Nums E.T Chemistry-II

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Inorganic Chemistry
Identification of on element on the basis of its properties
Most important thing is to recognize that element belongs to which

group and period…here are some methods…
 No. of outermost electrons in any atom represents group no….for

example hydrogen has 1 electron so it belongs to grp 1…similarly
Al has 3 electrons in outermost shell so it belongs to grp 3
 Now if an atom has one outermost shell than it belongs to 1 st
period…and if 2 shells than 2nd period and so on
 Valency of atoms can also give information….1st group elements
only show +1 valancy ( excepetion hydrides in which H- is
present…)
 No. of bonds formed can also give information
If the bond length is given between two atoms of a molecule,half
that distance, to get radius of atom
 As size of atom increases when we move downward in a group
and decreases when we move from left to right in a period. So if u
know that the given element belongs to which group or period u
can easily guess about its size comparing to others.( in Ecat there
will be given mcqs in which you have to pick the smallest or
greatest ( w.r.t size ) from the given)
 Size of + ion is always less than parent neutral atom
 Size of - ion is always greater than parent neutral atom
 Now if atom belongs to some starting groups than its ionization
energy is small and if atom belongs to 6 7 or 8th group than its
ionization energy is high…this is again important because if u have

little idea about the place of that atom in periodic table u can
easily compare different values
 Same is the case with electron affinity.
 Valancy of atoms can be predicted if u know that that element
belongs to which group..1st group elements usually show +1 ….2nd
group +2..so on upto group 4….5th group elements can have two
type of valancies ..+5 and -3.. similarly 6th and 7th group elements
can have two type of valancies..Electronegativity of elements can
also help us to decide this
Trends in various properties of elements
 Upto group (iv) metallic bonds are present (ionic, covalent also)
which get stronger as size decreases and no. of bond increases. So
melting and boiling point decreases from top to bottom in a group
and increases from left to right in a period.
 From group (iv) to group (viii) as Vander Wal forces are present
between atoms which increases as size increases so M.P and B.P
increases form top to bottom and decreases from left to right.
 Greater is the charge to size ratio greater will be hydration
energy
 Electronegativity if electronegativity difference between bonded
atoms is > 1.7 than bond will be ionic otherwise covalent
 Every 1st element of each group show deviation form normal
behaviour

 Abrupt increase in sizes of elements down the group increases

their metallic character
 Less electronegative elements are more metallic in character
Properties of Various elements
 Pair of electrons which can take part in chemical reaction but

don’t due to some reasons are called inert pairs
 CO is less polar due to a co-ordinate covalent bond from oxygen
toward carbon
 Oxidizing agents are those which oxidizes other and itself
reduced means which take electrons from others
 Reducing agents are those which reduces others and itself
oxidized means give electrons to others
 The atomic chlorine is most reactive so it is main agent of aqua
regia
 Sulphuric acid is strong dehydrating and oxidizing agent
 Pur e acids are always non- conductors while little addition of
water make them conductor due to ion formation
 Most metals like aluminium form oxide layer ( protective) when
they come in contact with air . this layer protects further
oxidation
 Brown fumes and dark brown colour of solutions are due to the
presence of NO2
 Flourine has highest electronegativity (4) while Cs has lowest so
CsF is strongest bond ever
 Halogens are most electronegative elements . so they form
mostly ionic bonds. Especially with starting group element
 Oxidizing power means tedency to snatch electrons from other
atoms, it is maximum in halogens

 Hydrogen bonding can give peculiar chracteristics to any

element
 Acid strength increases with increase in no. of oxygen atoms
 Increase of oxidation no. can give stability and extra binding
forces to an ion
 Bleaching action of bleaching powder depends upon the
amount of availble chlorine. more available chlorine stronger
action and vice versa
 Noble gases can be isolated from air by fractional distillation
 Neon is used in laser because it produces intense light . ( mostly
red in colour)
 Solubility of noble gases in water increases with increase in
atomic no. because the bigger atoms are more readily polarized
by water molecules
 Helium is 2nd lightest element in universe.( hydrogen is first) ,
due its lightness baloons are filled with helium try to fly upward
 Actually the word transition means in between or intermediate
 Transition elements has partially filled d or f subshells
 Increase of no. of unpaired electrons increases paramagnetic
character
 Variable oxidation state is the most important property of
transition elements but element like sulphur they are not
transition although they can show variable valeny
 For transition element covalent radii decreases rapidly at start of
series than become almost constant and finally begin to
increases at the end of series
 Colour chracteristic of transiton element is due to d-d transition.

 Mostly Hydrogen , boron, carbon, nitrogen are used in

interstetial compounds.
 In writing formula of complex ion the usual practice is to place
the symbol of the central metal atom first , followed by
formulas of the ionic legends in alphabetical order and the
formula of the whole complex ion enclosed in squrare bracket
 Memorize the percentage of carbon in pig , steel and wrought
iron.(given in book)
 Impurities accelerate corrosion,
 Chromates and dichromates are salt of chromic acid ( H2CrO4).
 Dichromates are very powerful oxidizing agents
Organic Chemistry
Organic Compounds are those compounds which contain carbon and

hydrogen together.

