ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS,

CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
AND CALCULATIONS

CHM 131 CHAPTER 2

OBJECTIVES:

 Define element, compound, atom, molecule, and ion,

 State the names or formulas of elements, molecules, and
compound
 Define proton number, nucleon number, and isotope
 Determine mole, relative atomic mass and relative
molecular/formula mass, % composition, empirical formula,
formula of compounds, limiting reactant
 Perform balancing the chemical equations & chemical
stoichiometry
DEFINITION
Atom
 smallest particle of an element that retain the
characteristic properties of that element
 Atomsare made up of 3 subatomic particles
namely
 Protons
 Electrons
 Neutrons
 Protons and neutrons are located at the centre
of an atom in a tiny core called the nucleus

- Electrons move around the

nucleus in circular
- Orbits called the energy levels

- Nucleus (centre of an atom)

- Contains protons and neutrons
Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers and
Isotopes
•Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus of anatom of any
particular element
• No of protons = no. of electrons
• Mass number: Total number of protons + neutronsin the atom

X = Atomic symbol of theelement

A = mass number; Proton + Neutron
Z = atomic number
(the number of protons or electrons)
THESYMBOLOF THEATOM ORISOTOPE
Periodic Table
Element

 Substance that cannot be broken down into two or

more differentsubstances.
 Same elements: Same no of proton
Element
 It is formed from the combination of atomsonly.
 Also occur in a molecular form in which the same
type of elements (atoms) are chemically combined.
They are called diatomic molecules or, sometimes,
molecular elements.

hydrogen, H2; nitrogen, N2; oxygen, O2;

fluorine, F2;
chlorine, Cl2; bromine, Br2; iodine, I2
ISOTOPES
•Atoms with identical atomic numbers but different mass
numbers
•Most elements have 2 or more isotopes.
•Isotopes have different numbers of neutrons.
•Have similar chemistries, forming same type of compound
and displaying similar reactivities.

11 12 13 14
6
C 6
C 6
C 6
C
Molecule

An aggregate of at least two

atoms in a definite
arrangement held together
by chemical forces
Molecules
 Molecules are formed from chemical
combinations of atoms-atoms
 combined in specific ratios to one another.
IONS
 An ion is an atom, or group of atoms, that has a net
positive or negative charge.
 CATION – ion with a positive charge
If a neutral atom loses one or more electrons it
becomes a cation.

Na 11 protons Na+ 11 protons

11 electrons 10 electrons
 ANION - ion with a negative charge
If a neutral atom gains one or more electrons
it becomes an anion.

Cl 17 protons Cl- 17 protons

17 electrons 18 electrons
 Formation of Ions
 In any given tom, the number of protons is always
equal to the number of electrons.
 Neutral atoms can lose or gain electrons and
become charged
 The charged atoms are known as ions

A positive ion/ cation = formed when a neutral atom releases

an electron
A negative ion / anion = formed when a neutral atom accepts an
electron
• Releases an electron produce cation
• No. of electrons in an atom
> no. of electrons in its ion
• Charge = no. of electrons in an atom
– no. of electrons in its ion
• Accepts an electron produce anion
• No. of electrons in an atom
< no. of electrons in its ion
• Charge = no. of electrons in an atom
– no. of electrons in its ion
Monoatomic ions
 A monatomic ion contains only oneatom
Polyatomic ion
 A polyatomic ion contains more than one atom
Common Ions Shown on the Periodic Table
Compounds
 A compound is a substance composed of atoms of
two or more elements chemically united in fixed
proportions
 Compounds can only be separated into their pure
components (elements) by chemical means.

lithium fluoride quartz dry ice – carbon dioxide

 CHEMICAL
NOMENCLATURE
Ionic Compounds
 Often a metal + nonmetal
 Anion (nonmetal), add “ide” to element name

BaCl2 barium chloride

K2O potassium oxide
Mg(OH)2 magnesium hydroxide
KNO3 potassium nitrate
Question
Complete the names of the following binary compounds:

