Structures Congress 2012 © ASCE 2012 1045

Earthquake and Tsunami Damage to Steel Structures

Mitsumasa Midorikawa1 and Taichiro Okazaki2
1
Faculty and Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan;
email: midorim@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
2
Faculty and Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, Japan;
email: tokazaki@eng.hokudai.ac.jp
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ABSTRACT

The 2011 Tohoku-Chiho Taiheiyo-Oki Earthquake (2011 Tohoku earthquake for short)
caused widespread damage to steel building structures. The Steel Committee of the Architectural
Institute of Japan (AIJ) conducted earthquake damage reconnaissance over cities where severe
ground shaking was recorded. In general, steel office and industrial buildings exhibited excellent
seismic performance. Buildings that used older cladding installation methods sustained damage
to their claddings even if their structural performance was excellent. Damage to a few braced
frames offer valuable insight into gusset plate connection design. It is widely recognized that a
devastating feature of the Tohoku earthquake is the vast damage over the north-east coast of
Japan caused by tsunami. This tsunami claimed nearly 20,000 lives. This coast is a rich fishing
area and hence housed many fishing ports and facilities among other major buildings. At the port
town of Onagawa, where the tsunami reached an extreme severity and height of 15 meters, a
three-story steel building fell sideways after its piles failed. While the majority of steel buildings
stood upright after the tsunami subsided, these buildings sustained heavy damage to its external
and internal finishes. This paper summarizes findings made by the authors and their AIJ
colleagues.

INTRODUCTION

Following the 2011 Tohoku earthquake and tsunami, which occurred at 2:46 PM on
March 11, the Steel Committee of the Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ) conducted
earthquake damage reconnaissance over the prefectures of Miyagi and Fukushima. Tsunami
damage reconnaissance was conducted along the coastlines of the prefectures of Miyagi,
Fukushima, and Iwate. Figure 1 shows the cities and areas visited by the reconnaissance teams.
A total of nine trips were made between April 29 and June 5 by a number of structural engineers
acting as delegates of AIJ. The Tohoku regional branch of AIJ generously hosted and assisted the
reconnaissance activity during a difficult time. This paper summarizes findings made by the
authors and their colleagues of the AIJ Steel Committee. A more detailed account of the
reconnaissance is described in Section 6.5 of the AIJ report (AIJ 2011). AIJ also plans to publish
an English version of this report.
The observed damage to steel buildings are categorized into damage caused by ground
motions and damage caused by tsunami. Severe ground motion caused damage to beam-to-
column connections, buckling of diagonal braces, cracking of concrete overlaying the column
base, yielding and fracture of anchor bolts, which are the same modes of damage observed from
past earthquakes. Severe nonstructural damage occurred to ceilings and claddings of structures
with large open areas, such as gymnasiums and factories. Widespread damage was observed in

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Figure 1 Areas visited by the AIJ Steel Committee reconnaissance teams: (a) larger area
view; and (b) enlarged view of the coastline attacked by tsunami. (Images
produced using http://maps.google.co.jp/).

external finishes composed of mortar over light-gauge metal lath. The damage caused by tsunami
was devastating. The coast attacked by tsunami is a rich fishing area that housed many fishing
ports. Major fish processing facilities and buildings were constructed close to the shoreline, and
many of these structures were constructed with structural steel. In the most extreme cases,
buildings were displaced from their original location and completely destroyed. In other cases,
fracture of connections and members caused the building to tilt or collapse. In buildings whose
claddings were completely washed away by tsunami, structural damage was limited. The extent
of tsunami damage varied substantially depending on the locality of tsunami attack. In the
following, the observations are described in further detail using photo examples.

DAMAGE CAUSED BY GROUND SHAKING

The 2011 Tohoku earthquake caused severe ground motion over a wide area stretching
300 kilometers (200 miles) along the north-east coast of Japan. The area included the prefectures
of Iwate, Miyagi, Fukushima, and Ibaraki, which are located parallel to the earthquake fault.
Earthquake damage reconnaissance was conducted in the cities of Sendai, Fukushima, Iwaki,
Koriyama, and Sukagawa (see Figure 1(a)).

