Development of Science and Technology Throughout History

1.
Development of
Science & Technology
Throughout History
Learning Outcome:
At the end of the course, the student will be able to:
➢ Identify the important technological discoveries that

influenced human life and communities during the
Ancient, Medieval, Renaissance and Modern times.
PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

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Major References:
▪ Antoniadis, Christos. (2018). “Byzantine Philosophy, Technology, Science and Medicine.”
Retrieved from: https://medium.com/@christoss200/byzantine-philosophy-technology-and-
medicine-4b160952970b
▪ Balakrishnan, Janaki and B V Sreekantan., (2014). Nature’s Longest Threads: New Frontiers in
the Mathematics and Physics of Information in Biology, World Scientific.
▪ Burke, J., Bergman, J., & Asimov, I., (1985). The Impact of Science on Society. Washington,
D.C., U.S.A: U.S.: Government Printing Office.
▪ Floridi, Luciano. (2014). The Fourth Revolution: How the Infosphere is Reshaping Human Reality:
Oxford University Press
▪ Henry, John. "Scientific Revolution ." Europe, 1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern
World. Retrieved August 11, 2020 from
Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-
and-maps/scientific-revolution
▪ Kennedy, Lesley. "The Prehistoric Ages: How Humans Lived Before Written Records.” Retrieved
from History.com: https://www.history.com/news/prehistoric-ages-timeline#section_1
▪ Kiger, Patrick. “9 Ancient Sumerian Inventions That Changed the World”.

https://www.history.com/news/sumerians-inventions-mesopotamia
▪ Noble, Thomas. (2016). “Europe in the Middle Ages—Technology, Culture, and Trade.”
Retrieved from: https://www.thegreatcoursesdaily.com/rise-europe-middle-ages/

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▪ Osler, M., Spencer, B., & Brush, S., (2019). “Scientific Revolution.” Retrieved from:
https://www.britannica.com/science/Scientific-Revolution
▪ Vidal-Naquet, P. (ed.). (1992). The Harper Atlas of World History. Harper Collins, New York.
▪ Zalta, Edward. (2017). "Scientific Revolutions", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Retrieved from: https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2017/entries/scientific-revolutions
Additional Readings:
▪ Buckley, C., and Boudot E., (2017). The evolution of an ancient technology. R. Soc open
sci.4:170208. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.170208
▪ Kelty, Christopher. (2009). “The Impact of the Scientific Revolution: A Brief History of the
Experimental Method in the 17th Century.” Retrieved from:
https://cnx.org/contents/Obp6KDON@1/The-Impact-of-the-Scientific-Revolution-A-Brief-
History-of-the-Experimental-Method-in-the-17th-Century
▪ “Scientific Revolutions.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Nov 28, 2017 Retrieved

from: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/scientific-revolutions/
▪ The Medieval Sourcebook, located at the Fordham University Center for Medieval
Studies, includes thousands of sources including full text articles, law texts, saint's lives,
maps and other sources related to the Medieval
Age. https://www.fordham.edu/halsall/sbook.html

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Module Outline
❖ Timeline of Human Development
I. Early Technology
A. The Stone Age D. The Iron Age
A.1. Paleolithic Period D.1. The Persian Empire
A.2. Mesolithic Period D.2. Persia: Cradle of Civilization
A.3. Neolithic Period E. The Greek Civilization
B. Stone Age Breakthroughs in E.1. Greek Agriculture
Hunter-Gatherer Tools E.2. Greek Architecture
C. The Bronze Age E.3. Some Notable Greeks in the Field
C.1. What is the Fertile Crescent? of Science & Technology
C.2. Mesopotamia Civilization F. The Romans
C.2.1. The Sumerians F.1. The Roman Engineering
C.2.2. Sumerian Inventions F.2. The Roman Architecture
C.2.3. The Akkadians F.3. Some Notable Romans in the Field
C.2.4. The Assyrians of Science & Technology
C.2.5. The Assyrians Contributions F.4. The Ancient View of Universe
C.2.6. The Babylonians F.5. The Fall of Rome
C.2.7. Contributions of Babylonian
Civilization
C.2.8. The Egyptians
C.2.9. Ancient Egyptians Science
& Technology

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II. The Middle Ages IV. The Scientific Revolution
A. The Teutonic Tribe A. New Methods
B. The Middle Ages Arts and Architecture A.1. The Scientific Method
C. Population Growth in the Middle Ages B. New Ideas
D. Technology in the Middle Ages drives Growth C. The Emergence of Modern
E. New Methods of Land Use in the Middle Ages Astronomy
F. Mining and Heavy Industry in the Middle Ages D. Unifying Astronomy and Physics
G. The Byzantine Empire E. Medicine
G.1. Byzantine Science and Technology F. Other Scientific Advances
G.2. Architecture
G.3. Mathematics V. Activity 1: “A picture is worth a
G.4. Astronomy thousand words: Using Infographic to
G.5. Medicine and Botany illustrate Science and Technology
development through the ages”
III. The Renaissance
A. Humanism
B. Renaissance Geniuses
C. Renaissance Exploration
C.1. Famous Journey & Expedition that
Changed the World
D. The Reformation
E. End of Renaissance

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❖A Timeline of Human Development
Homo habilis (Skillful human)

Lived 1.5 to 2,4 million years ago
Also called “Handy Man”
Used stones as simple tools and ate a variety of foods
Homo erectus (Upright human)
Lived 300,000 to 1.6 million years ago
Used fire
Made stone axes and chopping tools
Homo sapiens (Wise human)

Lived 30,000 to 230,000 years ago
Could speak
Made more complicated tools
Also called “the Neanderthals”
Homo sapiens sapiens (Modern human)

Have been around for 120,000 years
Became more advanced about 40,000 years ago

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I. Early Technology
A. The Stone Age (2.5 mya – 3,000 BC)
▪ Because of the great span of time involved, the Stone Age is

divided into three periods: Paleolithic (or Old Stone Age),
Mesolithic (or Middle Stone Age), and Neolithic (or New Stone
Age).
▪ These three periods refer to the gradual progress of tool-making

from the earliest coarse pebble tools to more advanced and
refined tools.
▪ During these era an eventual transformation was seen from a

culture of hunting and gathering to farming and food
production.

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A.1. Paleolithic Period (Old Stone Age) 2.5 mya-10,000 BC
• Early humans lived in caves or

simple huts or tepees and were
hunters and gatherers. They
used basic stone and bone
tools, as well as crude stone
axes, for hunting birds and wild
animals.
• They cooked their prey,

including woolly mammoths,
dear and bison, using
The early humans of Paleolithic controlled fire. They also fished
period that dwell in the caves are and collected berries, fruit and
hunters and gatherers . nuts.

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A.2. Mesolithic Period – (10,000 BC – 8,000 BC)
• Humans used small stone tools,

now also polished and
sometimes crafted with points
and attached to antlers, bone or
wood to serve as spears and
arrows.
• They often lived nomadically in

camps near rivers and other
bodies of water.
• Agriculture was introduced

People of the Mesolithic period use
during this time, which led to polished pointed tools during
more permanent settlements in hunting
villages.

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A.3. Neolithic Period (8,000 BC – 3,000 BC)
• Ancient humans switched from hunter/gatherer mode to

agriculture and food production. They domesticated
animals and cultivated cereal grains.
• They used polished hand axes, adzes for ploughing and

tilling the land and started to settle in the plains.
• Advancements were made not only in tools but also in

farming, home construction and art, including pottery,
sewing and weaving.

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A Neolithic period settlement
with domesticated animals
During the Neolithic period,

humans learned how to
cultivate cereals

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B. Stone Age Breakthroughs in Hunter-Gatherer Tools
o Sharpened stones (Oldowan tools): 2.6 million

years ago
These were basically stone cores with flakes removed

from them to create a sharpened edge that could be
used for cutting, chopping or scraping.
One of the earliest

examples of stone tools
found in Ethiopia
o Stone handaxe (Acheulean tools): 1.6

million years ago An Acheulan
handaxe
Named for St. Acheul on the Somme River in from
France, where the first tools from this tradition Swakscombe
were found in the mid-19th century. These tool is , Kent
used for striking flakes off longer rock cores to
shape them into thinner less rounded implements.

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• A new kind of knapping (Levallois
technique): 400,000 to 200,00 years ago
Known as the Levallois, or prepared-core

technique, it involved striking pieces off a stone
core to produce a tortoise-shell like shape, then
carefully striking the core again in such a way
that a single large, sharp flake can be broken off.
Stone tools found in a The method could produce numerous knife-like
Neanderthal flint workshop tools of predictable size and shape.
discovered in Poland
• Cutting blades (Aurignacian

industry): 80,000 to 40,000 years ago
The central innovation of this type of tool

making involved detaching long
rectangular flakes from a stone core to form
blades, which proved more effective at
cutting. The blades’ shape also made them
easier to attach to a handle, which gave
An Aurignacian blade shown from greater leverage and increased efficiency.
three angles
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• Small, sharp micro blades (Magdalenian
culture): 11,000 to 17,000 years ago
characterized by small tools known as geometric

microliths, or stone blades or flakes that have been
shaped into triangles, crescents and other geometric
forms. When attached to handles made of bone or
antler, these could easily be used as projectile
weapons, as well as for woodworking and food
preparation purposes.
Microliths were added to

Late Magdalenian bone
tools like these, including
harpoons and projectile
points.

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• Axes, celts, chisels (Neolithic
tools): around 12,000 years ago
These tools, including axes, adzes, celts,

chisels and gouges, were not only more
pleasing to look at; they were also more
efficient to use and easier to sharpen when
they became dull.
allowed humans to clear wide swathes of
Jadeite axes from the
woodland to create their agricultural
Neolithic Period in central
settlements.
Europe.

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C. The Bronze Age (3,000 B.C. to 1,300 B.C.)
• Metalworking advances were made, as bronze, a copper and

tin alloy, was discovered. Now used for weapons and tools, the
harder metal replaced its stone predecessors, and helped spark
innovations including the ox-drawn plow and the wheel.
Village life in Grimspound, a late Bronze Age

settlement situated on Dartmoor in Devon,
England.

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• This time period also brought advances in architecture and art,
including the invention of the potter’s wheel, and textiles—
clothing consisted of mostly wool items such as skirts, kilts,
tunics and cloaks. Home dwellings morphed to so-called
roundhouses, consisting of a circular stone wall with a
thatched or turf roof, complete with a fireplace or hearth, and
more villages and cities began to form.
• Humans may have started smelting copper as early as 6,000

B.C. in the Fertile Crescent, a region often called “the cradle of
civilization” and a historical area of the Middle East where
agriculture and the world’s first cities emerged.

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C.1. What Is the Fertile Crescent?
• The Fertile Crescent, often called the "Cradle of Civilization", is the

region in the Middle East which curves, like a quarter-moon
shape, from the Persian Gulf, through modern-day southern
Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel and northern Egypt.
• The region has long been recognized for its vital contributions to
world culture stemming from the civilizations of
ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Levant which included
the Sumerians, Babylonians, Assyrians, Egyptians,
and Phoenicians, all of whom were responsible for the
development of civilization.

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Virtually every area of human
knowledge was advanced by
these people, including:
Science and Technology
Writing and Literature
Religion
• Agricultural Techniques
• Mathematics and Astronomy
• Astrology and the Development
of the Zodiac
• Domestication of Animals
• Long-Distance Trade
• Medical Practices (including
dentistry)
• The Wheel
• The Concept of Time
States of the Fertile Crescent

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C.2. Mesopotamian Civilization
• Is an ancient, historical region that lies between the Tigris and
Euphrates rivers in modern-day Iraq and parts of Kuwait, Syria,
Turkey and Iran.
• Part of the Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia was home to the earliest

known human civilizations. Scholars believe the Agricultural
Revolution started here.
• The earliest occupants of Mesopotamia lived in circular dwellings

made of mud and brick along the upper reaches of the Tigris and
Euphrates river valleys.
• They began to practice agriculture by domesticating sheep and

pigs around 11,000 to 9,000 B.C. Domesticated plants, including
flax, wheat, barley and lentils, first appeared around 9,500 B.C.

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Map of Mesopotamia. Shown are Washukanni,
Nineveh, Hatra, Assur, Nuzi, Palmyra, Mari, Sippar,
Babylon, Kish, Nippur, Isin, Lagash, Uruk, Charax
Spasinu and Ur, from north to south.