Na3N sodium

KBr potassium

Al2O3 aluminum

MgS
 Transition metal ionic compounds

 indicate charge on metal with Roman numerals

FeCl2 2 Cl- -2 so Fe is+2 iron(II) chloride

FeCl3 3 Cl- -3 so Fe is+3 iron(III) chloride

Cr2S3 3 S-2 -6 so Cr is +3 (6/2) chromium(III) sulfide

 Question
Name the following compounds:

A. CaO
1) calcium oxide 2) calcium(I) oxide
3) calcium (II) oxide
B. SnCl4
1) tin tetrachloride 2) tin(II) chloride
3) tin(IV) chloride
C. Co2O3
1) cobalt oxide 2) cobalt (III) oxide
3) cobalt trioxide
Question
Complete the names of the following binary compounds
with variable metal ions:

FeBr2 iron ( ) bromide

Cu2O copper ( ) oxide
SnCl4 ( )
Fe2O3
CuS
 Molecular compounds
 Nonmetals or nonmetals + metalloids
 Common names
 H2O, NH3, CH4,
 Element furthest to the left in a period
and closest to the bottom of a group on
periodic table is placed first in formula
 If more than one compound can be
formed from the same elements, use
prefixes to indicate number of each
kind of atom
 Last element name endsin ide
 Common examples:
HI hydrogen iodide
NF3 nitrogen trifluoride
SO2 sulfur dioxide
N2Cl4 dinitrogen tetrachloride
NO2 nitrogen dioxide
N2O dinitrogen monoxide
Question

CO carbon oxide

CO2 carbon

PCl3 phosphorus chloride

CCl4 carbon chloride
N2O nitrogen oxide
Question
A. P2O5 1) phosphorus oxide
2) phosphorus pentoxide
3) diphosphorus pentoxide

B.Cl2O7 1) dichlorine heptoxide

2) dichlorine oxide
3) chlorine heptoxide

C. Cl2 1) chlorine
2) dichlorine
3) dichloride
 Metal-Polyatomic anion
+ve charge species on left (using Stock
method/common name)
 -ve charge species on right (using name of polyatomic
ion)
 Use parentheses as needed.

Formula Ions name

BaSO4 Ba 2+ and SO4 2- Barium sulphate
-
Ca(NO3)2 Ca and NO3 Calcium nitrate
2+
-
Ca(NO2)2 Ba and NO2 Calcium nitrite
2+
-
Fe(NO3)2 Fe and NO3 Iron (II) nitrate or ferrous nitrate
2+
 Question
Match each set with the correct name:

A. Na2CO3 1) magnesium sulfite

MgSO3 2) magnesium sulfate
MgSO4 3) sodium carbonate

B.Ca(HCO3)2 1) calcium carbonate

CaCO3 2) calcium phosphate
Ca3(PO4)2 3) calcium bicarbonate
 Question

A. aluminum nitrate
1) AlNO3 2) Al(NO)3 3) Al(NO3)3
B. copper(II) nitrate
1) CuNO3 2) Cu(NO3)2 3) Cu2(NO3)
C. Iron (III) hydroxide
1) FeOH 2) Fe3OH 3) Fe(OH)3
D. Tin(IV) hydroxide
1) Sn(OH)4 2) Sn(OH)2 3) Sn4(OH)
Hydro Acids
 hydro + halogen name + ic
 Acids which do not contain oxygen (e.g., HCl, H2S,
HF) are named by adding the hydro- prefix to the
root name of the element, followed by the -ic suffix.

Formula Molecular Name Acid name

HF Hydrogen fluoride Hydrofluoric acid
HCl Hydrogen chloride Hydrochloric acid
H2S Hydrogen sulfide Hydrosulfuric acid
HCN Hydrogen cyanide Hydrocyanic acid
Oxo Acids
 Oxoacid is an acid that contains hydrogen, oxygen,
and another element