Classic Damage
The ground motion caused damage to many low- to mid-rise buildings. Judging from the

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Figure 2 General damage: (a) yielding of an older built-up column (Koriyama); (b) Local
buckling in square-HSS brace (Aoba, Sendai); (c) elongation of anchor bolts in
an exposed base plate (Miyagino, Sendai); (d) fracture of anchor bolts, spalling
of concrete covering a column base (Miyagino, Sendai); (e) collapse of sky
bridges (Koriyama); and (f) collapse of shear tab in a parking ramp (Rifu).

types of members and framing system, the majority of damaged buildings were constructed in an
older era preceding the major change in the Building Standard Law in 1981. Figure 2 shows
examples of typically observed damage. Many of the damaged buildings employed built-up HSS
(hollow structural steel) columns composed of a light W-shape and a pair of cover plates. Figure
2(a) shows yielding in such older built-up column. These column sections were commonly used
before cold-formed HSS sections became available. Figure 2(b) shows local buckling formed at
the plastic hinge location of an HSS brace. Notable examples of braced frame damage are
described in the next section. Figure 2(c) shows a column base connection where the anchor
bolts had elongated after yielding, while Figure 2(d) shows severe damage in a column base
connection where the anchor bolts fractured and the reinforced concrete covering the steel
column had spallen off. A variety of column base damage was observed in a number of buildings.
Figure 2(e) shows a case where sky bridges that connected adjacent buildings had collapsed.
Figure 2(f) shows a failed beam-to-column shear tab connection in a parking ramp.

Braced Frames
Figure 3 shows a steel office building which was an 8-span braced frame in the NS-
direction and a single-span moment frame in the EW-direction. The external wall cladding had
completely fallen off from the north and west sides (see Figure 3(a)), while the south and east
walls survived. Clear evidence of soil deformation was noted along the west end of the building.
This building was located in an area that is known to have poor soil conditions. Figure 3(b)
shows failure of a bracing connection due to gusset plate fracture. Figure 3(c) shows severe
distortion of an X-brace system that comprised double-angle sections.
Figure 4 shows a parking ramp that experienced severe damage to its bracing connections.

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Figure 3 Braced frame building (Miyagino, Sendai): (a) external cladding fell off from
west side; (b) fracture of gusset plate; and (c) bending of middle gusset plate in
an X-brace.

Figure 4 Braced frame parking ramp (Wakabayashi, Sendai): (a) View over the height;
(b) plastic hinge formed in beam due to brace force unbalance; (c) fractured
gusset plates; (d) close view of a fracture gusset plate; and (e) cracking of
asphalt cover a column base.

The ramp was a two-story, chevron braced frame with 7 spans in the NS-direction and 9 spans in
the EW-direction. As indicated in Figure 4(a), the majority of its braces failed at the connection
to the beam, and the failure occurred in a common pattern. Figure 4(b) shows a beam sagging in
the middle after a plastic hinge formed due to force unbalance between the tension and
compression brace. Figures 4(c) and (d) shows a closer view of fractured gusset plates. The
common failure pattern indicated that the gusset plate fracture was caused by (i) out-of-plane
eccentricity in the connection; (ii) stress concentration between the tube-to-gusset weld and
nearest bolt line, and (iii) the lack of consideration for a fold line. It is suspected that the bending
deformation caused by eccentricity was confined in a very small segment of the gusset plate. The
location of stress concentration coincided with the region of concentrated bending. Figure 4(e)
shows a column base where two braces frame in from different framing directions. Extensive

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cracking is noted in the asphalt covering this column base.