Functional Groups

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Hybridization
Atoms can broadly bond to form either covalent or ionic compounds. The
concept of hybridization was introduced to explain covalent bonding. So, if
atoms are combining to form ionic compounds like NaCl, they use ions to
combine, i.e they are losing or gaining electron(s), so the concept of
hybridisation is not required here. When atoms bond covalently,some of the
atomic orbitals undergo intermixing of energies to yield a set of hybridised
orbitals which are equivalent in energy. These new, hybrid orbitals are used
to overlap with hybrid or unhybridised orbitals of other atoms, forming a
covalent bond.
How to check hybridization state
Hybridization state = no. of bonds formed + no. of lone pair of electrons
To check no. of hybrid orbitals
Hybridization state can also help to check the no. of bonds formed
If sp3 hybridization so s+p+p+p= 4 sp3
If sp2 hybridization so s+p+p= 3 sp2
If sp hybridization so s+p = 2 sp
Sp3 hybridization 109.5 angle

Tetrahedral geometry
4 sp3 orbitals
Sp2 hybridization 120 angle
Trigonal planar
3 sp2 orbitals
Sp hybridization 180 angle
Linear geometry

2 sp orbitals
Isomerism
Hydrocarbons
Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
 Saturated (alkanes)
 Unsaturated (alkenes,alkynes)
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
(benzene)
Functional group Compounds

Alkyl Halides halogen as a functional group

Alcohols hydroxide as a functional group
Phenols hydroxyl as a functional group with benzene ring
Ethers oxygen atom between two carbon atoms
Carbonyl Compounds carbonyl group (C=O) as a functional group
Carboxylic Acids carboxyl group (COOH) as a functional group
Amino Acids amino (NH2) and carboxyl group on same carbon atom
Some important terms to remember
Hydrogenation addition of hydrogen

Oxidation addition of oxygen
Hydration addition of water
Reduction addition of hydrogen or removal of oxygen
Electrolysis breakdown of compound by electricity
DeCarboxylation removal of carbon dioxide
Nitration addition of NO2
Combustion Burning of compound in the presence of oxygen
Halogenation addition of halogen
DeHydrohalogenation removal of hydrogen and halogen at the same
time
Hydroxylation addition of hydroxyl group
Ozonolysis breakdown of compound in the presence of ozone
Polymerization combining monomers to form polymers
Rectified Spirit 95% alcohol+5% water
Absolute Alcohol pure alcohol (no water)
Methylated Spirit denatured alcohol by 10% methanol

Wood Spirit methanol

Formalin 40% formaldehyde+8% methyl alcohol+52% water
Some Important Reactions to remember
Sabatier-Sendern’s Reaction reduction of alkenes and alkynes to form

alkanes
Kolbe’s Electrolysis electrolysis of saturated monocarboxylic
acid,saturated dicarboxylic acid, unsaturated dicarboxylic acid to form
symmetrical akanes,alkenes and alkynes respectively
Clemmensen And Wolf-Kishner’s Reduction reduction of carbonyl
compounds to form alkanes
Friedel-Crafts Reaction alkylation and acylation of benzene
Wurtz Reaction preparation of symmetrical alkanes from alkyl halides
Williamson’s Reaction preparation of ethers from alkoxide ion
(alcohol+metals)
Dow’s Reaction preparation of phenol from chlorobenzene
Aldol Condensation Condensation of two molecules of aldehydes or
ketones possessing alpha hydrogen atom to form aldols
Cannizaro’s Reaction self oxidation-reduction reaction of aldehydes
possessing no alpha hydrogen
Haloform Reaction formation of haloforms when halogen is treated with
acetaldehyde,methyl ketones,ethanol and those secondary alcohols
possessing hydroxyl group on second carbon atom
Strecker Synthesis preparation of amino acids from carbonyl compounds
Esterification preparation of esters
Some Important Reagents and Catalysts to remember

Reducing Agents platinum,palladium,nickel,palladium-charcoal,LiAlH4,Zn

(zinc is used for cleavage of alkyl halides to obtain hydrogen atom for
reduction,this is because zinc has greater affinity for halogens),Zn-
amalgum+HCl (used in reducing carbonyl compounds-Clemmenson
Reduction)
Oxidating Agents KMnO4, K2Cr2O7
DeCarboxylating Agent Soda lime (CaO+NaOH)
Grignard Reagent alkyl magnesium halide
Dehydrohalogenating agent Alc. KOH
Dehydrating Agents P4O10,P2O5,conc.H2SO4,H3PO4,Al2O3
Hydrating Agents conc.H2SO4 , conc. HgSO4
Partial Hydrogenating Agents
Lindlar’s Catalyst Pd (BaSO4)/quinoline (to form cis
alkenes)
Na/liq.NH3 (to form trans alkenes)
Lucas Reagent ZnCl2+HCl
Bennedict’s Soln. alkaline soln. containing copper citrate complex ion
Fehling’s soln. alkaline soln. containing copper tartarate complex ion
Tollen’s Reagent ammonical silver nitrate soln.
Cu as a catalyst used in catalytic oxidation of alkanes
Ultraviolet light used for the halogenation of alkanes (a free redical
mechanism)
Baeyer’s Reagent dil.1% alkaline KMnO4 soln. (used in hydroxylation of
alkenes)
Organo-nickle Catalyst used in the polymerization of acetylene to form
benzene
Cr2O3+Al2O3+SiO2 as a catalyst used in preparing benzene from alkanes