HNO3 nitric acid

H2CO3 carbonic acid

H3PO4 phosphoric acid

Naming Oxoacids andOxoanions
 The rules for naming oxoanions,anions of oxoacids, are
as follows:
1. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ic”
acid, the anion’s name endswith “-ate.”
2. When all the H ions are removed from the “-ous”
acid, the anion’s name ends with “-ite.”
3. The names of anions in which one or more but not all
the hydrogen ions have been removed must indicate
the number of H ions present.
For example:
-
H2PO4 dihydrogen phosphate
HPO4 2- hydrogenphosphate
3-
PO4 phosphate
The mole
concept and
Avogadro’s
number
Atomic Mass
 The mass of an atom of an element compared with
that of one atom of 12C. For example, an atom of
magnesium has twice the mass of an atom of 12C.
Its relative atomic massis therefore 24
By definition:
1 atom 12C “weighs” 12 amu

On this scale
1H = 1.008 amu
16O = 16.00 amu
Relative Atomic Mass (RAM)
 The weighted average of all of the naturally
occurring isotopes of the element.
 Naturally occurring lithium is:
7.42% 6Li (6.015 amu)
92.58% 7Li (7.016 amu)

Average atomic massof lithium:

7.42 x 6.015 + 92.58 x 7.016

= 6.941 amu
100
Average atomic mass(6.941)
 Mole
 In real, we deal with macroscopicsamples.
 Atomic massis too small.
 Idea :

Have a special unit.

Todenote a particular no of
object.
Mole
 The Mole (mol): A unit to count numbers of particles
Dozen = 12

Pair = 2

The mole (mol) is the amount of a substance that

contains as many elementary entities as there
are atoms in exactly 12.00 grams of 12C
1 mol = NA = 6.0221367 x 1023

Avogadro’s number(NA)
1 mol H atoms = 6.02 x 1023 H atoms
1 mol H 2 molecules = 6.02 x 1023 H 2 molecules
1 mol H 2 O molecules = 6.02 x 1023 H 2 O molecules
1 mol NO 3- ions = 6.02 x 1023 NO 3- ions

1 mol O 2 molecules contain = 6.02 x 1023 O 2 molecules

1 mol O 2 molecules contain = 2 mol O
1 mol O 2 molecules contain = 2 x 6.02 x 1023 O atoms
Molar Mass
eggs
 Molar massis the massof 1 mole of shoes in
grams marble
s
atoms
1 mole 12C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 atoms = 12.00 g
1 12C atom = 12.00 amu
1 mole 12C atoms = 12.00 g 12C
1 mole lithium atoms = 6.941 g of Li

For any element

atomic mass(amu) = molar mass(grams)
 One Mole of:

C S

Hg

Cu Fe
Interconverting Masses, Moles and
Numbers of Particles

Moles provide a bridge from the molecular scale to the real-

world scale.
Mole concepts

Number of
atom/
Mass molecule/
ion

Moles x RMMor Moles x NA

RAM
How many atoms are in 0.551 g of potassium (K)?

1 mol K = 39.10 g K
1 mol K = 6.022 x 1023 atomsK

1 mol K 6.022 x 10 23 atoms K

0.551 g K x x =
39.10 g K 1 mol K

8.49 x 1021 atoms K

Example

Helium (He) is a valuable gas used in industry.

How many moles of He atoms are in 6.46 g of
He?
Example
How many grams of CH2Cl2 are obtained in 2.88
moles of CH2Cl2? ( Ar of H = 1.0, C = 12.0, Cl =
35.5)
Solution.
Firstly we have to calculate the molar massof CH2Cl2 = C + 2H + 2Cl
= 12 + 2(1)+ 2(35.5) = 85.0 g
1 mol CH2Cl2  85.0 g CH2Cl2
Thus,2.88 mol CH2Cl2 = 2.88 mol x 85.0 g

1 mol
= 244.8 g
Example
(a) Determine the number of atoms in 12.3 g Li
(b) Calculate the number of Br atoms in 32 g Br2
(Ar Li = 7, H = 1, S = 32, O = 16)
Formula Mass
 The sumof the atomic masses(in amu) in a formula
unit of an ionic compound.