Nonstructural Damage
Extensive damage was observed in dry-construction elements such as ceilings composed
of mortar-over-metal lath and ALC-panel cladding. Non-structural damage was observed in
buildings of all construction ages, and even in building that showed little or no evidence of
structural damage. Extensive damage was observed in older-type external finishes that place
mortar. Figure 5 shows examples where the ceiling fell over a large floor area.
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Figure 5 Ceiling damage: (a) fallen ceiling grid and boards (Fukushima); (b) sprinkler
ducts exposed after ceiling fell (Aoba, Sendai); and (c) glasses broken after
impact with ceiling (same building as b).

Figure 6 Cladding damage: (a) structural framing exposed after ALC panels fell off
(Miyagino, Sendai); (b) fallen ALC panels (same building as a); (c) ALC panels
fell off (Miyagino, Sendai); (d) fallen metal cladding (Ishinomaki);(e) fallen lath-
and-mortar cladding (Miyagino, Sendai); and (f) damaged lath-and-mortar
cladding (Miyagino, Sendai).

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Figure 6 shows damage to external wall claddings. In Japan, Autoclaved Lightweight

Concrete (ALC, known as Autoclaved Aerated Concrete or AAC in the US) panels is the
material of choice for non-load bearing, external cladding for steel structures. Figure 6(a) shows
a steel moment frame building that shows no sign of structural damage, but whose ALC panels
were extensively damaged. Figure 6(b) shows the ALC panels. It is not clear whether these
panels fell by earthquake effects or they were removed after the earthquake. Figure 6(c) is an
example where the ALC panels fell off from a steel building that shows little sign of structural
damage. The fallen ALC panels destroyed the roof of an adjacent factory. Figures 6(d) to (f)
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show damage to older steel buildings that use timber lath or corrugated metal coated with mortar
for their external finish.

DAMAGE CAUSED BY TSUNAMI

All ports and towns along the east Sanriku coast, in north-east Japan, were devastated by
the tsunami produced by the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. Due to the proximity to major earthquake
faults and the geography of the coastline (a “ria” coast), the Sanriku coast is extremely prone to
tsunami devastation. Meanwhile, some of the largest fishing ports in Japan are located along this
coast, such as Ishinomaki, Kesennuma, Onagawa, Ohfunato, and Miyako (see Figure 1(b)).
These ports house major port facilities, fish processing factories, refrigeration facilities, freight
hubs, and other commercial facilities. A large proportion of these facilities are constructed with
structural steel. Tsunami damage reconnaissance was conducted over the major ports, towns, and
cities that were attacked by the tsunami (see Figure 1(b)). The locations included, listing from
north to south, Kuji, Miyako, Yamada, Otsuchi, Kamaishi, Ohfunato, Rikuzen-Takada,
Kesennuma, Minami-Sanriku, Onagawa, Ishinomaki, Higashi-Matsushima, Shiogama, Sendai,
and Natori.

Effect of Tsunami Height

The ports and towns visited by the reconnaissance team were within similar proximity
from the fault that caused the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. Nonetheless, the tsunami height varied
substantially depending on the geographic condition. The tsunami height tended to be lower at
harbors protected by intertwined bays and at harbors that did not directly face the Pacific. The
tsunami reached extreme height and violence at harbors constructed at the end of a narrowing
bay. The peak tsunami height was particularly extreme in Miyako (13.4 m), Kamaishi (17 to 18
m), Otsuchi (10 to 15 m), Rikuzen-Takada (12 to 16 m), Minami-Sanriku (13 to 15 m), and
Onagawa (15 m). The peak tsunami height was less extreme at Kuji (8 to 9 m), Kesennuma (4 to
10 m), Shiogama Port (8 m), and lower at Ishinomaki (5 m), Higashi-Matsushima (1 m), and
Shiogama (4 m). The tsunami height, unless stated otherwise, is the inundation height taken from
online reports by the Port and Airport Research Institute (2011) and the 2011 Tohoku Earthquake
Tsunami Joint Survey Group (2011). Figures 7, 8, and 9 show examples of structural damage
observed at Rikuzen-Takada, Kesennuma, and Ishinomaki, respectively. The three locations are
major fishing ports selected to represent different reported tsunami heights. It is emphasized that
the peak tsunami height is merely a reference of tsunami violence and that tsunami cannot be
underestimated by its height.
The tsunami reached an extreme height of 12 to 16 m at Rikuzen-Takada. Figure 7(a)
shows a three-story store with extensive nonstructural damage across the entire height. The only
notable structural damage was the beam distortion shown in Figure 7(d) on the side facing the