Sunlight in the addition reactions of benzene like halogenation

Vanadium Oxide as a catalyst used in catalytic oxidation of benzene
ZnCl2 as a catalyst used for preparing alkyl halides from alcohol
ZnO+Cr2O3 as a catalyst used to prepare methanol on industrial scale
Pyridine as a catalyst used for preparing alkyl halide when alcohol is
treated with thionyl chloride
PdCl2 as a catalyst used to prepare acetaldehyde on industrial scale
Pt-abestos as a catalyst used for preparing formaldehyde in laboratory
Iron oxide-molybdenom oxide as a catalyst used for preparing
formaldehyde on industrial scale
Invertase used to convert molasses into glucose and fructose
Zymase used to convert glucose into alcohol (ethanol)
Diastase used to convert starch into maltose
Maltase used to convert maltose into glucose
Some Important Chemical Tests to remember
Baeyer’s Test used to test unsaturation (if pink colour of Baeyer’s reagent
decolourizes it means unsaturation is present)
Ozonolysis ozonolysis of alkenes is used to locate the position of double
bond
Lucas Test used to distinguish b/w primary,secondary and tertiary alcohols
Tertiary alcohols immediately appears cloudy when treated
with Lucas Reagent
Secondary alcohols turns cloudy after 5-10 min
Primary alcohols remains clear or turns to cloudy on heating
Tollen’s test used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.
Aldehydes give positive test

Fehling’s Test used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.

Bennedict’s Test used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.
2,4 DNPH Test used to indicate carbonyl compounds
Sodium Nitroprusside Test used to distinguish between aldehydes and
ketones.Ketones give
positive test
Iodoform Test used to distinguish Methyl ketones from other ketones
Acetaldehyde from other aldehydes
Ethanol from Methanol
Ninhydrin Test used to test amino acids
Test for alkyl benzene oxidation of alkyl benzenes give benzoic acid which
on treatment with KMnO4 decolourizes the solution
Bromine Water Test used to test unsaturation.. Also used to distinguish
between phenol and benzene (phenol gives white ppt)
Some Important Common names and formulas to remember
1. Toulene
2. Phenol
3. Benzaldehyde
4. Nitrobenzene
5. Naphthalene
6. Anthracene
7. Biphenyl
8. Aniline
9. Benzoic acid

10. Pyridine
11. Furan
12. Pyrrole
13. Thiophene
14. Benzene sulphonic acid
15. o-xylene m-xylene p-xylene
16. picric acid (2,4,6-trinitrophenol)
17. TNT (2,4,6-trinitrotoluene)
18. Acetophenone
19. Tartaric acid (2,3-dihydroxybutan-1,4-dioic acid)
20. Lactic acid (3-hydroxypropanoic acid)
21. Marsh gas (methane)
22. Formic acid Acetic acid
23. Ethylene Acetylene Ethylene glycol
24. Propylene glycol
25. Ethylene epoxide (oxygen atom attached with two adjacent carbons)
26. Halohydrin (halogen and hydroxyl group on adjacent carbon atoms)
27. Vicinal dihalides (two halogen atoms on adjacent carbons)
28. Geminal dihalides (two halogen atoms on same carbon atom)
29. Mustard gas (2,2-dichloro ethyl sulphide) glyoxal (oxygen atoms
bonded via double bonds on adjacent carbon atoms)
30. Neoprene (polymer of chloroprene)
Chemistry of Reactions
Bonding species
Electrophile:

 e- loving- have affinity for e-

 e- deficient species
 They act as Lewis Acid as they accept electron
 +vely charged species (H+,CH3+ etc) or may be neutral (SO3,BF4
etc)
Nucleophile:
 nucleus lover
 e- rich species
 -vely charged (O-,F-,Br- etc) or may be neutral (NH3,SO2,H2O etc )
 They act as a Lewis Base as they donate electrons
Free Radical:
 Have unpaired e-
 produced as a result of homolysis
 Cl*, CH3* etc
Types of Bond Fission:
Bond fission is of two types
 Homolytic Fission
 Heterolytic Fission
Homolytic fission
 in which shared e- pairs are equally distributed among bonded
atoms
 resulting specie have unpaired e- and are called free radical
 similar groups are produced
 product is paramagnetic due to unpaired e-
 The reactions carried upon by homolytic fission are called radical
reactions

Heterolytic fission;
 shared e- pairs is taken by 1 of bonded atom only
 ions are produced
 electrophile (+ve) and nucleophile (-ve) are produced
 products are diamagnetic
 The reactions carried upon by heterolytic fission are called ionic or
polar reactions
Types of Reactions
 Addition Reactions
 Substituition Reactions
 Elimination Reaction
Addition Reactions
The reactions which involved the addition of different compounds and
finally give a single product are called addition reactions
E.g Benzene+3H2  Cyclohexane
 Carbonyl Compounds give Nucleophilic Addition Reactions
Substituition Reactions
Substitution reaction (also known as single displacement reaction or
single replacement reaction) is a chemical reaction during which one
functional group in a chemical compound is replaced by another
functional group

Two types of Substituition Reactions

 Nucleophilic Substituition Reactions
 Electrophilic Substituition Reactions
Nucleophilic Substituition Reactions
Nucleophilic substitution is the reaction of an electron pair donor (the

nucleophile, Nu) with an electron pair acceptor (the electrophile). An
electrophile must have a leaving group (X) in order for the reaction to
take place.
 Alkyl Halides give nucleophilic Substituition Reactions
There are two fundamental events in these substitution reactions:
1. formation of the new bond to the nucleophile

