in width at the ends and with the middle gauge

measurement length of 150 mm and the cross section of 50 × 50 mm. The concave curved cross-

sectional segment has a length of 43 mm with a curvature radius of 150 mm. A 16 mm diameter

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threaded rod is embedded at each end of specimen with 100 mm development length; two

reasons of using threaded rod instead of round rod are: (1) to increase the bond strength to avoid

pull-out of rod, and (2) to easily grip to the testing machine with nuts. Two essential concerns

should be aware of during the DTT: the tensile failure must occur in the middle portion of

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specimens to record the complete stress-strain relationship, and no bond failures occur on steel

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rods at all times. Otherwise, the determined tensile strength and measured elongation are not

accurate and acceptable. In our previous study [17], the illustrated failure patterns of fractured

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DTT samples have been proven that the DTT specimen design is competent to capture the

complete tensile stress-strain responses.

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During the testing setup, the central axis of the specimen should be coincided with the
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center line of the machine to ensure evenly distributed tensile stress along with the gauge length

and avoid forming of any bending stresses. All direct tension tests of UHPC specimens are
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performed using an MTS machine under a quasi-static load displacement rate of 0.25 mm/min.
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The tensile load is calculated from the load cell at the top of clutch system. Two opposite linear
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variable differential transformers (LVDTs) with a total of 150 mm gauge length are used to

measure the elongation of middle portion, and the corresponding tensile elongation displacement
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history is electronically recorded by the computer. The recorded load and displacement are later

used to reduce the stress and strain histories, respectively.

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75mm 50mm

50mm

107mm 100mm

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43mm

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50mm 150mm 150mm
450mm

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43mm

107mm 100mm

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50mm

75mm 50mm

Fig. 5. Dimension of dogbone-shaped specimen and test setup in DTT of UHPC

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To investigate effect of freeze-thaw actions on the tensile behavior of UHPC, the direct
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tension tests (DTT) were conducted on UHPC dogbone-shaped specimens at 0, 300, 600, 900,
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1,200, and 1,500 conditioning cycles. Based on the stress versus strain response curves, several

material parameters obtained from DTT of UHPC are compared regarding the number of freeze-
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thaw cycles in this study: (1) the first cracking tensile strength (σcc); (2) the post cracking tensile
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strength (σpc); (3) the first cracking tensile strain (εcc); (4) the tensile strain capacity at post
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cracking (εpc); (5) the tangent modulus of elasticity (Ecc), which is the ratio of the first cracking

tensile strength (σcc) and the corresponding tensile strain (εcc) and describes the behavior of

UHPC in the elastic region; (6) the pre-crack energy absorption (Gp), which is defined as the area

within the stress-strain curve till the peak value of tensile stress; and (7) the total energy

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absorption (Gt), which is defined as the whole area within the stress-strain curve till the fiber

pull-out.

4 Test results and analysis

4.1 Dynamic and wave moduli of elasticity

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The vibration-based dynamic modulus of elasticity (Edyn) test using an impact hammer and

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the wave propagation-based wave modulus of elasticity (Ewave) test using embedded smart

aggregates were first simultaneously conducted on the control groups of UHPC prisms during

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the curing period up to 180 days. The dynamic and wave moduli of elasticity with respect to the

curing age are comparatively illustrated in Fig. 6. As shown in Fig. 6, the modulus of elasticity

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values obtained from all the test methods gradually increase with the increase of curing time,
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indicating that the UHPC samples gradually gain stiffness and strength over time. Relatively

larger variations in the wave modulus of elasticity values were observed, and they might be
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caused by inaccurate placement and orientation of smart aggregates during the specimen
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preparation. The modulus of elasticity values of the material is influenced by the loading rate.
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The dynamic modulus was measured based on low frequency range of 1~10 kHz, while the wave

modulus was evaluated using wave propagation under high frequency (e.g., 100 kHz in this
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study). Thus, the testing results in Fig. 6 coincide with this relationship between magnitude of

elastic modulus and load rate, and the wave modulus is slightly higher than the dynamic one. The
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consistency of test results between the dynamic modulus-based and wave propagation-based
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tests demonstrates that the smart aggregate technique is capable of monitoring the change of

material properties. More importantly, the wave propagation-based material property

measurement technique with embedded smart aggregates has the potential for in situ condition

assessment. The advantage is that smart aggregates can be placed in structures at any desirable

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locations with a known distance. As demonstrated in ASTM C215, the determination of resonant

frequency associated with impact test is affected by the locations of impact and accelerometer,

the geometry of concrete specimen, the support condition and the external vibration, which make

the dynamic modulus measurement unsuitable for real structures.