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• Some of the earliest evidence of farming comes from the
archaeological site of Tell Abu Hureyra, a small village located
along the Euphrates River in modern Syria. The village was
inhabited from roughly 11,500 to 7,000 B.C. Inhabitants initially
hunted gazelle and other game before beginning to harvest wild
grains around 9,700 BCE. Several large stone tools for grinding
grain have been found at the site.
• One of the oldest known Mesopotamian cities, Nineveh (near

Mosul in modern Iraq), may have been settled as early as 6,000
B.C. Sumerian civilization arose in the lower Tigris-Euphrates valley
around 5,000 B.C.
• In addition to farming and cities, ancient Mesopotamian

societies developed irrigation and aqueducts, temples, pottery,
early systems of banking and credit, property ownership and the
first codes of law.

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C.2.1. The Sumerian
• Sumer was first settled by humans from 4500 to 4000 B.C.,

though it is probable that some settlers arrived much earlier.
• This early population—known as the Ubaid people—was

notable for strides in the development of civilization such as
farming and raising cattle, weaving textiles, working with
carpentry and pottery and even enjoying beer.
• Villages and towns were built around Ubaid farming

communities. The people known as Sumerians were in control
of the area by 3000 B.C.

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• Their culture was comprised of a group of city-states, including Eridu,
Nippur, Lagash, Kish, Ur and the very first true city, Uruk. At its peak
around 2800 BC, the city had a population between 40,000 and 80,000
people living between its six miles of defensive walls, making it a
contender for the largest city in the world.
• Each city-state of Sumer was surrounded by a wall, with villages settled

just outside and distinguished by the worship of local deities.
Map of Ancient
Sumerian Empire

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C.2.2. Sumerian Invention
Mass-Produced Pottery
• Other ancient people made pottery by

hand, but the Sumerians were the first to
develop the turning wheel, a device
which allowed them to mass-produce it.
That enabled them to churn out large
numbers of items such as containers for
workers’ rations, sort of the ancient
forerunner of Tupperware.
Bowl from the

ancient civilizations of
Mesopotamia.

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Writing
• The Sumerians were the first to develop
a writing system. Either way, it’s clear
that they were using written
communication by 2800 B.C.
• But they didn’t set out to write great

literature or record their history, but
rather to keep track of the goods that
they were making and selling.
• Scribes used sharpened reeds to

scratch the symbols into wet clay,
An early writing sample which dried to form tablets. The system
from Mesopotamia using of writing became known as cuneiform,
pictographs to create a record and as Kramer noted, it was borrowed
of food supplies. by subsequent civilizations and used
across the Middle East for 2,000 years.

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Hydraulic Engineering
• The Sumerians figured out how to collect and channel the overflow
of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers—and the rich silt that it
contained—and then use it to water and fertilize their farm fields.
• They designed complex systems of canals, with dams constructed

of reeds, palm trunks and mud whose gates could be opened or
closed to regulate the flow of water.
A Mesopotamian relief
showing the agricultural
importance of the rivers.

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The Chariot
• The Sumerians didn’t invent wheeled vehicles, but they probably

developed the first two-wheeled chariot in which a driver drove a team
of animals.
• The Sumerians had such carts for transportation in the 3000s B.C., but
they were probably used for ceremonies or by the military, rather than
as a means to get around the countryside, where the rough terrain
would have made wheeled travel difficult.
Scale model of a simple two-

wheeled chariot which was
invented by the Sumerians in
Mesopotamia.

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The Plow
• The Sumerians invented the

plow, a vital technology in
farming.
• They even produced a manual

that gave farmers detailed
instructions on how to use
various types of plows.
• They specified the prayer that

should be recited to pay
homage to Ninkilim, the
goddess of field rodents, in
order to protect the grain from Imitation of a Sumerian plow.
being eaten.

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Textile Mills
• While other cultures in the
Middle East gathered wool
and used it to weave fabric
for clothing, the Sumerians
were the first to do weaving
on an industrial scale.
• The Sumerians’ innovation

was to turn their temples
into huge factories.
• They were the first to cross

kin lines and form larger
working organizations for
making textiles—the
predecessors of modern
manufacturing companies.
A Mesopotamian woman weaving.

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Mass-Produced Bricks
An archaeological site in
Mari, Syria (modern Tell Hariri)
that was an ancient
Sumerian city on the western
bank of Euphrates river.
• To make up for a shortage of stones and timber for building houses and
temples, the Sumerians created molds for making bricks out of clay.
• While they weren’t the first to use clay as a building material but their
innovation is their ability to produce bricks in large amounts, and put them
together on a large scale. Their buildings might not have been as durable as
stone ones, but they were able to build more of them, and create larger
cities.

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Metallurgy
• The Sumerians were some of the

earliest people to use copper to
make useful items, ranging from
spearheads to chisels and razors.
• They also made art with copper,

including dramatic panels depicting
fantastical animals such as an eagle
with a lion’s head.
• Sumerian metallurgists used furnaces

heated by reeds and controlled the
temperature with a bellows that
The lion-headed eagle made of
could be worked with their hands or
copper, gold, and lapis lazuli by
feet. Sumerian civilization.

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Mathematics
Cuneiform
script,
developed by
the Sumerians.
• Primitive people counted using simple methods, such as putting

notches on bones, but it was the Sumerians who developed a
formal numbering system based on units of 60. At first, they used
reeds to keep track of the units, but eventually, with the
development of cuneiform, they used vertical marks on the clay
tablets. Their system helped lay the groundwork for the
mathematical calculations of civilizations that followed.
•

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C.2.3. The Akkadians
• Located in the area to the north of Sumer, Akkadia became established
and a dominant force in Mesopotamia around 3000BC.
• The Akkadian empire is thought to be the
first dynastic rulership to have existed. It
took over control of Sumer and the Levant
at around 2300BC.
• The Akkadians created the first united
empire in Ancient Mesopotamia. It was a
hereditary monarchy, meaning that the
country was ruled by a King who was
succeeded by his sons upon his death.
• The Akkadian king was credited with

many administrative firsts. These include Map of the Akkadian Empire
the year name system and a unified
• The Akkadians spanned into parts of
system of weights and measures.
Syria, Iran, Jordan, Turkey, Kuwait
However, he had difficulty controlling
and possibly even further to the
their empire and faced frequent
south and into Cyprus. The empire
uprisings, especially among the Sumerian
would eventually collapse
city-states.
sometime after 2150bc, just a few
hundred years after it was founded.
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C.2.4. The Assyrians
• Under the Assyrian Civilization, ancient Mesopotamia expanded from the
Persian Gulf to Egypt, to its Western borders of modern-day Turkey.
• After the Akkadian empire collapsed, the Assyrians were the powerhouse of
Mesopotamia. For over 1400 years, Assyria had control of parts of Egypt,
Turkey, and modern day Iraq.
• It is thought the civilization

became wealthy enough to
develop armies and warriors
through trading goods with
Anatolia (located in modern-day
Turkey).
• Of all the cultures of the ancient

Mesopotamian civilizations,
Assyria is considered to be the
greatest. It developed advanced
military and bureaucratic systems,
which enabled it to expand and
control much of the ancient Map of the Assyrian Empire
world.

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C.2.5. The Assyrian Contributions
Agricultural Technology
• The Assyrians were quite innovative when it came to agriculture, which

was necessary since they lived in an area where it was either extremely
dry or flooded most of the time.
• To make up for this, they built extensive canal systems out of mud. The
canals would collect the rainwater, helping to prevent flooding in rainy
seasons. In dry seasons, the farmers could release the stored water onto
fields by digging into them.
• This was carried out by flood defense walls, which were used along the
edges of the canals to guide the water to where it was needed.

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Jerwan aqueduct, completed in 690 BC.
• Because of the importance of agriculture to the society, canals

were built along the edges of all farms and were well kept.
Water systems were built to supply water to cities by building
slopes to conduct water from the hills to the plains.

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Assyrian Architecture
• Major architectural works in ancient Assyria did not deviate much from the
Babylonians. The Assyrians built their temples and palaces primarily from stone and
typically in a ziggurat, or platform structure.
• Unlike the Babylonians, however, the Assyrians' homes were built mostly from stone
rather than clay or mud brick. Homes were rectangular, with beams on top to
support an earthen roof.
• This structure and the lack of openings besides a door made the homes great for
defense - necessary for such a warring people.
Mud-brick ziggurats constructed by

2000 BC were in many Sumerian
cities.

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C.2.6. The Babylonians
• Babylonia was a state in ancient Mesopotamia. The city of Babylon, whose
ruins are located in present-day Iraq, was founded more than 4,000 years
ago as a small port town on the Euphrates River. It grew into one of the
largest cities of the ancient world under the rule of Hammurabi.
• Hammurabi turned
Babylon into a rich,
powerful and influential
city. He created one of
the world’s earliest and
most complete written
legal codes. Known as
the Code of Hammurabi,
it helped Babylon surpass
other cities in the region.
• Babylonia, however, was
short-lived. The empire fell
apart after Hammurabi’s
death and reverted back
to a small kingdom for
several centuries. Babylonia at the time of Hammurabi

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C..2.7. Contributions of the Babylonian Civilization
Babylonian mathematics
• Babylonian mathematical texts are plentiful and well edited.
Babylonian mathematics remained constant, in character and
content, for nearly two millennia. In contrast to the scarcity of
sources in Egyptian mathematics, our knowledge
of Babylonian mathematics is derived from some 400 clay
tablets unearthed since the 1850s.
• Written in Cuneiform script, tablets were inscribed while the

clay was moist, and baked hard in an oven or by the heat of
the sun. The majority of recovered clay tablets date from 1800
to 1600 BC, and cover topics which
include fractions, algebra, quadratic and cubic equations and
the Pythagorean theorem. The Babylonian tablet YBC 7289
gives an approximation to accurate to five decimal places.

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Babylonian clay tablet YBC 7289 with annotations.
The diagonal displays an approximation of
the square root of 2 in four sexagesimal figures,
which is about six decimal figures.
• Babylonian numerals were written in cuneiform, using a

wedge-tipped reed stylus to make a mark on a
soft clay tablet which would be exposed in the sun to harden
to create a permanent record.

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Babylonian Architecture
• Among of this artistic progress it can be identified the

improvement of use given in architecture to the arch and the
dome during the Babylonian Empire; they were already used
previously but was perfected during the Neo
Babylonian Empire. This is the time of the construction of the
fabulous palaces of Nebuchadnezzar.
Rebuilt Walls of the Palace of King

Rebuilt Babylon Coliseum Stairs
Nebuchadneszzar (Present Day Iraq)
(Present Day Iraq)
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• Features of art in Babylonian
culture are closely related to
building materials available in
their environment. The stone
was scarce of course but the
mud, abundant.
• Barely existed corpulent trees to

build the beams needed to use
them effectively in the
construction of architectural
structure.
• Following these limitations, the

buildings are essentially
cemented with very similar
stone brick and adobe as the
Sumerians did. The arch and the
dome roof are used mainly in
the construction of large
palaces.

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• The adobe was used for terraces and thick external walls. The
walls were made of adobe or molded bricks (whose rear
mounting made it possible to build huge walls. Large ceramic
reliefs made in terracotta and stone pieces containing in some
case inscriptions were used, receiving the name of kuduroes
this were stone blocks, generally in black diorite, which were
intended to delimit farms.
• The inscriptions made in this stones to describe the boundaries

of the property are intend also to throw terrifying spells for those
who try to change or alter their limited boundaries. The images
of the gods or animals representing them are carved in the
relief so that they are more imposing to the offenders who try to
invade the property.
• In Babylonian architecture is observed essentially simplicity in

the design of the structures due to difficult terrain and poor
materials.

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The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
• The Hanging Gardens of Babylon were the fabled gardens which adorned the
capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, built by its greatest king Nebuchadnezzar
II (r. 605-562 BCE). One of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, they are the
only wonder whose existence is disputed amongst historians.
• Some scholars claim the gardens were actually at Nineveh, capital of the
Assyrian Empire, some stick with the ancient writers and await archaeology to
provide positive proof, and still others believe they are merely a figment of the
ancient imagination.
• Archaeology at Babylon itself and
ancient Babylonian texts are silent on
the matter, but ancient writers describe
the gardens as if they were at
Nebuchadnezzar’s capital and still in
existence in Hellenistic times. The exotic
nature of the gardens compared to the
more familiar Greek items on the list and
the mystery surrounding their location
and disappearance have made the
Hanging Gardens of Babylon the most A representation of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the fabled gardens which
captivating of all the Seven Wonders. possibly adorned the capital of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, built by its greatest
king Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605-562 BCE). A 16th century CE engraving by Dutch artist
Martin Heemskerck.