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Figure 7 Buildings in Rikuzen-Takada (tsunami height 12 to 16 m): (a) store with minor
structural damage and extensive nonstructural damage; (b) factory with
extensive structural and nonstructural damage; (c) collapsed and dislocated
school gymnasium; (d) twisted beam from a; (e) distorted panel zone from b; and
(f) gymnasium from c with original foundation on close side and dislocated
structure on far side.

shore. Figure 7(b) shows a factory with severe structural and nonstructural damage. Structural
damage included plastic hinging in the column bases and panel zone yielding, and example of
which is shown in Figure 7(e). Figures 7(c) and (f) show a high-school gymnasium that was
dislocated by 20 m from its original location and collapsed in the first story.
The tsunami height at Kesennuma, 4 to 10 m, was lower than at Rikuzen-Takada, but the
damage was similarly extensive. Figure 8(a) shows a collapsed, single-story warehouse. Figure
8(d) views the same warehouse from close by, showing collapsed columns, fractured X-braces,
distorted girths, and piled debris. Figure 8(b) shows a two-story store with a residual story drift
of 0.6% and substantial structural damage, which was at least partly caused by debris impact.
Figure 8(e) shows a beam-to-column connection from this store where two beams framing into a
column are fractured in the bottom flange. Figure 8(c) shows a two-story factory whose exterior
claddings were washed away and which measured a residual story drift of 0.5%. Fractured braces
and yielded panel zones, whose example is shown in Figure 8(f), were noted.
Although the reported peak tsunami height of 5 m may appear unimpressive compared to
the other two locations, the damage at Ishinomaki is substantial. Figure 9(a) shows a port facility
with structural and nonstructural damage. Figure 9(b) shows one of many collapsed buildings.
Meanwhile, Figure 9(c) shows a three-story office building with substantial nonstructural
damage in the first story, but minimal structural damage. Figure 9(d) is an interior view of the
first story, which was filled with debris, but which showed no indication of structural damage.
Figure 9(e) shows another example of a structure with substantial nonstructural damage in the
first story but minimal structural damage. Figure 9(f) shows the first story of this factory building,
where the external and internal finish was lost but no sign of structural damage was observed.

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Figure 8 Buildings in Kesennuma (tsunami height 4 to 10 m): (a) factory deformed beyond
recognition; (b) 2-story store severely damaged in first story; (c) factory with
majority of cladding washed away; (d) deformed columns and beams from a; (e)
fractured beam-to-column connection from b; and (f) yielded panel zone from c.

Figure 9 Buildings in Ishinomaki (tsunami height 5 m): (a) port facility; (b) building
deformed beyond recognition; (c) office building whose cladding in the first story
is washed away; (d) first floor of the same building; (e) factory whose cladding in
the first story is washed away; and (f) first floor of the same building.

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An Overrturned Buiilding
At
A Onagawa,, a fishing port p located at the end oof a narrow bay, the tsuunami reacheed an
extreme severity and height off 15 meters. After the tsunami subbsided, the entire townn was
destroyedd. Figure 100 shows a th hree-story offfice buildinng that stoodd in the midddle of downntown
Onagawaa within 100 0 m (300 ft) from the sh hore. This buuilding had traveled 15 m (50 ft) innland
from its original
o locaation, and lieed overturnedd. Figure 100(a) shows thhe roof on thhe right end oof the
photo annd the footinng on the lefft end, and looks
l towardds the shoree. Minimal sstructural dam mage
was obseerved in thee one bay-b by-three bay y, steel mom ment frame superstructuure. Figure 10(b)
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shows thhe foundation n, viewing the

t building from the shhore side. Thhe footing fooundation iss well
intact. Th
he damage was w concenttrated in thee piles. As sshown in Figgure 10(c), m most of the piles
failed at the top end,, at the conn nection to th
he footing. RResearchers suspect thatt the damagee was
caused by a combinaation of liquefaction and d extremely tall tsunamii: the piles m may have become
loose in liquefied soil,
s and co onsequently lost the abbility to resiist the overrturning mooment
produced d by the tsun
nami pushing g the building over its enntire height.