1Na 22.99 amu

NaCl 1Cl + 35.45 amu
NaCl 58.44 amu
For any ionic compound
formula mass (amu) = molar mass(grams)
1 formula unit NaCl = 58.44 amu
1 mole NaCl = 58.44 g NaCl
Example
What is the formula mass of Ca3(PO4)2 ?
1 formula unit of Ca3(PO4)2
3 Ca 3 x 40.08
2P 2 x 30.97
8O + 8 x 16.00
310.18 amu
Exercise

 Calculate the formula massof:

a) (NH4)2S
b) (NH4)2SO4

 Calculate the gramspresent in:

a) 0.200 moles of H2S
b) 3.40 x 10-5 moles of Na2CO3

 Calculate the molespresent in:

a) 75.57 grams of KBr
b) 0.750 grams of Na2CO3
Empirical
Formula &
Molecular
Formula
Empirical Formula

A formula that gives the simplest whole-number ratio

of atoms in a compound.

Different compounds may have the same empirical

formula, example :
ethyne (C2H2) and benzene (C6H6) have the same
empirical formula CH
Steps for Determining an
Empirical Formula
1. Start with the number of grams of each element
2. Convert the massof each element tomoles
3. Divide each mole value by the smallest number of moles
calculated.
4. Round to the nearest whole number.
• If the number is too far to round (x.1 ~ x.9), then multiply
each solution by the same factor to get the lowest whole
number multiple.
• e.g. If one solution is 1.5, then multiply each solution in
the problem by 2 to get 3.
• e.g. If one solution is 1.25, then multiply each solution in
the problem by 4 to get 5.
Example
 What is the empirical formula of a compound that
contains 40.00% carbon, 6.67% hydrogen and
53.33% oxygen by mass?

CH2O
Molecular Formula

• Formula that shows how many atoms/ions of each

element combine to make thatcompound
• Once the empirical formula is found, the molecular
formula for a compound can be determined if the
molar massof the compound is known.
 Steps in determining Molecular
Formula
Simply calculate the mass of the
. empirical formula

Divide the molar mass of the compound

by the mass of the empirical formula to
find the ratio

Multiply all the atoms (subscripts) by this

ratio to find the molecular formula
Example
 For a compound whose empirical formula is CH2O,
the molecular masswas found to be 180. What is its
molecular formula?

C6H12O6
Example:

A compound is 75.46% carbon, 4.44% hydrogen, and 20.10% oxygen

by mass. It has a molecular weight of 318.31 g/mol. What is the
molecular formula for this compound?
Elements C H O
1

n (MW empirical formula) = MW molecular formula

 Percent
Composition
Percent Composition
 The percent by massof each element the compound
contains.
n x molar mass of element x 100%
molar mass of compound
n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole
of the compound
 %C = 2 x (12.01 g) x 100% = 52.14%
46.07 g
%H = 6 x (1.008 g) x 100% = 13.13%
46.07 g
%O = 1 x (16.00 g) x 100% = 34.73%
46.07 g
C2H6O 52.14% + 13.13% + 34.73% = 100.0%
From % mass given, empirical formula can be calculated

Elements Mg O H

1 Convert mass percentages to masses in gram 41.38 55.17 3.45

2 Divide the mass of each element by its molar 41.38 55.17 3.45
mass in order to obtain the number of moles of 24 16 1
each atom in the compound =
= 1.7242 = 3.45
3.448
1
3 Change the ratio to whole number mole ratio by 1.7242 3.4481 3.45
dividing each mole value in the above ratio by 1.7242 1.7242 1.7242
the smallest of the 3 mole values
=1 = 1.999 = 2.000
2
4 Determine the empirical formula of the Mg 1 O2 H2
compound Mg (OH)2
Example

A compound is 75.46% carbon, 4.44% hydrogen, and

20.10% oxygen by mass. It has a molecular weight of
318.31 g/mol. What is the molecular formula for this
compound?
 Example:
When 5 g of acetic acid are burned in air, 7.33 g of
CO2 and 3.00 g of water are obtained. What is the
simplest formula of acetic acid?
 From CO2 determine the massof C
C x 7.33 g x 12 g = 1.99 g C
CO2 44