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C.2.8 The Egyptians (3100 B.C. to 332 B.C.)
• For almost 30 centuries—from its unification around 3100 B.C. to its conquest by
Alexander the Great in 332 B.C.—ancient Egypt was the preeminent
civilization in the Mediterranean world.
• From the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom through the military conquests of
the New Kingdom, Egypt’s majesty has long entranced archaeologists and
historians and created a vibrant field of study all its own: Egyptology.
• The main sources of information

about ancient Egypt are the
many monuments, objects and
artifacts that have been
recovered from archaeological
sites, covered with hieroglyphs
Map of
that have only recently been
ancient
deciphered. The picture that Egypt
emerges is of a culture with few
equals in the beauty of its art,
the accomplishment of its
architecture or the richness of
its religious traditions.
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C.2.9 Ancient Egyptian Science & Technology
Engineering & Construction
• The great temples of ancient Egypt arose from the same

technological skill one sees on the small scale of household goods.
The central value observed in creating any of these goods or
structures was a careful attention to detail.
• The Egyptians are noted in many aspects of their culture as a very

conservative society, and this adherence to a certain way of
accomplishing tasks can clearly be seen in their construction of
the pyramids and other monuments.
• The creation of an obelisk, for example, seems to have always

involved the exact same procedure performed in precisely the
same way. The quarrying and transport of obelisks are well
documented (though how the immense monuments were raised is
not) and shows a strict adherence to a standard procedure.

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Egyptian Obelisk in Step Pyramid Complex at Saqqara
Karnak (1493–1482 BCE) (2670-2650 BCE)

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• The Step Pyramid of Djoser was successfully built according to the
precepts of the vizier Imhotep and when his plans were deviated
from by Sneferu during of the Old Kingdom (c. 2613- c. 2181 BCE),
the result was the so-called 'collapsed pyramid' at Meidum.
• Sneferu returned to Imhotep's original engineering plans for his

next projects and was able to create his Bent Pyramid and Red
Pyramid at Dashur, advancing the art of pyramid building which
is epitomized in the Great Pyramid at Giza.
The Great Pyramids of Giza

(2550 to 2490 BCE)

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Agriculture & Architecture
• Ancient Egypt was an agricultural society and so naturally

developed innovations to help cultivate the land. Among the
many inventions or innovations of the ancient Egyptians was the
ox-drawn plow and improvements in irrigation. The ox-drawn plow
was designed in two gauges: heavy and light. The heavy plow
went first and cut the furrows while the lighter plow came behind
turning up the earth.
• Once the field was plowed then workers

with hoes broke up the clumps of soil and
sowed the rows with seed. To press the
seed into the furrows, livestock was driven
across the field and the furrows were
closed. All of this work would have been
for nothing, however, if the seeds were
denied sufficient water and so regular
irrigation of the land was extremely Wooden model of a man
important. ploughing with oxen

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• Egyptian irrigation techniques were so effective they were implemented by the
cultures of Greece and Rome.
• New irrigation techniques were introduced during the Second Intermediate

Period by the people known as the Hyksos, who settled in Avaris in Lower Egypt,
and the Egyptians improved upon them; notably through the expanded use of
the canal.
• The yearly inundation of the Nile overflowing its banks and depositing rich soil
throughout the valley was essential to Egyptian life but irrigation canals were
necessary to carry water to outlying farms and villages as well as to maintain
even saturation of crops near the river.
Present day
irrigation
system built by
ancient
Egyptians
along the Nile
river
Egyptian irrigation system

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• Shadoofs: The ancient Egyptians also used water
wheels. The water wheels worked the shadoofs. A
shadoof was simply a counterweight system, a long
pole with a bucket on one end and a weight on the
other. Buckets were dropped into the Nile, filled with
water, and raised with water wheels. Then oxen
swung the pole so that the water could be emptied
into narrow canals or waterways that were used to
irrigate the crops. It was a clever system, and it
worked very well.
A shadoof was used to raise water
above the level of the Nile.
• Nilometers: They also invented what is

called a nilometer. A nilometer was
used to predict flood levels. This
instrument was a method of marking the
height of the Nile over the years.
Nilometers were spaced along the Nile
River. They acted as an early warning
system, alerting these early people that
waters were not as high as usual, so
they could prepare for a drought or for The nilometer on Elephantine Island, Aswan,
unusually high flood waters. consists of stairs and staff gauges.

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• Rameses II (1303-1213 B.C.)
made an outstanding
architectural marvel, the Abu
Simbel. which was precisely
designed so that, twice a
year on 21 February and 21
October, the sun shines
directly into the sanctuary of
the temple to illuminate the
Abu Simbel (1244 B.C.)
statues of Ramesses and the
god Amun.
• This kind of precision in design and construction can be seen

in temples throughout Egypt which were all built to mirror the
afterlife. The courtyard of the temple with its reflecting pool
would symbolize the Lake of Flowers in the next world and the
temple itself would stand for various other aspects of the
afterlife and the final paradise of the Field of Reeds.

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Medicine & Dentistry
• Medicine in ancient Egypt was intimately tied to magic. The

three best-known works dealing with medical issues are the
Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE), the Edwin Smith Papyrus (c.
1600 BCE), and the London Medical Papyrus (c. 1629 BCE)
all of which, to one degree or another, prescribe the use of
spells in treating diseases while at the same time exhibiting a
significant degree of medical knowledge.
• The Ebers Papyrus is a text of 110 pages treating ailments

such as trauma, cancer, heart disease, depression,
dermatology, gastrointestinal distress, and many others.
• The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the oldest known work on surgical

techniques and is thought to have been written for triage
surgeons in field hospitals. This work shows detailed
knowledge of anatomy and physiology.

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• The London Medical Papyrus combines practical
medical skill with magical spells for the treatment of
conditions ranging from eye problems to miscarriages.
The London Medical Papyrus

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D. The Iron Age (1200 B.C. and 900 B.C.)
• During the Iron Age, people across much of Europe, Asia
and parts of Africa began making tools and weapons from
iron and steel.
• The discovery of ways to heat and forge iron kicked off the
Iron Age (roughly 1,300 B.C. to 900 B.C.). At the time, the
metal was seen as more precious than gold, and wrought
iron (which would be replaced by steel with the advent of
smelting iron) was easier to manufacture than bronze.
• Along with mass production of steel tools and weapons, the

age saw even further advances in architecture, with four-
room homes, some complete with stables for animals, joining
more rudimentary hill forts, as well as royal palaces, temples
and other religious structures. Early city planning also took
place, with blocks of homes being erected along paved or
cobblestone streets and water systems put into place.
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D.1. Persian Empire
• During the Iron Age in the Near East, nomadic pastoralists who raised sheep,
goats and cattle on the Iranian plateau began to develop a state that would
become known as Persia.
• The Persians established their empire at a time after humans had learned to make
steel. Steel weapons were sharper and stronger than earlier bronze or stone
weapons.
• The ancient Persians also fought on horseback. They may have been the first
civilization to develop an armored cavalry in which horses and riders were
completely covered in steel armor.
• The First Persian Empire,

founded by Cyrus the Great
around 550 B.C., became one
of the largest empires in Map of Ancient
history, stretching from the Persia
Balkans of Eastern Europe to
the Indus Valley in India.

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D.2. Persia: Cradle of Science & Technology
• Persia was a cradle of science in ancient times. Persian

scientists contributed to the current understanding of
nature, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy.
• Persians made important contributions to algebra and

chemistry, invented the wind-power machine, and the
first distillation of alcohol.

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Qanat
• A water management system used for irrigation originated in pre-
Achaemenid Persia. The oldest and largest known qanat is in the Iranian city
of Gonabad which, after 2,700 years, still provides drinking and agricultural
water to nearly 40,000 people.
The Persian Qanat: Aerial View, Jupar,

Bagh-e Shahzadeh (Mahan) © S.H.
Rashedi
The qanat water system of ancient Persia

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Battery
• Persian philosophers and inventors may have created the first
batteries (sometimes known as the Baghdad Battery) in the
Parthian or Sassanid eras. Some have suggested that the batteries
may have been used medicinally.
• Other scientists believe the batteries were used for electroplating--

transferring a thin layer of metal to another metal surface--a
technique still used today and the focus of a common classroom
experiment.
Baghdad Battery in the National Museum of Iraq

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Windmill
• Wind wheels were developed by the Babylonians ca. 1700 BC to
pump water for irrigation. In the 7th century, Persian engineers in
Greater Iran developed a more advanced wind-power machine,
the windmill, building upon the basic model developed by the
Babylonians.
The earliest
known
windmill
design dates
back 3000
years to
ancient Persia
where they View of the ancient - more than 1000 years
were used to old - Persian windmills at Nashtifan,
grind grain Khorasan, Iran, some of which are
operational.
and pump
water.

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Mathematics
• The 12th century

mathematician
Muhammad Ibn Musa-al-
Khwarazmi created the
Logarithm table,
developed algebra and
expanded upon Persian
and Indian arithmetic
systems.
Muhammad Ibn Musa-al-
• The works of Khwarazmi Khwarazmi
exercised a profound
influence on the
development of
mathematical thought in
the medieval West.

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Medicine
• The practice and study of medicine in Iran has a long and prolific
history. Situated at the crossroads of the East and West, Persia was
often involved in developments in ancient Greek and Indian
medicine; pre- and post-Islamic Iran have been involved in medicine
as well.
• For example, the first teaching hospital where medical students

methodically practiced on patients under the supervision of
physicians was the Academy of Gundishapur in the Persian Empire.
The idea of xenotransplantation dates to the days of Achaemenidae
(the Achaemenian dynasty), as evidenced by engravings of many
mythologic chimeras still present in Persepolis.
• Several documents still exist from which the definitions and treatments
of the headache in medieval Persia can be ascertained.

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• These documents give detailed and precise clinical information
on the different types of headaches. The medieval physicians
listed various signs and symptoms, apparent causes, and
hygienic and dietary rules for prevention of headaches. The
medieval writings are both accurate and vivid, and they
provide long lists of substances used in the treatment of
headaches.
• In the 10th century work of Shahnameh, Ferdowsi describes a

Caesarean section performed on Rudaba, during which a
special wine agent was prepared by a Zoroastrian priest and
used to produce unconsciousness for the operation. Although
largely mythical in content, the passage illustrates working
knowledge of anesthesia in ancient Persia.

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Astronomy
• In 1000 AD, Biruni wrote an

astronomical encyclopedia which
discussed the possibility that the earth
Abu Arrayhan
might rotate around the sun.
Muhammad
ibn Ahmad
• This was before Tycho Brahe drew the al-Biruni
first maps of the sky, using stylized
animals to depict the constellations. In
the tenth century, the Persian
astronomer Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi cast
his eyes upwards to the awning of stars
overhead and was the first to record a
galaxy out with our own.
• Gazing at the Andromeda galaxy he

called it a “little cloud” --an apt
description of the slightly wispy An illustration from al-Biruni's
appearance of our galactic neighbor. astronomical works, explains the
different phases of the moon.
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Physics
• Abu Ali al-Hassan ibn al-Haytham is known in the

West as Alhazen, born in 965 in Persia and dying Abu Ali al-
in 1039 in Egypt. He is known as the father of Hassan ibn
optics for his writings on, and experiments with, al-Haytham
lenses, mirrors, refraction, and reflection.
• He correctly stated that vision results from light

that is reflected into the eye by an object, not
emitted by the eye itself and reflected back, as
Aristotle believed.
The structure
• He solved the problem of finding the locus of of the human
points on a spherical mirror from which light will eye accordin
be reflected to an observer. From his studies of g to Ibn al-
refraction, he determined that the atmosphere Haytham.
has a definite height and that twilight is caused Note the
by refraction of solar radiation from beneath the depiction of
the optic
horizon.
chiasm.

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E. The Greek Civilization
The Ancient Greeks are

seen, in the west, as our
intellectual forefathers.
From Greece was born

philosophy, drama,
western artistic
aesthetics, geometry,
natural science,
mathematics,
astronomy and
architecture. A representation of an ancient Greek City

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E.1. Agriculture
• The prosperity of the majority of Greek city-states was based
on agriculture and the ability to produce the necessary surplus
which allowed some citizens to pursue other trades and pastimes
and to create a quantity of exported goods so that they could be
exchanged for necessities the community lacked.
• Cereals, olives, and wine were the three most produced foodstuffs
suited as they are to the Mediterranean climate. With the process
of Greek colonization in such places as Asia Minor and Magna
Graecia Greek agricultural practice and products spread around
the Mediterranean.
The people who did the most agriculture

work were people in the middle class social
class, also known as the Perioeci. These
people were typically farmers or peasants.