Scouringg
Evidence
E of scouring
s waas observed in
i buildings in the proxiimity of the shore. Figuure 11
shows a small three-story buildinng in Onagaawa that stoood inclined ddue to founddation settlem
ment.
Figure 11(a) shows the
t extreme inclination. The externaal and internnal finishes and the rooff was
completeely washed away.
a As shoown in Figu
ure 11(b), onne corner of the buildingg is sunken iinto a
pocket in
n the ground that was preesumably prooduced by s couring.

Figure 10 Overturn
ned buildin
ng (Onagaw wa): (a) side view (look
king towardss the shore)); (b)
exposed foundation; and (c) pu
ulled out fou
undation pille.

Figure 11 Foundattion scour (Onagawa)): (a) an eextremely iinclined bu

uilding; and
d (b)
scoured foundation..

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Debris Impact
Evidence of debris impact was noted in a number of structures, including the two large
facilities shown in Figure 12. Both facilities are located in the fishing port of Ishinomaki. Figure
12(a) shows a refrigeration facility that lost its exterior finish on the side facing the shore. The
fourth column from the left end is kinked in the middle and twisted. Figure 12(b) shows a close-
up view of the kink, while Figure 12(c) shows the base of this column. The localized flange
deformation in the kink and fracture of all four anchor bolts at the base indicates that the damage
is the consequence of a large concentrated force. Figure 12(d) shows another facility that stored
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Styrofoam for fish packaging. Aerial photos taken within days from the earthquake show large
debris piled up on the shore side of these two facilities. Therefore, the localized damage shown
in Figure 12 was likely caused by the impact of adjacent structures.

Figure 12 Debris impact (Ishinomaki): (a) front view of a refrigeration facility; (b) close-
up view of the kink in the fourth column; (c) damaged column base; and (d)
front view of a storage facility.

School Gymnasiums
A number of elementary, middle-high, and high schools were constructed near the shore.
In Japanese schools for elementary to high schools education, the vast majority of classroom
buildings are constructed from reinforced concrete, while the gymnasiums are either a pure steel
frame or else reinforced concrete in the first floor and steel for the higher elevations and the roof.
Many gymnasiums are a Gable moment frame in one direction and a braced frame in the other
direction.
Figure 13 shows school gymnasiums from three different locations. Figure 13(a) is a two
story gymnasium in Higashi-Matsushima with a squat first story constructed from reinforced
concrete and higher elevation constructed from structural steel. As shown in Figure 13(d), the X-
braces in the second story were buckled. Considering the low height of tsunami at 1 m, this
damage was likely caused by ground motion rather than tsunami. Figure 13(b) is a two story
gymnasium in Ishinomaki. At the side facing the shore, the foundation was scoured. The exterior
wall was lost at the first floor, and the floor was damaged. While minimal damage was observed
in the vertical frame, as shown in Figure 13(e), the horizontal bracing in the roof had failed. The
bolts connecting the turn-buckle braces to gusset plates had fractured. It is unclear whether the
brace failure was caused by ground motion or by tsunami. Figure 13(c) shows a two story
gymnasium in Minamu-Sanriku that was completely submerged in tsunami. Unlike the other two
examples, this gymnasium was a moment frame in both framing directions. The structural
damage was severe particularly on the side facing the shore, seen on the right half of the photo.
Figure 13(f) shows the completely collapsed space-truss roof of this gymnasium.