 From H2O determine the massof H

2H x 3.00 g x 1 g = 0.33 g H
H2O 18
 massof O
= massof sample – massof C – massof H
= 5 g – 1.99 g – 0.33 g = 2.68 g O
  From the mass, empirical formula can be calculated

Elements C H O

1 masses in gram
2 Divide the mass of each element by its
molar mass in order to obtain the number
of moles of each atom in the compound
3 Change the ratio to whole number mole
ratio by dividing each mole value in the
above ratio by the smallest of the 3 mole
values
4 Determine the empirical formula of the
compound

CH2O
Balancing
Chemical
Equations
 BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATION
1. Write the correct formula(s) for the reactants on
the left side and the correct formula(s) for the
product(s) on the right side of the equation.
Ethane reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water

C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O

2. Change the numbers in front of the formulas

(coefficients) to make the number of atoms of
each element the same on both sides of the
equation. Do not change the subscripts.
2C2H6 NOT C4H12
 Balancing Chemical Equations

3. Start by balancing those elements that appear in

only one reactant and one product.
C2H6 + O2 CO2 + H2O start with C or H but not O

2 carbon 1 carbon
multiply CO2 by 2
on left on right

C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + H2O

6 hydrogen 2 hydrogen
on left on right multiply H2O by 3

C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O

 Balancing Chemical Equations

4. Balance those elements that appear in two or

more reactants or products.
7
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O multiply O2 by
2

2 oxygen 4 oxygen + 3 oxygen = 7 oxygen

on left (2x2) (3x1) on right

7 remove fraction
C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O
2 multiply both sides by 2

2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

 Balancing Chemical Equations

5. Check to make sure that you have the same

number of each type of atom on both sides of the
equation.
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O

4 C (2 x 2) 4C

12 H (2 x 6) 12 H (6 x 2)

14 O (7 x 2) 14 O (4 x 2 + 6)
Reactants Products

4C 4C
12 H 12 H
14 O 14 O
 EXERCISE
Balance the following equations:

1. CH3OH + O2  CO2 + H2O

2. Be2C + H2O  Be(OH)2 + CH4
3. VO + Fe2O3  FeO + V2O5
4. MnO2 + HCl  Cl2 + MnCl2 + H2O
5. KO2 + H2O + CO2  KHCO3 + O2
6. CH3NH2 + O2  CO2 + N2 + H2O
Stoichiometry
Calculation
Stoichiometry Calculation
 The quantitative relationship between reactants
and/or products.
 in chemical equation, the formulae reactant are
written on the leftside on the equation and the
formulae of the products on the right.
2H2S(g) + SO2(g)  3S(s) + 2H2O(l)
 Coefficient = number of moles
“2 mol of H2S is consumed to produce 3 mol of S”
2 mol of H2S is consumed together with 1 mol of SO2
 The coefficients in a balanced chemical equation indicate both
relative numbers of molecules (or formula units) in the reaction
and the relative numbersof moles.
1. Write balanced chemical equation
2. Convert quantities of known substances into moles
3. Use coefficients in balanced equation to calculate the
number of moles of the sought quantity
4. Convert moles of sought quantity into desired units
 Methanol burns in air according to the equation
2CH3OH + 3O2 2CO2 + 4H2O
If 209 g of methanol are used up in the combustion, what massof
water is produced?
grams CH3OH moles CH3OH moles H2O grams H2O

molar mass coefficients molar mass

CH3OH chemical equation H2O

209 g CH3OH x 1 mol CH3OHx 4 mol H2O x 18.0 g H2O =

32.0 g CH3OH 2 mol CH3OH 1 mol H2O

235 g H2O
EXAMPLE
How many moles of CO2 are produced in the
combustion of 2.72 mol of C6H14O4, in excess of O2?
2C6H14O4 + 15O2  12CO2 + 14H2O