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emmer durum hulled barley
• The most widely cultivated crop was wheat - especially emmer

(triticum dicoccum) and durum (triticum durum) – and hulled barley
(hordeum vulgare).
• Millet was grown in areas with greater rainfall. Gruel from barley and
barley-cakes were more common than bread made from wheat.
Pulses were grown such as broad beans, chickpeas, and lentils.
• Vines to make wine and olives to produce oil completed the four
main types of crops in the Greek world. Fruit (e.g. figs, apples, pears,
pomegranates, quinces, and medlars), vegetables (e.g. cucumbers,
onions, garlic, and salads) and nuts (e.g. almonds and walnuts) were
grown by many private households.

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• Equipment used in Greek agriculture was basic with digging,
weeding, and multiple ploughing done by hand using wooden or
iron-tipped ploughs, mattocks, and hoes (there were no spades).
Richer farmers had oxen to help plough their fields.
• Sickles were used to harvest crops, which were then winnowed

using a flat shovel and baskets. Grains were then threshed on a
stone floor which was trampled on by livestock (and which might
also have dragged sledges for the purpose too). Grapes were
crushed underfoot in vats while olives were crushed in stone
presses.
olive oil
extractor
juicer
iron-tipped ploughs used in farming

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E.2. Architecture
• Greek architects provided some of the finest and most distinctive buildings
in the entire Ancient World and some of their structures, such as temples,
theatres, and stadia, would become staple features of towns
and cities from antiquity onwards.
• In addition, the Greek concern with simplicity, proportion, perspective, and

harmony in their buildings would go on to greatly influence architects in
the Roman world and provide the foundation for the classical architectural
orders which would dominate the western world from the Renaissance to
the present day.
• The Greeks certainly had a preference for marble, at least for their public
buildings. Initially, though, wood would have been used for not only such
basic architectural elements as columns but the entire buildings themselves.
• Early 8th century BCE temples were so constructed and had thatch roofs.
From the late 7th century BCE, temples, in particular, slowly began to be
converted into more durable stone edifices; some even had a mix of the
two materials.

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• Some scholars have argued that certain decorative features
of stone column capitals and elements of the entablature
evolved from the skills of the carpenter displayed in more
ancient, wooden architectural elements.
• The stone of choice was either limestone protected by a layer

of marble dust stucco or even better, pure white marble. Also,
carved stone was often polished with chamois to provide
resistance to water and give a bright finish. The best marble
came from Naxos, Paros, and Mt. Pentelicon near Athens.
East facade of the Parthenon, Athens,

5th century BCE.

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Some of Ancient Greek Architectural Remains
Marble column from the Temple Marble akroterion of

Terracotta architectural tile
of Artemis at Sardisca. 300 B.C. the grave
6th century B.C.
monument of
Timotheos and
Nikonca. 350–325
B.C.

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• One of the cultural developments of Greek thought was
the museum, originally the Temple of the Muses
Modern Remains of Temple of the Muses

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• The museum became part of the palace, “the palace of
culture,” and later a kind of medieval college and research
institute.
• The development of the concept of organized centers of

learning (the University) descend from this period.
Reconstruction of the Greek Discussion of ideas is perceived

Parthenon to happen inside the Parthenon

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E.3. Some Notable Greeks in the field of
Thales of Miletus (c. 620 B.C.E.—c. 546
B.C.E.)
• Is considered by some to be the "first scientist“
• Thales as the first person to investigate the

basic principles, the question of the originating
substances of matter and, therefore, as the
founder of the school of natural philosophy.
• Thales was interested in almost everything,

investigating almost all areas of knowledge,
philosophy, history, science, mathematics,
engineering, geography, and politics.
• He proposed theories to explain many of the

events of nature, the primary substance, the
support of the earth, and the cause of
change.
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Democritus of Abdera (ca. 470–362 BCE)
Founder of the Atomic Theory.

Also had theories on the nature of
plants; thought plant diversity was
due to differences in the atoms of
which they were composed.
The
contemplating
Democritus

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Hippocrates (460–359 BCE)
Disciple of Democritus
Greek physician who is now considered

the
“Father of Medicine.”
• Hippocrates, considered the originator of a

Greek school of healing, was the first to
clearly expound the concept that diseases
had natural causes.
• Various works attributed to him and his

school is contained in the Hippocratic
Collection, which includes The Hippocratic
Oath, Aphorisms, and various medical
works. He was an expert in diagnosis,
predicting the cause of disease.

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• Hippocrates particularly noted the influence of food and diet on health,
recommending moderation.
• In the work On Ancient Medicine, differences in individual response to food

are noted such that some can eat cheese to satiety while others do not bear it
well, a diagnosis of lactose intolerance.
• The use of drugs was not ignored and between 200 and 400 herbs were
mentioned by the school of Hippocrates.
A copy of
Hippocratic
Collection
Hippocrates, diagnosing a patient

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“Let your food be your
medicine and your
medicine be your food…
Leave your drugs in the
chemist’s pot you can cure
the patient with food”
-Hippocrates, the “Father of

Medicine.”
-420 BC

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Plato (427–327 BCE)
• Considered the pre-eminent Greek philosopher,
known for his Dialogues and for founding his
Academy north of Athens, traditionally considered the
first university in the western world.
• The Akademia or the Academy was established

outside the city limits of old Athens and offered a wide
range of subjects taught by experts in their field. The
Academy was thought to be the principal college in
Europe that attracted scholars.
• Plato played a vital role in encouraging the Greek

intelligentsia to regard science as a theory. His
Academy taught arithmetic as part of philosophy, as
Pythagoras had done, and the first 10 years of a
course at the Academy included the study of
geometry, astronomy, and music.
• Plato has been described as the “producer of

mathematicians,” and his Academy boasted some
the most conspicuous mathematicians of the ancient
world such as Eudoxus, Theaetetus, and Archytas.
•
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Aristotle (384–323 BCE) of Macedonia
• proposed a coherent and common-

sense vision of the natural world that
stood for 2,000 years
• studied and wrote on a cosmology,

physics, biology, anatomy and logic.
• placed greater emphasis on

observation than Plato, but still not
experimental
• tutored Alexander the Great

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Aristotle’s writings includes descriptive
writings in biology:
• Histories of Animals,
•Generation of Animals,
•Parts of Animals
• He developed the concept of

life force or vitalism, the idea
that life is due to a force beside
the ordinary workings of
chemistry and physics.
A compilation of
Aristotle’s writing
PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 84

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Theophrastus of Eresus, city of Lesbos (371–287 BCE)
The founder of the botanical sciences

and thus
known as the “Father of Botany”
Writer of
227 treatises, (on religion, politics,
ethics, education, rhetoric,
mathematics, astronomy, logic,
meteorology,
natural history; had over 2000
disciples or students, averaging 60
per year).

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Two botanical works survived:
• History of Plants and Causes of Plants
History of Plants (Historia de plantes) Largely descriptive,

Distinguishes parts of plants. Nine
books:
1. parts of plants and their nature; classification;

2. propagation (especially trees);
3. wild trees;
4. geographic botany, trees related to districts;
5. timber of various trees;
6. Undershrubs;
7. herbaceous plants;
8. cereals, pulses, summer crops;
9. juices of plants.

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Causes of Plants (De causis plantarum) More philosophic but
still full of facts. Six books:
1. Generation and propagation of plants;

2. Things which help the increase of plants;
3. Plantation of shrubs and preparation of
the soil, viticulture;
4. Goodness of seeds and their degeneration;
5. Diseases;
6. Savors and odors.
A detailed collection of
Theophrastrus writings

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Greek natural philosophy is sometimes
called
"pre-scientific", since it relied on
contemplation or observation, but not
experimentation
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F. The Romans
Roman civilization was built upon the tradition of
Greek natural philosophy
the Romans are better known for engineering
than theoretical science
Building of Roman Aqueduct 312 B.C. Ancient Roman Colosseum

to A.D. 226. A.D. 70 and 72
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F.1. The Roman Engineering
• The Romans were
responsible, through
the application and
development of
available machines,
for an important
technological
transformation: the
widespread
introduction of
rotary motion.
The Roman rotary wheel 3rd Century BC

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• This was exemplified in the use of the treadmill for powering
cranes and other heavy lifting operations, the introduction of
rotary water-raising devices for irrigation works (a scoop wheel
powered by a treadmill), and the development of
the waterwheel as a prime mover.
Construction of the Roman Watermill around1st century BC

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• The 1st-century-BCE Roman engineer Vitruvius
gave an account of watermills, and by the end
of the Roman era many were in operation.
The present
day Roman
watermill
constructed
around 1st
century BCE still
in use today
Vitruvius

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F.3. The Roman Architecture
• The Romans copied the Greek style for most
ceremonial purposes, but in other respects they
were important innovators in building technology.
Greek Architecture Roman Architecture

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The Roman Coloseum A.D. 70 and 72
• They made extensive use of

fired brick and tile as well as
stone; they developed a
strong cement that would set The Arch of Constantine 312 and 315 AD
under water; and they
explored the architectural
possibilities of the arch, the
vault, and the dome.

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• They then applied these techniques in amphitheatres, aqueducts,
tunnels, bridges, walls, lighthouses, and roads. Taken together, these
constructional works may fairly be regarded as the primary
technological achievement of the Romans.
Roman Theatre of Orange (1st Tower of Hercules 2nd century AD

century AD)
Pont du Gard Aqueduct 1st

century AD

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• The Romans made good
quality pottery available
throughout their empire
through the manufacture
and trade of the
standardized red ware terra sigillata
called terra sigillata, which
was produced in large
quantities at several sites in
Italy and Gaul.

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F.3. Some Notable Romans in the field of
Cato (b. 234 BCE)

• The famous orator
also wrote a valuable
treatise (De
agricultura) which
gave advice on how
to run a good estate
with notes on wine
and oil production
and various remedies
for crop diseases.
A copy of Cato’s book on
farming

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Varro (b. 116 BCE)
• Was the most prolific scientific

author, although very little of his
work survives. One exception is
the Res Rusticae, which
describes the best ways to
manage a large estate.
• His other works on mathematics,

geography, biology, and more,
live on through his immense
influence on later authors such
as Vitruvius, Pliny, Augustine, and
Varro’s Res Martianus Capella.
Rusticae

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Lucretius (b. c. 94 BCE)
• Wrote De rerum
natura on the major
Greek works of atomist
philosophy and was
especially interested in
optics and biology.
Vitruvius (1st century BCE)

• Wrote an influential work on
architecture (De architectura)
which included surveying, town
planning, mathematics, principles
of proportion, materials,
astronomy, and mechanics.

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Galen (b. 129 CE)
Galen’s
Surgery Book
• Of Greek origin who became a

physician to emperors after
starting his career administering
medical aid to gladiators. He is Galen treating
an invaluable source on earlier a wounded
medical matters, soldier
notably Hippocrates, but was
also a successful practitioner of
complex surgeries himself.
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Claudius Ptolemy (85–165 CE)
• Tweaked the Plato/Aristotle cosmology
to match observations of the planets
• Ptolemy taught that the Earth was the

center of the universe.
• People felt this was common sense,

and the geocentric theory was
supported by the Church.
• The Earth was the center of the

Universe according to Claudius
Ptolemy, whose view of the cosmos
persisted for 1400 years until it was
overturned — with controversy — by
findings from Copernicus, Galileo, and
Newton.
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Ptolemaic System
Also called geocentric

system or geocentric
model proposed by
Claudius Ptolemy by
assuming that Earth is
stationary and at the
center of the universe.
Ptolemy geocentric model depicts the earth

as stationary with the planets, moon, and sun
moving around it in small, circular orbits called
epicycles.