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Fig. 6. Development of both the dynamic and wave moduli of elasticity of UHPC in wet curing
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Both the vibration-based dynamic modulus of elasticity and the wave propagation-based

wave modulus of elasticity tests were also simultaneously conducted on the conditioned UHPC
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prisms up to 1,500 freeze-thaw cycles. The variances of the average dynamic and wave moduli
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of elasticity with respect to the conditioning cycles are comparatively illustrated in Fig. 7a. As
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shown in Fig. 7a, both the dynamic and wave modulus values increase instead of decreasing at

early 600 cycles, indicating that UHPC exhibits excellent frost resistance in this period for rapid

freezing and thawing. Similar findings were reported in other studies [25, 51]. As further

evidenced in Fig. 7b, the maximum increased ratios of dynamic modulus and wave modulus

values at 600 conditioning cycles from the ones of 0 cycle are 3.5% and 6.9%, respectively. In

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comparison, the dynamic modulus and wave modulus values in the control groups of

unconditioned samples (without subjecting to rapid freezing and thawing but with the same

period of curing time) increase 13.9% and 16.1%, respectively from the ones of 0 cycle. Before

reaching 600 freeze-thaw conditioning cycles, the increases in the dynamic and wave modulus

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values indicate that the ongoing cement hydration outpaces the frost damage. Similar observation

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and explanation were given by Graybeal [1]. Since large amount of cement was used for

producing UHPC, unhydrated cement would continue to react with water throughout the freeze-

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thaw test. After 600 freeze-thaw cycles, both the dynamic and wave modulus values begin to

decrease with continued conditioning actions. At 1,500 cycles, the reductions of dynamic

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modulus and wave modulus from the one of 0 cycles are 6.0% and 5.0%, respectively. Meantime,
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the dynamic modulus and wave modulus values in the control groups of unconditioned samples

increase 15.9% and 22.1%, respectively, from the ones of 0 cycles. The decreases of dynamic
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modulus and wave modulus values after 600 conditioned cycles may suggest that the
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accumulated frost damage outpaces ongoing cement hydration. Both the wave modulus values
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and the corresponding increasing/decreasing ratios are larger than those of dynamic modulus,

indicating that the wave propagation-based method is relatively sensitive in examining rapid
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freezing and thawing effect when comparing to the vibration-based method.

To illustrate the accumulated frost damage effect, the dynamic and wave modulus ratios
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between the conditioned (subjecting to rapid freezing and thawing actions) and unconditioned
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(without subjecting to rapid freezing and thawing but with the same period of curing time)

samples are shown in Fig. 7c. As shown in Fig. 7c, these ratios decrease from the beginning of

rapid freezing and thawing actions and are less than 1.0, indicating that the frost damage is

accumulated over the rapid freezing and thawing cycles. Accordingly, the decreased dynamic

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modulus ratios of the evaluated UHPC are 90.0% and 80.8% at 600 and 1,500 cycles,

respectively; while the decreased wave modulus ratios are 93.1% and 78.9% at 600 and 1,500

cycles, respectively. As shown in Fig. 7c, by comparing the dynamic and wave modulus ratios of

conditioned versus unconditioned samples of the same curing period, the accumulated frost

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damage effect of rapid freezing and thawing actions on the UHPC is manifest.

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(a) Dynamic and wave moduli of elasticity

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(b) Relative dynamic and wave moduli of elasticity (in comparison with the ones at 0 freeze-

thaw cycle)

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(c) Dynamic and wave modulus of elasticity ratios of conditioned versus unconditioned
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Fig. 7. Modulus of elasticity with respect to freeze-thaw cycles

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The physical appearances of UHPC prisms after certain freeze-thaw cycles are illustrated in
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Fig. 8. A few tiny scaling spots were observed on the sample surfaces at 600 cycles due to the

dense microstructure of UHPC; thus, the effect of surface scaling is negligible prior to that
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period. After 600 cycles, surface scaling in UHPC became more obvious with increasing freeze-

thaw actions. Small amount of mass reduction was mainly observed due to the scaling of paste
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and mortar at the bottom surfaces and ends of beams. Several small pieces of mortar at the
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bottom surfaces and edges were spalled after 1,500 cycles, resulting in steel fibers exposed to

water and air directly.