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Figure 13 School Gymnasiums: (a) in Higashi-Matsushima (waterline marked on wall at 1

m from grade); (b) in Ishinomaki (tsunami height 5 m); (c) in Minami-Sanriku
(tsunami height 13 to 15 m); (d) buckled brace from a; (e) failed turn-buckle
roof braces from b; and (f) collapsed roof truss from c.

OTHER DAMAGE

Damage Caused by Soil Deformation

Poor soil conditions contributed to structural damage. Figure 14(a) shows a case where
the foundation mounted on piles was undamaged but the surrounding soil subsided. Figure 14(b)
shows a building that was tilted due to uneven settlement caused by soil liquefaction.

Damage Caused by Fire

Damage in some buildings was exacerbated by fire that initiated after the earthquake and
tsunami. Figure 15 shows a warehouse-and-office complex at Sendai port that was severely
damaged by both tsunami and fire. The cause of fire is unknown.

Figure 14 Soil deformation: (a) ground subsided near footing foundation (Rifu); and (b)
two spans at the right end subsided due to soil liquefaction (Iwanuma).
Figure 15 (Far right) Warehouse damaged by tsunami and fire

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SUMMARY
Preliminary observations are summarized in the following.
1) The extent of structural damage due to ground motion depended on whether the building
was constructed before or after 1981, which is the year when major update in the
Japanese Building Standard Law was implemented. Limited damage was observed in
buildings constructed after 1981. However, notable damage was observed in older
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buildings constructed before 1981. Nonstructural damage to internal and external finishes
and ceilings was extensive regardless of construction age. Similar observations have been
made from previous earthquakes in Japan.
2) A large proportion of industrial and commercial facilities in the tsunami affected area
were constructed in steel. Wide spread damage was seen in these steel structures.
3) In areas attacked by violent tsunami, some buildings saw limited structural damage. The
suspected reason is that their internal and external finishes were immediately washed
away, and that afterwards, the lateral load produced by water pressure was limited. Many
buildings were damaged by debris impact.
4) In areas attacked by less violent tsunami, steel buildings saw nonstructural damage to the
height reached by the tsunami. However, the majority of these buildings saw limited
structural damage.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This paper is based on damage reconnaissance reports prepared by the Steel Committee
of the Architectural Institute of Japan. Professor Masato Motosaka and his colleagues at Tohoku
University provided generous assistance that made the reconnaissance possible. Contribution of
the damage reconnaissance team members, listed below, are greatly appreciated: Motohide Tada,
Susumu Kuwahara, Seiji Mukaide, Akinobu Takada (Osaka University); Keiichiro Suita, Yuji
Koetaka, Yuichi Sato, Masanobu Sakashita (Kyoto University); Naoto Yamada (JFE Shoji
Construction Materials Sales Co.); Yoshiya Taniguchi, Sho Watanabe (Osaka City University);
Taisuke Muraki, Hironori Otomo (Hokkaido University); Tsuyoshi Tanaka, Hisashi Namba,
Kenzo Taga (Kobe University); Jun Kawaguchi, Yoshito Tomioka, Norihisa Hirabayashi, Seiko
Tsuge, Bu-Sung Kong (Mie University); Takamasa Yamamoto (Toyota National College of
Technology); Hideki Idota, Atsushi Sato (Nagoya Institute of Technology), Isao Nishiyama
(National Institute of Land and Infrastructure, MLIT); and Takehiko Terada (Shimizu Co.).

REFERENCES
Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ). (2011). Preliminary Reconnaissance Report of the 2011
Tohoku-Chiho Taiheiyo-Oki Earthquake, Maruzen, Tokyo, Japan (in Japanese).
Port and Airport Research Institute. (2011). Damage Assessment of Ports in Tohoku Region
(Preliminary field survey report). Attachment 2: Reconnaissance results of respective ports,
< http://www.pari.go.jp/files/items/3463/File/p20110323-3.pdf > (March 23, 2011).
The 2011 Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Joint Survey Group. (2011). The 2011 off the Pacific
Coast of Tohoku Earthquake Tsunami Information, <http://www.coastal.jp/tsunami2011/>
(May 20, 2011).

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