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F.4. The Ancient View of the Universe
• The Earth was:

– immovable
– the center of the universe.
• Everything revolved around the Earth.
– This view is known as geocentric
theory.
• Aristotle’s idea
• Ptolemy expanded the theory.
• Christianity taught that God
had deliberately placed the
earth at the center.
A depiction of ancient universe and
medieval structure

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F.5. The Fall of Rome (in 476)
• Rome’s fall ended the ancient world and the Middle Ages were borne.
These “Dark Ages” brought the end to much that was Roman.
• In western Europe, population dropped, literacy virtually disappeared,

and Greek knowledge was lost.
• In eastern Europe, Greek knowledge was suppressed by orthodox

Christianity in the Byzantine Empire (which finally fell in 1453)
Sack of Rome by the Visigoths led by Vandals sacking Rome

Alaric I

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II. Middle Ages 476 CE -14th century
• The millennium between the collapse of the Western Roman

Empire in the 5th century CE and the beginning of the colonial
expansion of western Europe in the late 15th century has been
known traditionally as the Middle Ages, and the first half of this
period consists of the five centuries of the Dark Ages (476-918
AD).
• Many of the institutions of the later empire survived the collapse

and profoundly influenced the formation of the new civilization
that developed in western Europe. The Christian church was
the outstanding institution of this type.
• Roman conceptions of law and administration also continued

to exert an influence long after the departure of the legions
from the western provinces.

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A. The Tuetonic Tribe
• Teutonic tribes who moved into a large part of Teutonic tribe

western Europe did not come empty-handed,
and in some respects their technology was
superior to that of the Romans.
• these tribes appear to have been the first people
with sufficiently strong iron ploughshares to
undertake the systematic settlement of the
forested lowlands of northern and western Europe,
the heavy soils of which had frustrated the
agricultural techniques of their predecessors.
Land preparation before planting.
Teutonic way of cultivation using strong iron ploughshares

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• The invaders came thus as
colonizers. They may have been
regarded as “barbarians” by the
Romanized inhabitants of Weaving
western Europe who naturally fabrics
resented their intrusion, and the during the
middle ages
effect of their invasion was
certainly to disrupt
trade, industry, and town life. But
the newcomers also provided an
element of innovation and
vitality.
• About 1000 CE the conditions of
comparative political stability necessary
for the reestablishment of a vigorous
commercial and urban life had been
Town life secured by the success of the kingdoms
during the of the region in either absorbing or
middle ages keeping out the last of the invaders from
the East, and thereafter for 500 years the
new civilization grew in strength and
began to experiment in all aspects of
human endeavour.

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• The history of medieval technology is thus largely the story of the
preservation, recovery, and modification of earlier achievements.
But by the end of the period Western civilization had begun to
produce some remarkable technological innovations that were to
be of the utmost significance.
B. The Middle Ages: Art and Architecture

• Another way to show devotion to the Church was to build grand
cathedrals and other ecclesiastical structures such as monasteries.
Cathedrals were the largest buildings in medieval Europe, and they
could be found at the center of towns and cities across the continent.
• Between the 10th and 13th centuries, most European cathedrals were
built in the Romanesque style. Romanesque cathedrals are solid and
substantial: They have rounded masonry arches and barrel vaults
supporting the roof, thick stone walls and few windows. (Examples of
Romanesque architecture include the Porto Cathedral in Portugal
and the Speyer Cathedral in present-day Germany.)

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• Around 1200, church builders began to embrace a new architectural style,
known as the Gothic. Gothic structures, such as the Abbey Church of Saint-
Denis in France and the rebuilt Canterbury Cathedral in England, have huge
stained-glass windows, pointed vaults and arches (a technology developed in
the Islamic world), and spires and flying buttresses.
• In contrast to heavy Romanesque buildings, Gothic architecture seems to be

almost weightless. Medieval religious art took other forms as well. Frescoes and
mosaics decorated church interiors, and artists painted devotional images of
the Virgin Mary, Jesus and the saints.
Romanesque cathedrals
Porto Cathedral in Portugal

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Romanesque cathedrals
Speyer Cathedral in present-day Germany
• Also, before the invention of the printing press in the 15th century, even
books were works of art. Craftsmen in monasteries (and later in universities)
created illuminated manuscripts: handmade sacred and secular books with
colored illustrations, gold and silver lettering and other adornments.
Convents were one of the few places women could receive a higher
education, and nuns wrote, translated, and illuminated manuscripts as well.
• In the 12th century, urban booksellers began to market smaller illuminated

manuscripts, like books of hours, psalters and other prayer books, to wealthy
individuals.

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Gothic Style Cathedrals
Abbey Church of
Saint-Denis in
France
Canterbury Cathedral in England

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C. Population Growth in the Middle Ages
• Europe witnessed massive population growth in the High Middle Ages, from
1000 to 1300. This growth was largely due to the refinement of medieval
farming technology, such as the plow, which improved upon previous
models, and resulting in increased efficiency and output to feed more
people than ever before.
• Certain indicators lend clues to this expansion. Wherever we have evidence

of family size, families appear to be larger. It does not appear that more
babies are being born, but rather that more of them are surviving and people
were living longer.
• Generally speaking, this was a period of warm, dry

climate through much of Europe, when enormous
amounts of new land were brought under
cultivation. People did not bring new land under
cultivation for no reason. There were mouths to feed
and diets improved.
• More and more land was given over to crops that
were rich in iron and protein so that people were
simply eating better. They were healthier; they
could do more work; they were more productive; Although census records do not exist for most of
they lived longer—the population curve marched medieval Europe, much information about
population size can be gleaned contextually by
upward due to these gains. studying families and other records.

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D. Technology in the Middle Ages Drives Growth
• The medieval period, on the other hand, was one that was fairly rich in
technological innovation. Stereotypes contribute to the idea of the Middle
Ages as the Dark Ages, as having descended from the heights of classical
antiquity. If we were talking about technology, we’d have to flip the polarity of
that old equation and say that the Middle Ages were rather cleverer.
• The clearest indicator we have of medieval technology, of its application and

its connection to this population increase, is in the realm of cereal production,
where medieval farmers vastly expanded it
• They laid down most of the fundamental ways: By getting maximum cereal
production out of the soil, before the advent of modern chemical fertilizers. This
has been the greatest change in modern times, not anything else—not even,
for example, the use of motor-driven tractors. Using horses rather than an ox as
draft animal in farming has increased cereal production in the middle ages.
• A horse is significantly more efficient than an ox. It does more work for the same
amount of food, perhaps even a little bit less. It is stronger, thus larger fields can
be plowed, or fields can be plowed more times, and the soil can be turned
more carefully.

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• The heavy, wheeled plow played a
significant role in changing how farming
was conducted. Once again, using
horses to pull it allowed more work to be
completed. A heavy iron plowshare can
cut much more deeply into the soil than
can the older forms of the aratrum, the
Roman scratch plow, which didn’t do
much more than just disturb the surface.
The horse collar was a key invention that
allowed medieval Europeans to make use of
the horse as a draft animal, rather than the ox
• The soils of northern Europe are very

good, but they’re damp and heavy. The
heavy, wheeled plow was able to turn
the soil, which aerates it. This new plow
with its iron plowshare also called for a
greater proliferation of iron in this society
leading to more smithing. We can see
The heavy, wheeled plow allows for deeper
connections between the use of the
plowing and aerates the soil better, a key need
plow, the advantages that it brought, in making rich, wet European soil as productive
and then some of the requirements that as possible.
flowed from its development.
PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM 114

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• Watermills were widely used in the 11th century. In some parts of northern Europe,
for example, in the Low Countries windmills were used, but watermills were fairly
common.
Water mills required complicated

gears that had to be built
and maintained which, in turn,
drove advances in engineering.
• Engineers had to make the water go past the water wheel, whether the water
wanted to or not, to do the milling at the convenience of the miller, and not by
the movements of the river naturally. A variety of technologies were spawned by
the need to use more mills.
• Mills were imperative because there was an increase in grain. As more and more
land was brought under cultivation, the new technological inputs made the land
that was being plowed and farmed more productive, producing yet more grain.

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E. New Methods of Land Use in the Middle Ages
• Farmers began to use the land more efficiently. In early European history—northern
Europe at the time of the Romans and the Greeks—agricultural communities would
often farm a particular area quite intensively for a brief period, and then move.
• For a long time, they

tended to practice what
we would call two-field
agriculture. About half of In the three-field
system, land is
your land was plowed, and divided into three
about half of it was left parts and used
fallow. On that fallow land, for crop-rotation.
you would also run your
animals, so that animal
manure would provide
some enrichment to the
soil. By the High Middle • What exactly is the three-field system?
Ages, after the year 1000 You divide the available land of an estate
to 1050, a three-field into three roughly equal parts. One of
system widely used across these is left fallow, one of these is planted
Europe. in winter crops and one of these is
planted in spring crops. You work your
way through a rotation this way.
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• With more land under the plow, a greater
variety of crops, and greater insurance against
individual seasons of bad weather, we also see
a growing tendency towards agricultural
specialization. People in particular regions
understood how to grow certain crops very
well.
• This produces a situation where if a given region

concentrates on particular kinds of crops, then
those regions rely on other places and trade to
get the things that they do not themselves
produce. In turn, they have to be able to move
the goods that they do produce to other
places.
• This requires improved roads and improved The spread of four-wheeled wagons
increased the carrying capacity for
transport vehicles to move more goods, farther horse-drawn wagons, a feature that
and faster. Again, the use of horses as draft helped to boost trade between
animals pulling wagons: They can pull heavier communities.
loads and they can pull those loads farther. The
use of large four-wheeled wagons becomes
widespread, instead of two-wheeled carts, so
that more can be moved in one trip.

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F. Mining and Heavy Industry in the Middle Ages
• By this time there were greater efficiencies in surface mining. In the
Middle Ages, deep mining was impossible because you couldn’t get the
water out of the shafts, or out of the mine galleries. Thus, most mining
tended to be surface mining, focusing on stone, called quarrying, the
most prominent kind.
• Some famous churches were built were
built out of stone in the 12th and 13th
centuries. These vast stone buildings
required ever more efficient mining. As
they were often built long distances from
the sources of the stone, once again,
better roads and more efficient vehicles
of transportation played a significant role
in the functioning of medieval society.
• There was a certain amount of surface

mining for iron, a necessary resource for Notre-Dame de Paris is one of many European
all the new horseshoes and heavy iron cathedrals built of stone during the 12th and
13th centuries.
plows, not to mention the traditional mix
of weapons: Swords, armor, spear tips,
arrow tips, and so on.

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G. Byzantine Empire
• The immediate eastern neighbour of the new civilization of medieval Europe
was Byzantium, the surviving bastion of the Roman Empire based in
Constantinople (Istanbul), which endured for 1,000 years after the collapse of
the western half of the empire.
• Apart from the influence on Western architectural style of

such Byzantine masterpieces as the great domed structure of Hagia Sophia,
the technological contribution of Byzantium itself was probably slight, but it
served to mediate between the West and other civilizations one or more
stages removed, such as the Islamic world, India, and China.
Map of the Byzantine Empire
• The Byzantines made numerous contributions to philosophy, science and

medicine while also making innovations and inventions.

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G.1. Byzantine Science and Technology
Warfare
• The hand-trebuchet, a staff sling mounted on a
pole using a lever mechanism to propel
projectiles. It was used by Emperor Nicephorus
Phocas’ army in his campaigns to disrupt
enemy lines.
• The Counterweight trebuchet, which was far more

powerful than the normal traction trebuchet. It
was used by Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and it is
said that it impressed his crusader allies during the
siege of Nicaea.
Byzantine Counterweight trebuchet
• The famous Greek Fire. Invented by

Kallinikos, it was the flamethrower of the
Cheirosiphōn. Detail era. It was liquid fire used by the
from the medieval Byzantine navy to inflame the enemy
manuscript Codex
Vaticanus Graecus
ships. It played a crucial role in saving
1605 Constantinople from the Arab onslaught.
Cheirosiphōn, an early version of the
flamethrower used by the ground troops.
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• Grenades. They appeared during the
reign of Leo III (717–741). Byzantine
Byzantine Greek Fire
soldiers threw ceramic jars with Greek hand grenade
fire. They set them alight by fire arrows or
ignited them before throwing them at the
enemy.
• The Beacon System. The Byzantines used a

system of beacons to transmit messages
from the border with the Caliphate across
Asia Minor to Constantinople during the 9th
century. The system was devised during the
reign of Emperor Theophilos (829–842) by
Leo the Mathematician. The main line of
beacons stretched over some 450 miles and
it functioned through two identical water
clocks placed at the two terminal stations.
The lighting of beacon

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G.2. Architecture
• The cross-in-square architectural Panagia Chalkeion,
form appeared first in the late 8th 11th-century
century. It was used in the Byzantine church in
the northern Greek
construction of churches city of Thessaloniki.
Karamagara Bridge, • The pointed arch bridge, which first

Cappadocia appeared in the 5th century.
• The pendentive dome, which placed a Pendentive

dome of
circular dome over a square room. The Hagia
first (and most famous) example of a Sophia.
pendentive dome is Hagia Sophia, Istanbul,
Turkey
designed by Isidore of Miletus and
Anthemius of Tralles.