2. breaking of the bond to the leaving group
Depending on the relative timing of these events, two different

mechanisms are possible:
 Bond breaking to form a carbocation preceeds the formation of

the new bond : SN1 reaction
 Simultaneous bond formation and bond breaking : SN2 reaction
SN1 mechanism
SN1 indicates a substitution, nucleophilic, unimolecular reaction,

described by the expression rate = k [R-LG]
This pathway is a multi-step process with the following characteristics:
 step 1: rate determining (slow) loss of the leaving group, LG, to

generate a carbocation intermediate, then

 step 2: rapid attack of a nucleophile on the electrophilic

carbocation to form a new s bond
Effects of R-
Reactivity order : (CH3)3C- > (CH3)2CH- > CH3CH2- > CH3-
In an SN1 reaction, the key step is the loss of the leaving group to form
the intermediate carbocation. The more stable the carbocation is, the
easier it is to form, and the faster the SN1 reaction will be. Some
students fall into the trap of thinking that the system with the less
stable carbocation will react fastest, but they are forgetting that it is the
generation of the carbocation that is rate determining.
-LG
The only event in the rate determining step of the SN1 is breaking the C-
LG bond. For alcohols it is important to remember that -OH is a very
poor leaving. In the reactions with HX, the -OH is protonated first to
give an oxonium, providing the much better leaving group, a water
molecule (see scheme below).
Nu
Since the nucleophile is not involved in the rate determining step of an
SN1 reaction, the nature of the nucleophile is unimportant. In the
reactions of alcohols with HX, the reactivity trend of HI > HBr > HCl > HF
is not due to the nucleophilicity of the halide ion but the acidity of HX
which is involved in generating the leaving group prior to the rate
determining step
It involves Retention of Configuration
SN2 mechanism
SN2 indicates a substitution, nucleophilic, bimolecular reaction,

described by the expression

rate = k [Nu][R-LG]
Single step reactions have no intermediates and single transition

state (TS).
In an SN2 there is simultaneous formation of the carbon-nucleophile

bond and breaking of the carbon-leaving group bond, hence the
reaction proceeds via a TS in which the central C is partially bonded to
five groups.
Effects of R-
Reactivity order : CH3- > CH3CH2- > (CH3)2CH- > (CH3)3C-
For alcohols reacting with HX, methyl and 1 o systems are more likely to
react via an SN2 reaction since the carbocations are too high energy for
the SN1 pathway to occur.
-LG
Once again the leaving group is a water molecule formed by
protonation of the -OH group. -OH on its own is a poor leaving group.
Nu
Since the nucleophile is involved in the rate determining step, the
nature of the nucleophile is very important in an SN2 reaction. More
reactive nucleophiles will favor an SN2 reaction.
It involves Inversion of Configuration
Electrophilic Substituition Reactions
Electrophilic aromatic substitution (SEAr) is an organic reaction in

which an atom that is attached to an aromatic system (usually
hydrogen) is replaced by an electrophile. Some of the most important
electrophilic aromatic substitutions are aromatic nitration, aromatic

halogenation, aromatic sulfonation, and acylation and

alkylating Friedel–Crafts reactions.
Elimination Reactions
One of the example of elimination reactions is β-elimination reaction
A chemical reaction in which atoms or groups are lost from adjacent

atoms, resulting in a new pi bond: A-B-C-D ---> A + B=C + D. One of
atoms lost is usually (but not always) a proton. The new pi bond is
usually (but not always) formed between two carbon atoms.
 They are given by those alkyl halides having β-hydrogen atom
 Elimination of halogen acid takes place and this results in the

formation of Alkenes
E1 mechanism
 It constitutes of two steps. In first step slow ionization of the

substrate occurs that resul in the formation of carbocation. In
second step the nucleophile attacks and give alkene as a product
 Unimolecular Reaction
 Rate of the reaction depends upon the concentration of Alkyl
Halide
 Tertiary Alkyl Halides generally follow this mechanism
E2 mechanism
 Single step mechanism,the nucleophile attacks and leaving group

leaves at the same time
 Bimolecular Reaction
 Rate of reaction depends upon the concentration of Alkyl AHlides
as well as the attacking Nucleophile
 Primary Alkyl Halides generally follow this mechanism

Some important reactivities of different compounds
Reactivity of halogens for the halogenations of alkanes
F2>Cl2>Br2>I2
Dehydration of Alcohols
Tertiary alc.>Secondary alc.>Primary alc.
Order of Reactivity of Halogen Acids
HI>HBr>HCl
Order of Reactivity of Alcohols in estrification
Primary>Secondary>Tertiary
Oxidation of Alcohols
Primary>Secondary>Tertiary
Order of Reactivity for Nitration
Phenol>benzene>chlorophenol>toluene
Order of Acidic Nature of some compounds
Carboxylic acid>phenol>water>alchol
Order of Reactivity of Alkyl Halides
R-I>R-Br>R-Cl>R-F

Amino Acids
Amino Acids
a) General structure of a-aminoacids;
The naturally occurring amino acids have a common structure. Amino
acids, as the name implies, have two functional groups, an amino group
(–NH 2) and a carboxyl group (–COOH). These groups are joined to a
single (aliphatic) carbon. In organic chemistry, the carbon directly
attached to a carboxyl group is the alpha (α) position, so the amino
acids in proteins are all alpha‐amino acids. The side chains that
distinguish one amino acid from another are attached to the alpha
carbon, so the structures are often written as shown in Figure , where R
stands for one of the 20 side chains:
If you look again at the general structure of an amino acid, you will see
that it has both a basic amine group and an acidic carboxylic acid group.