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00 cycles

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600 cycles

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1500 cycles

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(a) Side views of the prism UHPC samples

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1500 cycles
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(b) Bottom views of the prism UHPC samples at 1,500 cycles

Fig. 8. Surface scaling of UHPC

4.3 Tensile stress-strain curves and parameters

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Based on the direct tension tests (DTT), the tensile stress-strain responses of UHPC at 0,

600, and 1,500 cycles and their respective average curves are depicted in Fig. 9. Due to the

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intrinsic randomness and complexity of cementitious materials, there are certain differences

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among three experimental curves obtained from three different DTT specimens for each series.

The average stress-strain curve that gives the integral trend of the experimental curves is

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calculated through a statistical analysis. Four basic tensile material parameters extracted at the
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points of first cracking and post cracking are summarized in Table 3. In addition, based on the

partial and completed stress-strain curves, three other tensile material parameters are considered
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for comparisons, i.e., the tangent modulus of elasticity, pre-crack energy absorption and total

energy absorption, as demonstrated in Table 4. The unit of energy absorption, kJ/m3,

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characterizes the energy dissipated per volume.

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The effect of freeze and thaw actions on the tensile responses of DTT specimens of UHPC

is directly observed from the stress-strain curves in Fig. 9d. With the increasing number of
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freeze-thaw cycles, the distinct reductions are demonstrated in elastic, strain hardening and
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softening regions. Among them, the strain softening portion shrinks the most with respect to
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rapid freezing and thawing, resulting in great decreasing of fracture energy after post cracking.

Although each portion of curves displays some decrease after hundreds of cycles, similar

inherent trends are still associated with steel fiber-reinforced UHPC, as illustrated in Fig. 1.

Strong strain hardening response is shown after the first crack initiates because of the enhanced

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interfacial bond between cement matrix and steel fibers. The peak stress usually occurs near the

tensile strain of 0.2%, indicating that UHPC has the comparable strain capacity with steel fibers.

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(a) 0 F/T cycles (benchmark)
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(b) 600 F/T cycles

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(c) 1,500 F/T cycles
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(d) All series

Fig. 9. Tensile responses of UHPC under different freeze-thaw cycles

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Table 3. Basic tensile parameters for comparison

ID , µε , µε , MPa , MPa , µε , µε , MPa , MPa

0 cycles-1 218 6.13 1578 6.77

0 cycles-2 242 224 6.88 6.51 2144 1914 7.14 7.03

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0 cycles-3 213 6.51 2101 7.16

300 cycles-1 169 5.45 1398 6.63

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300 cycles-2 208 200 5.48 5.60 2337 1859 7.38 7.24

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300 cycles-3 223 5.88 1843 7.71

600 cycles-1 189 6.05 2379 7.13

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600 cycles-2 217 190 5.72 5.69 2076 1906 6.62 6.87
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600 cycles-3 164 5.30 1364 6.87

900 cycles-1 218 4.83 1853 6.53

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900 cycles-2 157 196 5.22 5.00 1615 1783 7.03 6.77

900 cycles-3 213 4.93 1883 6.73

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1200 cycles-1 151 5.27 1553 6.62

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1200 cycles-2 171 167 4.77 4.95 1501 1392 6.41 6.42

1200 cycles-3 179 4.81 1120 6.23

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1500 cycles-1 179 4.63 1305 6.24

1500 cycles-2 205 192 4.90 4.84 1399 1345 6.18 6.21
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1500 cycles-3 192 4.99 1329 6.22

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Table 4. Tensile material parameters for comparison

ID , GPa , GPa , kJ/m3 , kJ/m3 , kJ/m3 , kJ/m3

0 cycles-1 31.7 10.2 124.4

0 cycles-2 28.6 30.2 14.4 12.9 133.1 127.5

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0 cycles-3 30.4 14.1 125.0

32.6 8.1 107.8

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300 cycles-1

300 cycles-2 32.4 31.3 15.4 12.1 115.9 115.4

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300 cycles-3 29.0 12.6 122.3

600 cycles-1 31.3 15.4 104.6

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600 cycles-2 29.2 31.1 12.3 11.7 96.3 105.0
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600 cycles-3 32.7 7.5 114.0

900 cycles-1 31.3 10.9 91.2

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900 cycles-2 30.1 30.7 10.3 8.8 82.3 88.4

900 cycles-3 30.8 5.1 91.8

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1200 cycles-1 32.5 9.0 85.2

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1200 cycles-2 27.7 29.2 8.6 7.9 74.1 80.3

1200 cycles-3 27.4 6.2 81.6

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1500 cycles-1 29.0 7.1 79.9

1500 cycles-2 26.9 28.8 7.8 7.4 79.6 77.7

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1500 cycles-3 30.5 7.1 73.4

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4.4 Effect of freeze and thaw on tensile material parameters