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G.3. Mathematics
• One of the earlier and most important work on arithmetic was the papyrus
of Akhmin (seventh century), which dealt with fractions and problems in the
Egyptian tradition.
• In the seventh and eighth centuries, young people would study arithmetic
though no texts survive from before the eleventh century. It was during the
end of the thirteenth and the first half of the fourteenth century that
arithmetic was shown the most interest.
• Both George Pachymeres and Maximos Planoudes (1260–1310) studied the

work of Diophantus of Alexandria, the “father of algebra”. On arithmetical
manuals of this period, theoretical works were often liked to astronomy with
many chapters devoted to sexagesimal calculations, while practical
manuals regarding daily problems could also be found.
• The Stoicheiosis (Elements) of Theodore Metochites is an immense

astronomical work which opens with a long arithmetical introduction while
the Astronomical Tribiblos of Theodore Meliteniotes also devoted an
important part of the book on arithmetical procedures.

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G.4. Astronomy
• The first Byzantine book on astronomy was the Commentary to the Handy
Tables of Stephanos of Alexandria (c.617). In the eighth century, John of
Damascus, in his De Fide Orthodoxa, gave basic notions of cosmology and
astronomy.
• The eleventh century was the most important for Byzantine astronomy. Aside
from books based on the Ptolemaic tradition, one can find good knowledge of
Islamic astronomy. In 1062, a Byzantine astrolabe was created for a man of
Persian origins. The texts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries reveal a very high
scientific level.
• Nikephoros Gregoras, pupil of Metochites, was able to use Ptolemaic

astronomical tables to predict solar and lunar eclipses. Barlaam of Calabria was
also skilled in astronomy and able to calculate the solar eclipses of 1333 and
1337.
• During this period, Persian astronomy was introduced in Byzantium. George

Chioniades acquired knowledge of astronomy in Persia and he returned to
Trebizond and Constantinople with Persian works translated into Greek.

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G.5. Medicine and Botany
• The ancient sources of Byzantine botanology can be found in the poems of
Nicander of Colophon (second century BC) and the Materia Medica of
Dioskorides (first century AD).
• The Byzantines had much interest in the medical use of plants. They had
institutionalized hospitals which favored the growth of medicine and
pharmacy. This was especially true for the era of the Komnenoi Dynasty
(eleventh-twelfth centuries), when the Hospital of Pantokrator included a
pharmacy. The hospitals in Byzantium were the beginnings of modern
hospitals. Many of them were designed for the poor, funded by the Church
and became part of civic life.
• Separation of conjoined twins: The first known example of separating

conjoined twins happened in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century. A
pair of conjoined twins lived in Constantinople for many years when one of
them died, so the surgeons in Constantinople decided to remove the body
of the dead one. The result was partly successful as the surviving twin lived
three days before dying. The fact that the second person survived for few
days after separating him was mentioned a century and half years later
again by historians. The next recorded case of separating conjoined twins
was 1689 in Germany.

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III. The Renaissance (14th-16th century)
• The Renaissance was a fervent period of European cultural, artistic,
political and economic “rebirth” following the Middle Ages. Generally
described as taking place from the 14th century to the 16th century, the
Renaissance promoted the rediscovery of classical philosophy,
literature and art.
• Some of the greatest thinkers, authors, statesmen, scientists and artists in

human history thrived during this era, while global exploration opened
up new lands and cultures to European commerce. The Renaissance is
credited with bridging the gap between the Middle Ages and modern-
day civilization.
Leonardo da Vinci's 16th Century painting of the Detail of a ceiling fresco by Michelangelo,
Mona Lisa is perhaps one of the most famous visual 1508–12; in the Sistine Chapel, Vatican City.
art pieces from the Renaissance.

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A. Humanism
• During the 14th century, a cultural movement called humanism began to gain
momentum in Italy. Among its many principles, humanism promoted the idea
that man was the center of his own universe, and people should embrace
human achievements in education, classical arts, literature and science.
• In 1450, the invention of the Gutenberg printing
press allowed for improved communication
throughout Europe and for ideas to spread more
quickly.
• As a result of this advance in communication,

little-known texts from early humanist authors
such as those by Francesco Petrarch and
Giovanni Boccaccio, which promoted the
renewal of traditional Greek and Roman culture
and values, were printed and distributed to the
masses. Francesco Petrarch Poet (1304–c. 1374)
Father of Humanism
Father of the Renaissance
• Additionally, many scholars believe advances in
international finance and trade impacted
culture in Europe and set the stage for the
Renaissance.

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B. Renaissance Geniuses
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was a painter,
architect, inventor, and student of all things
scientific. His natural genius crossed so many
disciplines that he epitomized the term
“Renaissance man.”
• Today he remains best known for his art,

including two paintings that remain among the
world’s most famous and admired, Mona Lisa
and The Last Supper.
Leonardo da
Vinci's 16th
Century
painting of
the Mona
Lisa
Last Supper, wall painting by Leonardo da

Vinci, c. 1495–98

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• Michelangelo (1475–1564) was a
sculptor, painter and architect widely
considered to be one of the greatest
artists of the Renaissance — and
arguably of all time. His work
demonstrated a blend of psychological
insight, physical realism and intensity
never before seen.
The Creation of
Adam (1508-12) at
Sistine Chapel
Pietà 1498-99
Statue of David (1501-04)

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• Desiderius Erasmus (c. 1466–1536) of
Rotterdam was one of Europe's most famous
and influential scholars. A man of great
intellect who rose from meager beginnings to
become one of Europe's greatest thinkers, he
defined the humanist movement in Northern
Europe. His translation to Greek of the New
Testament brought on a theological
revolution, and his views on the Reformation
tempered its more radical elements.
• Dante Alighieri (c. 1265–c. 1321) was an

Italian poet and moral philosopher best
known for the epic poem The Divine
Comedy, which comprises sections
representing the three tiers of the Christian
afterlife: purgatory, heaven and hell. This
poem, a great work of medieval literature
and considered the greatest work of
literature composed in Italian, is a
philosophical Christian vision of mankind’s
eternal fate.

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• René Descartes (1596–1650) was a French scientist,
mathematician, and philosopher. Emphasized
human reasoning as the best road to
understanding.
• Like Bacon, Descartes also believed that truth was

only found after a long process of studying and
investigation. Believed everything should be
doubted until proven by reason.
• Regarded as the father of modern philosophy for

defining a starting point for existence, “I think;
therefore I am.”
• Giotto di Bondone (1266-1337):

Italian painter and architect whose
Giotto di
more realistic depictions of human Bondone: St.
emotions influenced generations of Francis of Assisi
Receiving the
artists. Stigmata
• Best known for his frescoes in the

Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.

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Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543)
• Copernicus was a Polish astronomer who studied in

Italy. In 1543 Copernicus published On the
Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres.
• In his book, Copernicus made two

conclusions:
1. The universe is heliocentric, or sun-centered.
2. The Earth is merely one of several planets
revolving around the sun.
• Copernicus’ model of the solar system:
1. Sun
2. Moon
3. Mercury
4. Venus
5. Earth The Copernican Model: A
Sun-Centered Solar System
6. Mars
7. Jupiter
8. Saturn
• Notice, the sun is first, not the Earth, as
Ptolemy believed.
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Reaction to Copernicus
• Most scholars rejected his theory because it went against Ptolemy, the
Church, and because it called for the Earth to rotate on its axis.
• Heliocentric theory was dismissed in Copernicus' era because Ptolemy's

ideas were far more accepted by the influential Roman Catholic Church,
which adamantly supported the earth-based solar system theory. Still,
Copernicus' heliocentric system proved to be more detailed and accurate,
including a more efficient formula for calculating planetary positions.
• Many scientists of the time also felt that if Ptolemy’s reasoning about the
planets was wrong, then the whole system of human knowledge could be
wrong.
• In 1513, Copernicus' dedication prompted him to build his own modest

observatory. Nonetheless, his observations did, at times, lead him to form
inaccurate conclusions, including his assumption that planetary orbits
occurred in perfect circles. As German astronomer Johannes Kepler would
later prove, planetary orbits are actually elliptical in shape.

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Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
• Considered the father of modern science

and made major contributions to the fields of
physics, astronomy, cosmology, mathematics
and philosophy
• Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer who

built upon the scientific foundations laid by
Copernicus and Kepler.
• He also observed four moons rotating around

Jupiter – exactly the way Copernicus said the
Earth rotated around the sun.
• Galileo also discovered that objects fall at

the same speed regardless of weight.
• Galileo ’ s discoveries caused an uproar.

Other scholars came against him because
like Copernicus, Galileo was contradicting
Ptolemy.

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• The Church came against Galileo because it
claimed that the Earth was fixed and
unmoving.
• Challenged by the church because it

supported the heliocentric theory & it went
against church teaching.
• When threatened with death before the

Inquisition in 1633, Galileo recanted his beliefs,
even though he knew the Earth moved.
Galileo was summoned before
• Galileo was put under house arrest, and was the Roman Inquisition in 1633
not allowed to publish his ideas.
Galileo was right all along…
• In 1992, the Roman Catholic Church

finally repealed the ruling of the
inquisition against Galileo. The church
gave a pardon to Galileo and admitted
that heliocentric theory was correct. This
pardon came 350 years after Galileo’s
death.

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C. Renaissance Exploration
While many artists and thinkers used their talents to express new ideas, some
Europeans took to the seas to learn more about the world around them. In a
period known as the Age of Discovery, several important explorations were
made.
Voyagers launched expeditions to travel the entire globe. They discovered

new shipping routes to the Americas, India and the Far East, and explorers
trekked across areas that weren’t fully mapped.
Famous journeys were taken by Ferdinand Magellan, Christopher

Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci (after whom America is named), Marco
Polo, Ponce de Leon, Vasco Núñez de Balboa, Hernando De Soto and other
explorers.
“The First Voyage” A scene of

Christopher Columbus bidding farewell
to the Queen of Spain on his departure
for the New World, August 3, 1492.

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C.1 Famous Journey and Expeditions that changed the World
A Venetian merchant and adventurer,
Marco Polo (1254-1324) Marco Polo travelled along the Silk Road
from Europe to Asia between 1271 and
1295.
Often called the “discoverer” of the New
Christopher Columbus (1451-1506)
World, Christopher Columbus embarked on
4 voyages across the Atlantic Ocean
between 1492 and 1504.
In 1497, the Portuguese explorer set sail from
Lisbon towards India. His voyage made him
Vasco da Gama (c. 1460-1524)
the first European to reach India by sea,
and opened up the first sea route
connecting Europe to Asia.
The Venetian explorer became known for
his 1497 voyage to North America under the
commission of Henry VII of England.
John Cabot (c. 1450-1498)
Upon landing in what he called “New-
found-land” in present-day Canada –
which he mistook for being Asia – Cabot
claimed land for England.
Regarded as the “discoverer” of Brazil, the
Pedro Álvares Cabral (c. 1467-1520)
Portuguese navigator was the first European
to reach the Brazilian coast, in 1500.

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Around 1501-1502, the Florentine navigator
Amerigo Vespucci embarked on a follow-up
expedition to Cabral’s, exploring the Brazilian
coast.
Amerigo Vespucci (1454-1512)
As a result of this voyage, Vespucci demonstrated
that Brazil and the West Indies were not the eastern
outskirts of Asia – as Columbus had thought – but a
separate continent, which became described as
the “New World”.
The Portuguese explorer was the first European to
cross the Pacific Ocean, and organised the
Ferdinand Magellan (1480-1521)
Spanish expedition to the East Indies from 1519 to
1522.
A Spanish conquistador (soldier and explorer),
Hernán Cortés was best known for leading an
Hernán Cortés (1485-1547)
expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire
in 1521 and for winning Mexico for the Spanish
crown.
A key figure of the Elizabethan era, Sir Walter
Sir Walter Raleigh (1552-1618) Raleigh carried out several expeditions to the
Americas between 1578 and 1618.
A British Royal Navy captain, James Cook

James Cook (1728-1779)
embarked on ground-breaking expeditions that
helped map the Pacific, New Zealand and
Australia.