There is an internal transfer of a hydrogen ion from the -COOH group to

the -NH2 group to leave an ion with both a negative charge and a
positive charge.
This is called a zwitterion.
A zwitterion is a compound with no overall electrical charge, but which

contains separate parts which are positively and negatively charged.
This is the form that amino acids exist in even in the solid state.
b) Nature of R Group:
The 20 naturally occurring α-amino acids used by cells to synthesise

proteins can be generally represented by the generic formula shown

above.
The means the main difference between the various amino acids lies in
the structure of the "R" group.
These 20 α-amino acids can be sub-classified according to how the
properties of other functional groups in the "R" group influence the
system.
non-polar side chains (e.g. alkyl groups)
polar (e.g. amides, alcohols)
acidic (e.g. carboxylic acids, phenols)
basic (e.g. amines)
 Non Polar Amino Acids
Non Polar Amino Acids have equal number of amino and carboxyl
groups and are neutral. These amino acids are hydrophobic and have
no charge on the 'R' group. The amino acids in this group are alanine,
valine, leucine, isoleucine, phenyl alanine, glycine, tryptophan,
methionine and proline.

Go Glycine
And Alanine
Take Tryptophan
Vital valine

Part Phenylalanine
in isoleucine
Promoting Proline

Mother Methionine
Language Leucine
 Polar Amino Acids with no Charge:

These amino acids do not have any charge on the 'R' group. These
amino acids participate in hydrogen bonding of protein structure. The
amino acids in this group are serine, threonine, tyrosine, cysteine,
glutamine and aspargine.
 Polar Amino Acids with Positive Charge:

Polar amino acids with positive charge have more amino groups as
compared to carboxyl groups making it basic. The amino acids, which
have positive charge on the 'R' group are placed in this category. They
are lysine, arginine and histidine.
 Polar Amino Acids with Negative Charge:

Polar amino acids with negative charge have more carboxyl groups than
amino groups making them acidic. The amino acids, which have
negative charge on the 'R' group are placed in this category. They are

called as dicarboxylic mono-amino acids. They are aspartic acid and

glutamic acid.
c)Essential Amino Acids

You must include them in your diet because your body can't make them
on its own. If you don't ingest them, you will not be experiencing
optimal health and may have a disease caused by that deficiency.
MATH
Methionine
Arginine
Threonine
Histidine
ILL
Isoleucine
Lysine
Leucine
PTV
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan
Valine
 Non-Essential Amino Acids

Under normal conditions, your body can manufacture these amino

acids, so you don't have to ingest each of these.
Alanine
Asparagine
Aspartic Acid
Cysteine
Glutamine
Glutamic Acid
Glycine
Proline
Serine
Tyrosine
d)Peptide Bond Formation:
A peptide bond (sometimes mistakenly called amino bond) is a covalent
bond that is formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group
of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the another molecule,
releasing a molecule of water. This is a a condensation reaction and
usually occurs between amino acids. The resulting CO-NH bond is called
a peptide bond, and the resulting molecule is an amide.
 Formation of the peptide bond;
The molecules must be orientated so that the carboxylic acid group of
one can react with the amine group of the other. For example, two
amino acids combining through the formation of a peptide bond to
form a dipeptide.

by convention a peptide having molecular mass upto 10,000 is called a

polypeptide while a peptide having molecular mass more than 10,000 is
called a protein.
Amino Acids are those compounds which contains both carboxyl group
and amino group.
 There are several amino acids but only 20 are involved in protein
synthesis
 Such amino acids that synthesize proteins are called Standard
Amino Acids
 Such amino acids that can’t synthesize proteins are called Non-
standard Amino Acids
 Essential Amino Acids are those amino acids which our body can’t
synthesize
 Those amino acids which our body can synthesize are called Non-
essential Amino Acids
 The amino group and carboxyl group can be present on same
carbon atoms or may be on different carbon atoms
 All those amino acids that synthesize proteins contain both amino
and carboxyl group on same carbon atom,hence called α-amino
acids

 Amino Acids join together through peptide linkages to form

dipeptides, tripolypeptides, tetrapeptides or polypeptides
 These polypeptides perform different functions such as protein
formation or formation of membranes
 The properties of amino acids depends upon R group. They may
be acidic,basic, hydrophobic,sulphur containing,OH group
containing,aromatic,imino acid
 Proteins exist in the body as ionized form
 The ionized amino acid is called Zwitter Ion or Internal salt and
hence can behave as both acid and base. If acid is added to amino
acid,it behaves as base and accept the protons,therefore,positive
charge appears on it. If base is added to amino acid,it behaves as
acid and donates the proton,therefore,negative charge appears
on it
 Amino Acids and Imino Acid (contain –NH instead of –NH2) can
be distinguish by Ninhydrin Test.
 Amino Acids give blue colour in Ninhydrin Solution
 Imino Acid give yellow colour in Ninhydrin Solution
 There is only one imino acid “proline” (standard)
 19 other standard amino acid includes
 Glycine (hydrophobic) G
 Alanine (hydrophobic) A
 Threonine (OH group containing) T
 Serine (OH group containing) S
 Cystein (sulphur containing) C
 Methionine (sylphur containing) M
 Arginine (basic) R
 Lysine (basic) K

 Tyrosine (aromatic/OH containing) Y

 Tryptophan (aromatic) W
 Histidine (basic) H
 Aspartic Acid (acidic) D
 Aspargine (amide form of aspartic acid) N
 Glutamic Acid (acidic) E
 Glutamine (amide form of glutamic acid) Q
 Phenyl Alanine (aromatic) F
 Leucine (hydrophobic) L
 Isoleucine (hydrophobic) I
 Valine (hydrophobic) V
 For convenience they are represented by first three letters of

their names
 They can also be abbreviated by single alphabets as written above
 Essential amino acids are 10.
 Non Essential amino acids are 10.
 Acidic amino acids are 2.
 Basic amino acids are 3.
 Amino Acids differ from one another due to difference in R group
that imparts specific properties
 Number of amino acids – 1= Number of peptide bonds
 Number of amino acids – 1= Number of water molecules
 A peptide having a molecular mass of 10,000 is polypeptide.
 A peptide having a molecular mass upto 10,000 is polypeptide.