= 16.3 mol CO2

 EXERCISE
Copper is obtained from copper(I) sulfide by roasting it in the
presence of oxygen gas) to form powdered copper(I) oxide and
gaseous sulfur dioxide.
(a)How many moles of oxygen are required to roast 10.0 molof
copper(I) sulfide?
(b)How many grams of sulfur dioxide are formed when 10.0 mol of
copper(I) sulfide is roasted?
(c)How many kilograms of oxygen are required to form 2.86 kg of
copper(I) oxide?
2Cu2S(s) + 3O2(g) 2Cu2O(s) + 2SO2(g)

= 15.0 mol O2
= 641 g SO2
= 0.959 kg O2
EXERCISE
 All alkali metals react with water to produce hydrogen gas
and the corresponding alkali metal hydroxide. Reaction given:
2 Li + 2H2O  2LiOH + H2

How many grams of H2 will be formed by the complete

reaction of 80.57 g of Li with water?
Limiting
Reactant
 Limiting Reactant
• You can make cookies until
you run out of one of the
ingredients.
• Once this family runs out of
sugar, they will stop making
cookies (at least any cookies
you would want to eat).

• In this example the sugar would be the limiting reactant,

because it will limit the amount of cookies you can make.
 Limiting reactant: The reactant in a chemical
reaction that limits the amount of product that can
be formed. The reaction will stop when all of the
limiting reactant is consumed

 Excess Reagent: The reactant in a chemical

reaction that remains when a reaction stops when
the limiting reactant is completely consumed.
Th
e excess reactant remains because there is nothing
with which it can react.
 Limiting Reactant

•Limiting reactant: The reactant that isentirely consumed

when a reaction goesto completion.
•Excess reactant: Reactant that is not completely
consumed.
EXAMPLE
A 2.00 g sample of ammonia is mixed with 4.00 g of
oxygen. Which is the limiting reactant , how many gram
NO produced and how much excess reactant remains
after the reaction has stopped?

4 NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) 4 NO(g) + 6 H2O(g)

 EXAMPLE

Zinc metal reacts with hydrochloric acid by the following reaction:

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq)  ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
If 0.30 mol Zn is added to HCl containing 0.52 mol HCl, how many
moles of H2 are produced?

0.26 mol
 EXERCISE
In a process for producing acetic acid, oxygen gas is bubbled into
acetaldehyde, CH3CHO, containing manganese (II) acetate
(catalyst) under pressure at 60°C.
2CH3CHO(l) + O2(g)  2HC2H3O2(l)
In a laboratory test of this reaction, 20.0 g CH3CHO and 10.0 g O2
were put into a reaction vessel.
a) How many grams of acetic acid can be produced by this
reaction from these amounts of reactants?
b) How many grams of the excess reactant remain after the
reaction is complete?
Acetyldehyde, 27.3g ;
27.g O2 remaining
Reaction Yield
 Reaction Yield

•Theoretical Yield is the amount of product that would

result if all the limiting reagent reacted.

•Actual Yield is the amount of product actually obtained

from a reaction.

Actual Yield
% Yield = x 100%
Theoretical Yield

The actual yield is never excess than thetheoretical

yield.
EXAMPLE

In a lab experiment, 0.80 g of copper metal should be

produced. If a student actually made 0.77 g of copper,
what is the percent yield?

% yield = actual yield x 100

theoretical yield
= 0.77 g x 100
0.80 g
= 96.25%
EXERCISE
Calculate the theoretical yield of ZnS, in grams,
from the reaction of 0.488 g Zn and 0.503 g S8
 SOLUTIONS:

Answer: Must balance equation first

8 Zn + S8 8 ZnS
I 0.488 g 0.503 g 0

C 8 Zn x 0.503 x 65 S8 x 0.488 x 256 8 ZnS x 0.488 x 97

S8 256 8 Zn 65 8 Zn 65

= 1.022 g = 0.240 g = 0.728 g Theoretical

yield
F (0.488 – 1.022 g) (0.503 – 0.240 g)
= -0.534 g = 0.263 g
(limiting reagent) (excess reagent)

b) If the actual yield is 0.606 g ZnS, what is the percentage yield?

Percentage yield = Actual yield x 100 = 0.606 g x 100

Theoretical yield 0.728 g

= 83.24%