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D. The Reformation
• Humanism encouraged Europeans to question the role of the Roman
Catholic church during the Renaissance.
• As more people learned how to read, write and interpret ideas, they began
to closely examine and critique religion as they knew it. Also, the printing
press allowed for texts, including the Bible, to be easily reproduced and
widely read by the people, themselves, for the first time.
• In the 16th century, Martin Luther, a German monk, led the Protestant
Reformation – a revolutionary movement that caused a split in the Catholic
church. Luther questioned many of the practices of the church and whether
they aligned with the teachings of the Bible.
Martin Luther (1483–1546)

was a German monk who Martin Luther,
forever changed nailed his 95
Christianity when he nailed Theses to a
his '95 Theses' to a church church door
door in 1517, sparking the 1517
Protestant Reformation.

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E. End of the Renaissance
• By the end of the 15th century, numerous wars had plagued the Italian
peninsula. Spanish, French and German invaders battling for Italian territories
caused disruption and instability in the region.
• Also, changing trade routes led to a period of economic decline and limited
the amount of money that wealthy contributors could spend on the arts.
• Later, in a movement known as the Counter-Reformation, the Catholic

church censored artists and writers in response to the Protestant
Reformation. Many Renaissance thinkers feared being too bold, which stifled
creativity.
• Furthermore, in 1545, the Council of Trent established the Roman Inquisition,

which made humanism and any views that challenged the Catholic church
an act of heresy punishable by death.
• By the early 17th century, the Renaissance movement had died out, giving
way to the Age of Enlightenment.

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IV. The Scientific Revolution (17th-18th Century)
• The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the
early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics,
astronomy, biology (including human anatomy), and chemistry transformed
societal views about nature.
• The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons:
collaboration, the derivation of new experimental methods, the ability to
build on the legacy of existing scientific philosophy, and institutions that
enabled academic publishing.
• Under the scientific method, which was defined and applied in the 17th
century, natural and artificial circumstances were abandoned and a
research tradition of systematic experimentation was slowly accepted
throughout the scientific community.
• During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of the
scientist in respect to nature, and the value of experimental or observed
evidence, led to a scientific methodology in which empiricism played a
large, but not absolute, role.

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• As the scientific revolution was not marked by any single change, many
new ideas contributed. Some of them were revolutions in their own
fields.
• Science came to play a leading role in Enlightenment discourse and

thought. Many Enlightenment writers and thinkers had backgrounds in
the sciences, and associated scientific advancement with the overthrow
of religion and traditional authority in favor of the development of free
speech and thought.
The change to the medieval idea of science occurred for four reasons:
1. Seventeenth century scientists and philosophers were able to collaborate with

members of the mathematical and astronomical communities to effect advances
in all fields.
2. Scientists realized the inadequacy of medieval experimental methods for their

work and so felt the need to devise new methods (some of which we use today).
3. Academics had access to a legacy of European, Greek, and Middle Eastern

scientific philosophy that they could use as a starting point (either by disproving or
building on the theorems).
4. Institutions (for example, the British Royal Society) helped validate science as a
field by providing an outlet for the publication of scientists’ work.

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A. New Methods
• Under the scientific method that was defined and applied in the 17th
century, natural and artificial circumstances were abandoned, and a
research tradition of systematic experimentation was slowly accepted
throughout the scientific community.
• During the scientific revolution, changing perceptions about the role of

the scientist in respect to nature, the value of evidence, experimental or
observed, led towards a scientific methodology in which empiricism
played a large, but not absolute, role.
• The term British empiricism came into use to describe philosophical

differences perceived between two of its founders—Francis Bacon,
described as empiricist, and René Descartes, who was described as a
rationalist. Bacon’s works established and popularized
inductive methodologies for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian
method, or sometimes simply the scientific method.
• His demand for a planned procedure of investigating all things natural

marked a new turn in the rhetorical and theoretical framework for
science, much of which still surrounds conceptions of proper methodology
today.

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Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
• Francis Bacon was an English philosopher who
wrote Advancement of Learning.
• Bacon popularized the scientific method and

used it with philosophy and knowledge.
• Bacon argued that truth could not be known at

the beginning of a question, but only at the end
after a long process of investigation.
• Urged scientists to experiment & draw

conclusions. Not rely on medieval scholars.
• Called empiricism
Empiricism: A theory stating that knowledge comes

only, or primarily, from sensory experience. It
emphasizes evidence, especially the kind of evidence
gathered through experimentation and by use of the
scientific method.

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A.1 The Scientific Method
• By the early 1600s, a new approach to science had emerged, known as
the Scientific Method.
• Scientific Method – painstaking method used to confirm findings and to

prove or disprove a hypothesis.
• Scientists observed nature, made hypotheses, or educated guesses, and
then tested these hypotheses through experiments. Unlike earlier
approaches, the scientific method did not rely on the classical thinkers or
the Church, but depended upon a step-by-step process of observation
and experimentation.
The Scientific Method • Scientists soon discovered

that the movements of bodies
1. State the problem in nature closely followed
2. Collect information what could be predicted by
3. Form a hypothesis mathematics.
4. Test the hypothesis
5. Record & analyze data
• The scientific method set
6. State a conclusion
7. Repeat steps 1 – 6 Europe on the road to rapid
technological progress.

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B. New Ideas
Many new ideas contributed to what is called the scientific revolution. Some of
them were revolutions in their own fields. These include:
• The heliocentric model that involved the radical displacement of the earth to
an orbit around the sun (as opposed to being seen as the center of the
universe). Copernicus’ 1543 work on the heliocentric model of the solar system
tried to demonstrate that the sun was the center of the universe. The
discoveries of Johannes Kepler and Galileo gave the theory credibility and the
work culminated in Isaac Newton’s Principia, which formulated the laws of
motion and universal gravitation that dominated scientists’ view of the
physical universe for the next three centuries.
• Studying human anatomy based upon the dissection of human corpses, rather
than the animal dissections, as practiced for centuries.
• Discovering and studying magnetism and electricity, and thus, electric

properties of various materials.

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• Modernization of disciplines (making them more as what they are
today), including dentistry, physiology, chemistry, or optics.
• Invention of tools that deepened the understating of sciences, including

mechanical calculator, steam digester (the forerunner of the steam
engine), refracting and reflecting telescopes, vacuum pump, or
mercury barometer.
C. The Emergence of Modern Astronomy

• While astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to
antiquity, its development during the period of the scientific revolution
entirely transformed the views of society about nature.
• The publication of the seminal work in the field of astronomy, Nicolaus

Copernicus ‘ De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of
the Heavenly Spheres) published in 1543, is, in fact, often seen as marking
the beginning of the time when scientific disciplines, including astronomy,
began to apply modern empirical research methods, and gradually
transformed into the modern sciences as we know them today.

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Tycho Brahe (1546-1601)
• From 1543 until about 1700, few astronomers
were convinced by the Copernican system.
Forty-five years after the publication of De
Revolutionibus, the astronomer Tycho
Brahe went so far as to construct a cosmology
precisely equivalent to that of Copernicus, but
with Earth held fixed in the center of the
celestial sphere instead of the sun.
• However, Tycho challenged the Aristotelian

model when he observed a comet that went
through the region of the planets.
• This region was said to only have uniform

circular motion on solid spheres, which meant
that it would be impossible for a comet to
enter into the area. Brahe set up an
astronomical observatory.
• Every night for years he carefully observed the

sky, accumulating data about the movement
of the stars and planets.

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Johannes Kepler (1571-1630)
• After Brahe’s death, his assistant, the German

astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler,
used Brahe’s data to calculate the orbits of the
planets revolving around the sun.
• In 1596, he published his first book, the Mysterium

cosmographicum, which was the first to openly
endorse Copernican cosmology by an
astronomer since the 1540s.
• Expanded on Copernicus’ ideas and proved that

planets revolved around the sun elliptically not in
circular orbits as Copernicus and Ptolemy
claimed.
• Kepler’s finding help explain the paths followed

by man-made satellites today.

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D. Uniting Astronomy and Physics
Isaac Newton (1643-1727)
• Isaac Newton developed further ties between
physics and astronomy through his law of
universal gravitation.
• Realizing that the same force that attracted

objects to the surface of Earth held the moon in
orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to
explain, in one theoretical framework, all known
gravitational phenomena and formulated the
laws of motion:
1. A body at rest stays at rest

2. Acceleration is caused by force
3. For every action there is an equal
opposite reaction
• He discovered laws of light and color
• He invented calculus: a method of mathematical

analysis.

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E. Medicine
Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)
• In 1543 Andreas Vesalius published On the

Structure of the Human Body.
• Vesalius’ book was the first accurate and

detailed book on human anatomy.
• Through his publication he demonstrated

the mistakes in the Galenic model.
• His anatomical teachings were based upon

the dissection of human corpses, rather
than the animal dissections that Galen had
used as a guide.

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• Vesalius’ work emphasized the priority of
dissection and what has come to be
called the “anatomical” view of the body,
Galen and his
seeing human internal functioning as an colleagues
essentially corporeal structure filled with dissecting a
organs arranged in three-dimensional human corpse
space.
Human anatomy drawing of Vesalius

(On the Structure of the Human Body,
Human anatomy drawing before Vesalius 1543)

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William Harvey (1578-1657)
• Venal valves had

already been
discovered, but here
Harvey shows that
venal blood flows only
toward the heart. He
ligatured an arm to
make obvious the veins
and their valves, then
pressed blood away
from the heart and
• An English physician showed that the vein
and the first to describe would remain empty
completely and in detail because it was
the systemic circulation blocked by the valve.
and properties of blood
being pumped to the Harvey’s depiction of
systemic circulation
brain and body by the
heart.

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Ambroise Paré (1510-1590)
• A French surgeon who is considered one

of the fathers of surgery and modern
forensic pathology, and a pioneer in
surgical techniques and battlefield
medicine, especially in the treatment of
wounds.
• He developed a new and more effective
ointment for preventing infection and
introduce a technique for closing wounds
and stitches.
Paré performing an operation at an Cauterizing Instruments of Ambroise Paré

injured soldier

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• Herman Boerhaave (1668-1738), a Dutch botanist, chemist, Christian
humanist and physician of European fame, is regarded as the founder of
clinical teaching and of the modern academic hospital. He is sometimes
referred to as “the father of physiology.”
• Santorio Santorio (1561-1636), Venetian physician who introduced the

quantitative approach into medicine.
• Albrecht von Haller (1708-1777), a pupil of Santorio, best known for

demonstrating the relation of symptoms to lesions and, in addition, he was
the first to isolate the chemical urea from urine. He was the first physician
that put thermometer measurements to clinical practice.
• Pierre Fauchard (1678-1761), started dentistry science as we know it

today, and he has been named “the father of modern dentistry.” He is
widely known for writing the first complete scientific description of
dentistry, Le Chirurgien Dentiste (“The Surgeon Dentist”), published in
1728. The book described basic oral anatomy and function, signs and
symptoms of oral pathology, operative methods for removing decay and
restoring teeth, periodontal disease (pyorrhea), orthodontics,
replacement of missing teeth, and tooth transplantation.

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F. Other Scientific Advances
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)

▪ ModernGenetics. When he wrote “Experiments
on Plant Hybridization”, he paved the way for
biology students to study genetic traits in peas.
During his experiments, Gregor found that a
specific trait would be dominant over other traits
in the same species. This became to be
recognized as the Mendelian inheritance.
Robert Hooke (1635–1703)

▪ Coined the term “cell”
Born on 1635 in the Isle of Wight, England,
Robert Hooke received his higher education at
Oxford University where he studied physics and
chemistry. His work included the application
what is known today as Hooke’s law, his use of
microscopy, and for the discovery of the “cell”
in 1665 using cork and a microscope.

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Robert Boyle (1627-1691)
▪ In the 1600s Robert Boyle distinguished between

individual elements and chemical compounds.
▪ Boyle also explained the effect of temperature and

pressure on gases.
▪ Founder of modern chemistry.
Joseph Priestley (1733-1804)

▪ Regarded by many as the one who discovered
oxygen.
▪ He published six volumes of ‘Experiments and

Observations on Different Kinds of Air’ between
1772 and 1790. In this work, he wrote about the
experiments he made using different kinds of air. It
was these experiments that established his
reputation as a chemist.

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Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794)
▪ Identified the significance of this gas in the process of
combustion.
▪ He stated that during the process of combustion, not

only is a substantial quantity of air used, but there is
also a visible gain in the mass of the substance.
▪ His contribution to the field of chemistry, in particular, is

extremely indispensable, and forms the basis of several
present day scientific theories.
Henry Cavendish (1731-1810)

▪ British scientist of the eighteenth century who is
credited with discovery of the element hydrogen. His
scientific experiments were instrumental in
reformation of chemistry and heralded a new era in
the field of theoretical chemistry.
▪ He is also renowned as one of the first scientists who

propounded the theory of Conservation of mass and
heat.