A peptide having a molecular mass greater than 10,000 is

generally protein but it may also be possible that its simple
polypeptide
 Hydrolysis of Protein:
A peptide bond can be broken down by hydrolysis (the adding of
water). The peptide bonds that are formed within proteins have a
tendency to break spontaneously when subjected to the presence of
water (metastable bonds) releasing about 10 kJ/mol of free energy.
This process, however, is very slow. Living organisms use enzymes to
broken down or to form peptide bonds.
Macromolecules:
a)addition polymer:
Polymers are long chain giant organic molecules are assembled from
many smaller molecules called monomers. Polymers consist of many
repeating monomer units in long chains. A polymer is analogous to a
necklace made from many small beads (monomers). Many monomers
are alkenes or other molecules with double bonds which react by

addition to their unsaturated double bonds. and this process is called

addition polymerization.
 monomer must have multiple bond
 no removal of small molecule in addition polymerization
 these follow free radical mechanism
-initiation, propagation, termination
 chain grows only in one direction.
some examples of A polymers are given below;
Polyethene:
ethene at 400 temp and 100 atm pressure,polymerize to polyethene or
polyethylene.
a good quality polyethene is obtained,when ethene is polymerized in

the presence of Al(C2H5)3 and TiCl4.
Polyethene is a plastic. It is a white translucent, waxy polymer
constituted of only carbon and hydrogen. It burns well, does not
conduct electricity and is insoluble in water and most organic solvents.
Polyethene is a thermoplastic. Thermoplastics melt when heated and
can thus be remodelled.
Uses;
used for making toys,cables,bags,boxes,flexible pipes,sheets etc.
Polypropene:
Propene undergoes addition polymerization to produce poly(propene),

often known as polypropylene, which is one of the most versatile

thermoplastic polymers available commercially.
Uses;
it has many commercial uses, including packaging, automotive
products, textiles, housewares, medicine, tubing, and many others.
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC);
Poly(chloroethene) is made by polymerising chloroethene
(vinylchloride), CH2=CHCl at 52 tmp and 9 atm pressure.
it is an addition polymer.
Uses;
addition of plasticizer improve the flexibility of polymer. it is widely
used in floor covering, in pipes,in gramophone recorders etc.
Polystyrene or polyphenylethylene:

it is also an addition polymer and is obtained by polymerization of

styrene in the presence of a catalyst.
or
Uses;
used in manufacture of food containers,cosmetic bottles, toys and
packaging material etc.
b) Condensation Polymerization:
Condensation polymers are any kind of polymers formed through a
condensation reaction—where molecules join together—losing small
molecules as by-products such as water or methanol.
 monomers must be difunctional
 single step
 chain grows in both direction.
some examples are given below;
Polyesters:
A polyester is made by a reaction involving an acid with two -COOH

groups, and an alcohol with two -OH groups.

The acid is benzene-1,4-dicarboxylic acid (old name: terephthalic acid).
The alcohol is ethane-1,2-diol (old name: ethylene glycol).
polyester is also known as Terylene.

Uses:
polyester has large no. of uses in clothing.it is often blended with
cotton or wool for summer and winter clothing.it is also used for
making water tanks etc.
Nylon:
Nylons are condensation copolymers, formed by reacting difunctional
monomers containing equal parts of amine and carboxylic acid, so that
amides are formed at both ends of each monomer.
nylon-6,6 is most imp polyamide.nylon-6,6 derives its name from its
starting materials adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine,both of
which have 6 carbons

Uses:
as textile fibre.it has a combination of high
strength,elasticity,toughness and abrasion resistance.
c)Structure of Protein;
Proteins are large biological molecules, or macromolecules, consisting
of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a
vast array of functions within living organisms, including catalyzing
metabolic reactions, replicating DNA, responding to stimuli, and
transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ
from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is
dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually
results in folding of the protein into a specific three-dimensional
structure that determines its activity.

The primary structure of a protein — its amino acid sequence — drives

the folding and intramolecular bonding of the linear amino acid chain,
which ultimately determines the protein's unique three-dimensional
shape. Hydrogen bonding between amino groups and carboxyl groups
in neighbouring regions of the protein chain sometimes causes certain
patterns of folding to occur. Known as alpha helices and beta sheets,
these stable folding patterns make up the secondary structure of a
protein. Most proteins contain multiple helices and sheets, in addition
to other less common patterns. The ensemble of formations and folds
in a single linear chain of amino acids — sometimes called a
polypeptide — constitutes the tertiary structure of a protein. Finally,
the quaternary structure of a protein refers to those macromolecules
with multiple polypeptide chains or subunits.
d) Chemistry of Carbohydrate:
Carbohydrates (from 'hydrates of carbon') or saccharides (Greek
meaning "sugar") are the most abundant of the four major classes of
biomolecules, which also include proteins, lipids and nucleic
acids.Chemically, carbohydrates are simple organic compounds that are
aldehydes or ketones with many hydroxyl groups added, usually one on
each carbon atom that is not part of the aldehyde or ketone functional
group.they are most abundant biomolecule on earth.
Classification of Carbohydrates:
3 major Classes;
Monosaccharides;
 simple sugar
 cant hydrolyzed
 sweet in tasste
 soluble in water