Based on the tensile material parameters (e.g., strength, strain capacity, modulus of

elasticity, and energy absorption) extracted from the stress versus strain curves, as summarized

in Tables 3 and 4, the influence of rapid freezing and thawing actions on these parameters of

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UHPC are accordingly analyzed. The effect of rapid frost actions on the tensile strength of

UHPC is illustrated in Fig. 10a. An increase of freeze-thaw cycles from 0 to 1,500 results in a

reduction of first cracking tensile strength from 6.51 to 4.84 MPa. In comparison, the peak

tensile strength slightly increases from 7.03 to 7.24 MPa after 300 cycles, but it then keeps

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decreasing with continued conditioning cycles, leading to a reduced peak tensile strength of 6.21

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MPa after 1,500 cycles. The relationship between the tensile strain capacity and freeze-thaw

cycles is depicted in Fig. 10b. With increasing freeze-thaw cycles, the tensile strain at the first

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cracking slowly decreases from 222 µε at 0 cycle to 192 µε at 1,500 cycles. However, due to

large scatter of the testing data, they are considered as very close at different cycles. The

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reduction trend of the tensile strain at post cracking is more drastic than those at first cracking,
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that is, from 1,914 µε at 0 cycle to 1,345 µε at 1,500 cycles. It can be seen that the high cycle of

rapid freezing and thawing actions significantly affects the tensile ductility of UHPC. The
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tangent modulus of elasticity and dynamic modulus of elasticity with respect to the number of
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cycles are shown in Fig. 10c. Similar trends are observed as in the dynamic modulus test, and
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after 300~600 cycles the tangent modulus of elasticity begins to decrease with the number of

cycles. At 1,500 cycles, the tangent modulus of elasticity decreases about 4.8%, which is slightly
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smaller than the percentage reductions of dynamic modulus and wave modulus values. As shown

in Fig. 10d, both the pre-peak energy absorption and total energy absorption obviously decrease
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with the increase of conditioning cycles. An increasing number of conditioning cycles from 0 to
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1,500 results in a decrease of pre-crack energy absorption from 12.9 to 7.4 kJ/m3, as well as a

decrease of total energy absorption from 127.5 to 77.7 kJ/m3. The energy dissipated prior to post

cracking is only about 10~15% of the total energy absorption, and the remaining 85~90% energy

is dissipated during the steel fiber pull-out. Increasing trend at early conditioning cycles

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displayed in both the tensile strength and elastic modulus are not found with energy absorption.

It is explained that the energy absorption is associated with the completed tensile response, while

the tensile strength and modulus are only related to single point and linear elastic portion of

stress-strain curve, respectively. As aforementioned, the strain softening portion of curves

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shrinks more than the elastic and strain hardening portions, but it contributes approximately 90%

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of energy absorption.

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(a) Tensile strength

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(b) Tensile strain

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(c) Tangent modulus of elasticity and dynamic modulus
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(d) Energy absorption

Fig. 10. Effect of freeze-thaw on the tensile properties of UHPC

5 Discussion

Some comparisons of these tensile parameters of all testing series are shown in Fig. 11. As

shown in Fig. 11a, the first cracking tensile strength is approximately 80~90% of the post

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cracking tensile strength, and this ratio is found to be larger than those reinforced with hooked or

twisted steel fibers [52], i.e., more moderate strain hardening was found when using short

straight and randomly distributed steel fibers for UHPC. It can be seen from Fig. 11b that the

post cracking tensile strain is more than ten times of that at first cracking strain due to its

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superior ductile performance. As demonstrated in Fig. 11c, the tangent modulus of elasticity is

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lower than the initial modulus of elasticity as expected. From the linear regression, the tangent

modulus of elasticity is 80.2% and 76.0% of dynamic modulus and wave modulus, respectively.