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Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778)
▪ The father of modern biological classification systems.
▪ Published a series of scientific masterpieces, outlaying his

system for dividing animal and plant kingdoms into a
nested series of categories and sub-categories.
▪ First printed in 1735, the book “Systema Naturae” was the

complete description of how Linnaeus had classified
more than 7,000 species of plants and 4,000 species of
animals.
Charles Darwin (1809–1882)

▪ Proposed the “Theory of Evolution”, After attending
the University of Cambridge and taking up medicine
at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland, Darwin was
considered a naturalist.
▪ As a biologist, he proposed the concept that “all

species of life” came from a single source. His theory
of evolution marked the beginning of the discussion
on natural selection.

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Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632–1723)
▪ The Father of Microbiology. Antoine

Philips van Leeuwenhoek was born in
Delft, Netherlands in 1632. His interest in
lensmaking and curiosity led him to be
the first to observe single cell organisms.
He is considered a biologist and
microscopist which has earned him the
distinction of being the father of
microbiology.
Edward Jenner (1749–1823)
▪ Creating the first effective vaccine for smallpox

Edward Jenner is considered as the “father of
immunology” mainly because of his pioneering
work on the smallpox vaccine and the use of
vaccination. Born in Berkeley, England in 1749,
he specialized in microbiology at the University
of St. Andrews and the University of London.

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Claude Bernard (1813–1878)
▪ Blind experimental method for objective results

Born in Saint Julien, France in 1813, Claude
Bernard has been considered “one of the
greatest of all men of science.” He fostered the
use of blind experiments in order to produce
objective results. He also believed that
vivisection, the use of surgery on a living thing
for knowledge, was useful in the study and
practice of medicine.
Louis Pasteur (1822–1895)
▪ Created the process of pasteurization for

treating milk and wine. As one of the founders
of medical microbiology, Louis Pasteur’s
education in the field of chemistry and
microbiology may be credited with his
success. His germ theory of disease became
the catalyst to his process we know as
pasteurization.

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Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859)
▪ Humboldtian science. Friedrich Wilhelm

Heinrich Alexander von Humboldt was born in
1769. He was an explorer, geographer, and
naturalist. His work in biogeography paved the
way to the idea that the land in Africa, South
America, and those along the Atlantic Ocean
were once joined together. He believed in the
approach of combining the different branches
of the physical sciences, such as biology,
geology, and meteorology, this we know today
as Humboldtian science.
Joseph Lister (1827–1912)
▪ Using antiseptics for cleaning and sterilizing

wounds. Joseph Lister was born in 1827 in the
city of Upton, Essex, England where he
attended the University of London, and later in
Scotland at the University of Edinburgh and
University of Glasgow. He became a surgeon
and pioneered the work of antiseptic or sterile
surgery. He used carbolic acid to cleanse
wounds and to sterilize instruments used for
surgery.
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Robert Brown (1773–1858)
▪ Discovered the cell nucleus. Specializing in
botany, Scottish born Robert Brown introduced
the model that help describe random
movements of cells which is known as particle
theory, or more aptly, Brownian motion. Among
his contributions to the world of science was his
description in detail of the cell nucleus in all
living things.
Marie Curie (1867-1934)

▪ Made history in 1903 as the first woman to
receive a Nobel Prize in Physics. Not only that,
she received the same prestigious award in
Chemistry in 1911. She has collaborated lots of
scientific work with her husband Pierre. Marie
Curie, who explored much on radioactivity, is
most remembered for her discovery of radium
and polonium. She also conducted her own
experiments on uranium rays which eventually
led her to coin the term radioactivity.

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Ada Lovelace (1815-1852)
▪ Lovelace wrote instructions for solving a

complex math problem, should the machine
ever see the light of day. Many historians would
later deem those instructions the first computer
program, and Lovelace the first programmer.
Nikola Tesla (1856-1943)

▪ A brilliant scientist who developed the alternating-current
electrical system and discovered the rotating magnetic field.
He also invented the Tesla coil, still being used in radio
technology today. He did not have any formal scientific
education but that did not stop him from delving into science,
so he tinkered in machinery.
▪ He worked with Thomas Edison, improving the latter’s ideas;

but they eventually fell apart because of the differences and
clash in methods and ideas. He established his own laboratory
wherein he experiment with early X-ray technology, electrical
resonance, arc lamps and others. Tesla was a magnificent
man of science but unable to take his gift to his advantage,
because he was said to be a terrible businessman and never
saw the commercial value behind his ideas.
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Albert Einstein (1879-1955)
▪ In 1905, Einsteein published his four most important
papers One of them described the relationship
between matter and energy, neatly summarized E =
mc2. Other papers that year were on Brownian
motion, suggesting the existence of molecules and
atoms, and the photoelectric effect, showing that
light is made of particles later called photons. His
fourth paper, about special relativity, explained that
space and time are interwoven, a shocking idea
now considered a foundational principle of
astronomy. Einstein expanded on relativity in 1916
with his theory of gravitation: general relativity.
Rosalind Franklin (1920-1958)
▪ Franklin was also a brilliant chemist and a master of

X-ray crystallography, an imaging technique that
reveals the molecular structure of matter based on
the pattern of scattered X-ray beams. Her early
research into the microstructures of carbon and
graphite are still cited, but her work with DNA was
the most significant — and it may have won three
men a Nobel.

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▪ The defining feature of the scientific revolution lies in how much scientific
thought changed during a period of only a century, and in how quickly
differing thoughts of different natural philosophers condensed to form a
cohesive experimental method that chemists, biologists, and physicists
can easily utilize today.
▪ The sudden emergence of new information during the Scientific

Revolution called into question religious beliefs, moral principles, and the
traditional scheme of nature. It also strained old institutions and
practices, necessitating new ways of communicating and disseminating
information.
▪ Prominent innovations included scientific societies: which were created

to discuss and validate new discoveries;
▪ Scientific papers: which were developed as tools to communicate new

information comprehensibly and test the discoveries
and hypothesesmade by their authors.

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V. Activity 1: “A picture is worth a thousand words: Using
Infographic to illustrate Science and
Technology development through the ages”
▪ The history of S&T stretch back from the ancient times were our primitive ancestors
had lived in nomadic way as “hunters and gatherers”. Following through the
course of technological development the way they live had arguably changed.
They learn to cultivate the lands, plant crops, domesticate animals and use the
existing resources around them. Through these changes that society develops,
influx of knowlegde and ways flooded the early settlements and thus creating
civilizations. The development of S&T has come a long way, in the modern era
there is an explosion of information and these information has been utilize to
create advancements in different fields.
▪ The task of presenting how S&T develops through the ages and putting it in one
frame studded with relevat images and information is way more challenging.
Information graphics (Infographics) reveal the hidden, explain the complex and
illuminate the obscure. Constructing visual representation of information is not
mere translation of what can be read to what can be seen. It entails filtering the
information, establishing relationships, discerning patterns and representing them
in a manner that enables the reader of that information construct meaningful
knowledge.

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WHAT IS AN INFOGRAPHIC?
Infographics are traditionally viewed as visual elements such as charts, maps, or diagrams
that aid comprehension of a given text-based content. Infographic makes minimal use of
text and can be a powerful tool for displaying data, explaining concepts, simplifying
presentations, mapping relationships, showing trends and providing essential insights. The
use of compelling images on an infographic can make what is an abstract idea that
much easier to understand (hence infographics popularity in marketing and instruction).
Infographics simplify large data sets providing a high-level view and making them easier
to digest at first glance. They help convey data in a compact and shareable form.
Instructions:
1. Create an infographic that depicts the development of S&T

through the ages. Infographic must include images and written
descriptions. All information must be in a visual and concise way.
2. Collect and organize all the content and data you'll use in the
infographic.
3. When collecting your information, make sure you know what
story you want to tell.
4. Choose an infographic template appropriate for your gathered
information. The important thing is to choose a template that
specifically works for the type of content you want to present.
For more information please visit this website: https://visme.co/blog/infographic-examples-for-students/

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How to create
an 1
Infographic
Outline?
For more information please

visit: https://www.easel.l
y/introduction-to-
infographics

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1.The Visual Article: A long piece of writing made more visual
2.The Flowchart: Answers a specific question by giving readers choices
3.The Timeline: Tells a story through the use of chronological data
4.The List: Supports a claim or view through steps, rules, or reasons
5.Number Love: Lots and lots of charts, graphs, and stats
For more information: 6.Versus Comparison: Studies two things in a head-to-head comparison
https://www.schrockg
7.Data Viz: Pulls lots of complex data into a clean, unique design
uide.net/infographics-
as-an-assessment.html 8.The Map: Shows cultural/behavioral/other trends by location

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1. Useful Bait: Works well with
most of the data; Easy to
read and good usability
2. Versus/ Comparison: Works
well with a lot of information;
Design(visual) is very
important; Informations have
to be very interesting
3. Heavy Data (numbers porn):
Works well with marketing
strategy; TImeline for project;
Can extend to a flowchart
4. Road Map: Good for
storyline/journey; Can be
used as a timeline too
5. Timeline: Can be a
comparison; Good for
timeline and journey too;
From simple to complex
(depends on your data)
6. Visualized Article: Needs
strong title; Works well with
heavy content; Easy to read
and understand

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Submission:
• Infographic output submission is on October 9, 2020 (11:59 PM)

• Late submission: minus 1 per whole hour.
• Email the finished output to: instructor’s email address
Rubrics for Grading (Activity 1)

30 Exemplary Admirable Acceptable Attempted
Criteria
points 10-8 7-5 6-4 3-1
 Factual information is  Most information can be  Some errors in  Numerous errors in
Research and Content
accurate confirmed information information

 Addresses topic  Addresses topic  Barely addresses topic  Does not adequately
completely and in depth  Content is mostly  Content is somewhat address topic
10
 Content is readily understandable understandable  Content is confusing
understandable
 Logical sequencing of  Somewhat logical  Sequencing is poorly  Sequencing is

information sequencing planned confusing
 Original and creative  Original work  Little originality  Inconsistent
 All sources are correctly  Most sources are  Some sources are information is
Organization
cited correctly cited incorrectly cited presented

10  Other people’s ideas
presented as own
 Sources are not
cited
 Graphics effectively  Visuals and images are  Use of visuals and  Use of visuals and
Graphic Design
entice audience; attractive; adequately images is limited; images is confusing

10 accurately convey conveys message message is conveyed or absent; message
message is confusing

2020-2021 MSU-GSC
172
2020-2021 MSU-GSC
173

Development of Science and Technology Throughout History

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1.

At the end of the course, the student will be able to:

➢ Identify the important technological discoveries that

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

▪ Kiger, Patrick. “9 Ancient Sumerian Inventions That Changed the World”.

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

▪ Zalta, Edward. (2017). "Scientific Revolutions", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

▪ “Scientific Revolutions.” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Nov 28, 2017 Retrieved

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

Homo habilis (Skillful human)

Homo sapiens (Wise human)

Homo sapiens sapiens (Modern human)

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

▪ Because of the great span of time involved, the Stone Age is

▪ These three periods refer to the gradual progress of tool-making

▪ During these era an eventual transformation was seen from a

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

• Early humans lived in caves or

• They cooked their prey,

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

• Humans used small stone tools,

• They often lived nomadically in

• Agriculture was introduced

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

• Ancient humans switched from hunter/gatherer mode to

• They used polished hand axes, adzes for ploughing and

• Advancements were made not only in tools but also in

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

During the Neolithic period,

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

o Sharpened stones (Oldowan tools): 2.6 million

These were basically stone cores with flakes removed

One of the earliest

o Stone handaxe (Acheulean tools): 1.6

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

Known as the Levallois, or prepared-core

• Cutting blades (Aurignacian

The central innovation of this type of tool

characterized by small tools known as geometric

Microliths were added to

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

These tools, including axes, adzes, celts,

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

• Metalworking advances were made, as bronze, a copper and

Village life in Grimspound, a late Bronze Age

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

• Humans may have started smelting copper as early as 6,000

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

• The Fertile Crescent, often called the "Cradle of Civilization", is the

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

• Part of the Fertile Crescent, Mesopotamia was home to the earliest

• The earliest occupants of Mesopotamia lived in circular dwellings

• They began to practice agriculture by domesticating sheep and

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM

PERSONAL PROPERTY OF JEFFREY ROMERO-GEC108, 1ST SEM