 Examples: fructose,glucose,glactose,mannose
Dissacharides or oligosaccharides:
 they are formed by condensation of 2 to 9 monosacharides.
 Crystalline solids
 Less sweet in taste
 soluble in water
 Examples; sucrose(Glu+Fruc),lactose(glucose+Glactose)milk sugar
not present in plants,maltose(Glu+Glu), Raffinose (trisaccharide)
Polysaccharides:
 high molecular weight
 yield many monosaccharides units on hydrolysis
 amorphous solids
 insoluble in water
 tasteless so called non-sugars
 Examples: starch,cellulose,glycogen etc.

e) Chemistry of Lipids;
Lipids are naturally occuring organic compounds of animals and plants
origin which are soluble in organic solvents and belong to a very
heterogenous group of substances.
 insoluble in water but soluble in non-polar solvents i-e ether,

benzene etc
 primary building blocks are fatty acids,Glycerol and sterol.
 fats and oils are most imp lipids found in liviong organism.
 animals,plants are natural source of lipids.
Structure Of Lipids;
they are triesters formed from glycerol and long chain acids called fatty
acids.
A triester of glycerol is called triglycerides or glyceride.

the glycerides in which long-chain saturated acid components
predominate tend to be solid or semi-solid and are termed as Fats.on
the other hand oils are glycerol esters which contain high proportion of
unsaturated fatty acids.

Classification of Lipids:

REx
 Hydrolysis Of Lipids;
triglycerides are easily hydrolyzed by enzyme called ,lipases to glycerol
and fatty acids.
 Sponification:
it is hydrolysis of fats and oils when react with alkali to form salt of
carboxylic acid (soap) and glycerol.

 Hardening of oils:
During hydrogenation, vegetable oils are hardened by reacting them
with hydrogen gas at about 60ºC. A nickel catalyst is used to speed up
the reaction. The double bonds are converted to single bonds by the
hydrogenation. In this way unsaturated oils can be made into saturated
fats.

 Saponification Number:
Saponification value (or "saponification number" also referred to as
"sap" in short) represents the number of milligrams of potassium
hydroxide required to saponify 1g of fat under the conditions specified.
Example; saponification no. of glycerol tripalmitate is
208.
Uses of lipids:
Lipids are used by organisms for energy storage, as a signalling
molecule (e.g., steroid hormones), and as a structural component of
cell membranes.
f)Enzymes:
''Enzymes can be defined as the rex catalysts of biological systems
produced by living cells and are capable of catalyzing chemical rex''
they may speed up rex by factors of upto 10^20.
Classification of enzymes:
IUB classified enzymes into six classes
i-Oxidoreductases:
catalyses oxidation,reduction reactions
e.g oxidase,dehydrogenase,peroxydase

ii-Transferases:
bring abiut exchange of functional groups between two compounds
e.g phospho-transferases etc
iii-Hydrolases:
catalyses hydrolysis
e.g proteases called protolytic enzymes.
iv-Lyases:
catalyzes addition of NH3,H2O or CO2 to double bonds or removal of
these to make double bonds.
e.g fumarases
v-Isomerases
catalyze the transfer of groups within molecules to yield isomeric forms
of the sunbtrate
e.g phospho-glyceromutases.
vi-Ligases
link 2 molecules together the breaking of high energy bonds
e.g acetyl-S-COH, carboxylase and succinic thiokinase.
Properties of Enzymes:
 Extraordinary Specificity
 Amazing efficiency
 protein nature
 reversible direction of enzyme rex

 Isoenzymes
Enzyme activity:
 Directly proportional to enzyme concentration
 occur best at optimum temp
 occur best at optimimum pH
 dec by exposure to radiations
Importance of Enzymes:
Enzymes are of great biological importance & r of great help in
diagnosis of certain diseases
Example;
 ALkaline phosphotases is raised in rickets and jaundice
 Lactic Dehydrogenase or LDH-1 is raised in heart diseases
Many enzymes are useful as drugs
Example
 Thrombin is used to stop bleeding
 L-asparaginase has proved very useful in the treatment of blood
cancer in children.
g) Structure & Function of Nucleic Acid:
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or large biomolecules, essential for all
known forms of life. Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic
acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are made from monomers known as
nucleotides.
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or large biomolecules, essential for all
known forms of life. Nucleic acids, which include DNA (deoxyribonucleic

acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid), are made from monomers known as
nucleotides.
The building blocks
Three types of chemicals make up the building blocks for nucleic acids.
 Phosphates
These are based on the inorganic acid H3PO4 (phosphoric acid).
 Sugars
The sugars in DNA and RNA are pentoses.
in DNA the sugar is deoxyribose
in RNA the sugar is ribose
 Organic Bases
There are four organic bases involved in the formation of DNA
molecules:

adenine and guanine (both purines containing two rings in their

structures)
thymine and cytosine (both pyrimidines containing only one ring in
their structures)

Function of Nucleic Acid:

they play vital role in heritance.they contain in their structure the blue
prints for normal growth & development of each & every organism.
2 Fundamental functions are
a) ability to reproduce,store and transmit genetic info
b)to undergo mutation.
9- Environmental Chemistry:
a) Causes of water pollution:
Water is essential for life.water constitute major portion of living
organism's body.Life is impossible without Water.With the passage of
time vital resources of fresh water are vulnerable to contamination.
Following are some human activities causing water contamination:
1-Livestock wastes
2-Oil spillage
3-Detergents
4-Pesticides
5-industrial waste effluents
6-Leather tanneries