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The dissipated energy prior to post cracking is just about 10.3% of the total dissipated energy,

which implies that majority of energy is absorbed during the fiber pull-out phase and UHPC

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exhibits excellent energy absorption capacity when subjected to dynamic or seismic loadings.
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(a) First cracking versus peak cracking tensile strength

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(b) First cracking versus post cracking tensile strain
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(c) Tangent modulus of elaticity versus dynamic and wave moduli of elasticity
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(d) Dissipated energy density prior to post cracking versus total absorbed energy density
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Fig. 11. Comparisons of tensile material parameters

The durability factor of concrete is an important parameter for material design to ensure its
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long-term life service. According to ASTM C666, the durability factor refers to the relative
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dynamic modulus of elasticity at 300 cycles or the specified number of cycles that the freeze-
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thaw exposure is terminated. In this study, in comparison with relative dynamic modulus and

wave modulus, the relative tensile strength and total energy absorption are also considered to
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evaluate the freeze-thaw resistance of UHPC. The durability factors of UHPC at 300, 900 and

1,500 cycles as determined from two elastic modulus tests and DTT are shown in Fig. 12. By
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comparing the durability factors from three test approaches, the durability factors from the DTT
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are much smaller than those based on the elastic modulus tests (see Fig. 12). At 300 freeze-thaw

cycles, the energy absorption decreases 9.5%, while the other three characteristics increase. At

1,500 freeze-thaw cycles, the relative energy absorption is 60.9%, which is close to the ASTM

limit (i.e., 60% after 300 freeze-thaw cycles), while the durability factors of other three

characteristics increase ranging from 88.5 to 95%. The energy properties from the DTT are thus

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more sensitive than the elastic dynamic and wave moduli in screening material deterioration

when subjected to rapidly repeated freezing and thawing actions as well as other types of

accumulative damage and manifesting degradation and aging effect of materials. More

importantly, the dissipated energy is associated with the destructive test of fully-fractured cross

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section area of the DTT specimens, and it thus better represents damage or degradation taking

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place both inside and near surface of the studied material.

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Fig. 12. Comparisons of durability factors

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Conclusions
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The present experimental study specifically investigates the rapid freeze-thaw resistance of
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UHPC in cold regions, and its direct tensile behavior characterized by the direct tension test

(DTT) is emphasized. The dynamic modulus and wave modulus of elasticity of UHPC are

measured on the prismatic specimens at specific cycles using the nondestructive standard impact

test and self-designed “smart aggregate” technology, respectively. The tensile responses of

UHPC under different freeze-thaw cycles are obtained using the destructive DTT based on a

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well-designed dogbone specimens. The influence of accelerated conditioning cycles is evaluated

in terms of dynamic modulus, wave modulus, and tensile material parameters (i.e., tangent

modulus, tensile strength, tensile strain capacity, and energy absorption capacity), which are

extracted from the test data. The following observations and conclusions are drawn.

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(1) Very small mass loss from UHPC after 1,500 cycles is visually observed as the scaling

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of cement mortar at the bottom surfaces and edges. No obvious mass loss is observed at early

600 cycles.

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(2) Rapid freezing and thawing actions have obvious influences on the tensile responses of

UHPC. The stress-strain curve shows distinct descending with the increasing freeze-thaw cycles,

particularly in the strain softening region.

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(3) Among the measured material parameters, the moduli of elasticity (including dynamic

modulus, wave modulus, and tangent modulus of elasticity) and tensile strength show slight
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increasing trends at early 300~600 cycles and then keep decreasing up to 1,500 cycles. In
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comparison, the tensile strain capacity and energy absorption capacity always exhibit decreasing
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trends with the increase of conditioning cycles.

(4) The modulus of elasticity properties (i.e., tangent modulus, dynamic modulus and wave
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modulus) determined from the respective direct tension, hammer impact and wave propagation

tests have good linear correlations. Among them, the wave modulus is the highest, followed by
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the dynamic modulus and tangent modulus of elasticity.

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(5) The decreasing rates or relative ratios are quite different in the modulus of elasticity

values and energy absorption capacities. The relative decreasing ratios of energy absorptions are

much larger than those of the modulus of elasticity values. In other words, the durability factors

determined from the relative energy absorption are much smaller than those from the relative

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modulus of elasticity, indicating that the energy-based evaluation approach from the DTT

method is more sensitive than the dynamic or wave modulus-based approach to screen material

deterioration over time and capture accumulative material damage subjected to rapidly repeated

freezing and thawing actions.

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In summary, as evidenced by the extensive tests in this study, UHPC is characterized as a

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very durable cementitious material, but it not inherently unconquerable. Extended freezing and

thawing actions still lead to deterioration of the material, regarding the modulus of elasticity,

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tensile strength, energy absorption, etc. The direct tension test method considered in this study

can be used to effectively characterize the long-term performance of UHPC in tension under cold

weather conditions.
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Acknowledges
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This research work was financially supported by the Washington State Department of

Transportation (WSDOT) (under the contract number: Agreement T1462, Task 6) and the Center
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for Environmentally Sustainable Transportation in Cold Climates (CESTiCC)/US Department of

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Transportation (CESTiCC Project No.: UAF 14-0103).

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