Factors affecting Quality of Water;

DO,BOD,COD are frequently used in measuring the quality of water
1-Dissolved Oxygen (DO):
in water most imp oxidizing agent is molecular oxygen (O2) the conc. of
which ranges from 4-6 ppm.it is a parametr to determine Quality of
water.
it is directly proportional to purity of H2O.
2- Biochemical Oxygen demand (BOD):
the value of BOD is amount of O2 consumed as a result of biological
oxidation of dissolved organic matter in the sample.
it is inversely proportional to purity of water.
3-Chemical Oxygen demand (COD):
The ogranic content of water which consumes O2 during chemical
oxidation is evaluated by its COD.
its inversely proportional to purity of water.
c) AIR POLLUTION: (Chemistry & causes of----
i- Smog;
The word ''SMOG'' is combination of smoke & fog.
The following conditions are required for formation of smog
 sufficient NO, hydrocarbons & volatile organic compounds (VOC)
emitted by vehicular traffic.
 sunlight
 movement of air mass must be little.

there r 2 types of smog

1-Reducing smog;
if it contains high conc. of SO2 it is called reducing smog as it is
chemically reducing in nature.the main cause of reducing smog is
combustion of coal
2-oxidizing smog;
photochemical smog consists of higher conc. of oxidants like
ozone,NO2 and many other gaseous components. the main reactant of
photochemical smog are nitric oxide NO & unburnt hydrocarbons.
the yellow colour in photchemical smog is due to presence of NO2.
the overall result of photochemical smog in afternoon is built up of
oxidizing agents such as H2O2,HNO3, Peroxyacetyl NITRATE (PAN) &
ozone in air
PAN is an eye irritant and is also toxic to plants.
ii-ACID RAIN:
The term "acid rain" was first used by a British chemist, Robert Angus
Smith.
acid rain, which now-a-day is termed as acid deposition, was referred to
the precipitation which was more acidic than natural rain. in the
atmosphere CO2, SOz & NOx are transformed by rex with O2 & H2O
into H2CO3 , H2SO4 & HNO3 respectively.
the pH of unpolluted rain water should be 5.6 the rain water with pH
less than 5 is considered truly acidic
SO2+O2+H2O------------------------>H2SO4

Effects of Acid rain:

 Acidification of soil & rocks leach the metals i-e Al, Hg, Pb & Ca &
discharge them into water bodies.
 the elevated conc. of Al is harmfull for fish as it clogs the gills
causing suffocation.
 Acid rain also damages building material such as
steel,paints,plastics,cement,masonry work & sculptural material
specially of marble & limestone.
iii- OZONE LAYER;
Ozone,O3 is a gas having low boiling point.it is present in small
concentration throughout the atmosphere.
In the atmosphere troposphere,which extends to an altitude of 0-15 km
from the earth is present
above it stratosphere, extends from 15 - 40 km, is present.the ozone
layer, 25-28 km high in stratosphere,is main chemical specie preset in
stratosphere, surround the globe and filters most harmful UV radiation
in sunlight before they could reach on earth.
the temp in troposphere dec with increasing altitude from 15 to -56 c
whereas the temp in stratosphere inc with increasing altitude i-e -56 to
-2 c
The amount of ozone in the atmosphere is expresed in dobson unit DU

normal amount of overhead ozone is 350 DU

The thickness of ozone layer is dec due to various chemical rex.Main
cause of this depletion is chloroflurocarbons. CFCs plays effective role
in removing O3 in stratosphere through following rex
A single chloride free radical can destroy upto 100,000 O3 molecules.
BEST OF LUCK STUDENTS


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INTRODUCTION TO THIS DOCUMENT

Entry tests are very important for the admission in Engineering

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Identification of on element on the basis of its properties

Most important thing is to recognize that element belongs to which

 No. of outermost electrons in any atom represents group no….for

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Trends in various properties of elements

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 Abrupt increase in sizes of elements down the group increases

Properties of Various elements

 Pair of electrons which can take part in chemical reaction but

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 Hydrogen bonding can give peculiar chracteristics to any

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 Mostly Hydrogen , boron, carbon, nitrogen are used in

Organic Compounds are those compounds which contain carbon and

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

How to check hybridization state

Hybridization state = no. of bonds formed + no. of lone pair of electrons

To check no. of hybrid orbitals

Sp3 hybridization 109.5 angle

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Functional group Compounds

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Alkyl Halides halogen as a functional group

Some important terms to remember

Hydrogenation addition of hydrogen

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Wood Spirit methanol

Some Important Reactions to remember

Sabatier-Sendern’s Reaction reduction of alkenes and alkynes to form

Some Important Reagents and Catalysts to remember

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Reducing Agents platinum,palladium,nickel,palladium-charcoal,LiAlH4,Zn

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Sunlight in the addition reactions of benzene like halogenation

Some Important Chemical Tests to remember

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Fehling’s Test used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones.

Some Important Common names and formulas to remember

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

 e- loving- have affinity for e-

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©IMPORTANT POINTS FOR CHEMISTRY-II @M&E CAT PREPARATION CORNER

Two types of Substituition Reactions

Nucleophilic Substituition Reactions

Nucleophilic substitution is the reaction of an electron pair donor (the

 Alkyl Halides give nucleophilic Substituition Reactions

There are two fundamental events in these substitution reactions:

1. formation of the new bond to the nucleophile

Depending on the relative timing of these events, two different

 Bond breaking to form a carbocation preceeds the formation of