1
Reptiles.........................................................................................7
Contents
ZOOGEOGRAPHY................................................1
Applied Zoogeography ............................................................... 1
Causal Zoogeography ................................................................ 1
Descriptive zoogeography.......................................................... 1
ANIMAL DISTRIBUTION ....................................2
PATTERNS OF DISTRIBUTION ............................................2
Cosmopolitan .............................................................................. 2
Discontinuous ............................................................................. 2
Endemic Distribution ................................................................. 2
Isolated Distribution................................................................... 2
Bipolar Distribution ................................................................... 2
BARRIERS & MEANS OF DISPERSAL ..............2
Barriers ....................................................................................... 2
Dispersal ..................................................................................... 2
BARRIERS IN MARINE ENVIRONMENT ...............................3
Land Masses................................................................................ 3
Temperature................................................................................ 3
Pressure....................................................................................... 3
Salt Concentration...................................................................... 3
DISPERSAL IN MARINE ENVIRONMENT ..............................3
Active Dispersal.......................................................................... 3
Passive Dispersal ....................................................................... 3
BARRIERS IN FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT .......................3
Land Masses................................................................................ 3
Sea Masses .................................................................................. 3
DISPERSAL IN FRESHWATER ENVIRONMENT ......................3
Active Dispersal.......................................................................... 3
Passive Dispersal ....................................................................... 3
BARRIERS IN TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT .......................4
Oceans or Sea ............................................................................. 4
Large River Systems or River Channels.................................... 4
Mountains.................................................................................... 4
Deserts......................................................................................... 4
Regions of Rainfall ..................................................................... 4
Biotic Barrier .............................................................................. 4
DISPERSAL IN TERRESTRIAL ENVIRONMENT ......................4
Active Dispersal.......................................................................... 4
Passive Dispersal ....................................................................... 4
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS.......................4
PALEARCTIC REGION........................................5
ZOOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ......................................5
Fishes........................................................................................... 5
Amphibians.................................................................................. 5
Reptiles ........................................................................................ 5
Birds ............................................................................................ 5
Mammals ..................................................................................... 5
ETHIOPIAN REGION...........................................5
ZOOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ......................................6
Amphibians.................................................................................. 6
Reptiles ........................................................................................ 6
Birds ............................................................................................ 6
Mammals ..................................................................................... 6
ORIENTAL REGION ............................................6
ZOOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ......................................6
Fishes........................................................................................... 6
Amphibians.................................................................................. 6
Reptiles ........................................................................................ 6
Birds ............................................................................................ 6
Mammals ..................................................................................... 6
AUSTRALIAN REGION........................................6
ZOOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ......................................6
Fishes........................................................................................... 7
Amphibians.................................................................................. 7
Reptiles ........................................................................................ 7
Birds ............................................................................................ 7
Mammals ..................................................................................... 7
NEOTROPICAL REGION ....................................7
ZOOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ......................................7
Fishes........................................................................................... 7
Amphibians.................................................................................. 7
Birds .............................................................................................7
Mammals......................................................................................7
NEARCTIC REGION.............................................8
ZOOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS ...................................... 8
Fishes ...........................................................................................8
Amphibians ..................................................................................8
Reptiles.........................................................................................8
Birds .............................................................................................8
Mammals......................................................................................8
INSULAR FAUNA ..................................................8
FAUNA OF CONTINENTAL ISLANDS ................................... 8
FAUNA OF OCEANIC ISLANDS .......................................... 8
FAUNA OF ANCIENT ISLANDS .......................................... 9
PALEOGEOGRAPHY ...........................................9
PERMANENCE OF CONTINENTS......................................... 9
THEORY OF LAND BRIDGES ............................................. 9
Atlantic Land Bridge ...................................................................9
Lemuria Land Bridge ..................................................................9
Antarctica Land Bridge ..............................................................9
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY ......................................... 9
Evidence of Continental Drift.................................................. 10
Drawbacks ................................................................................ 10
PLATE TECTONICS ........................................................ 10
Divergent Plate Margins ......................................................... 10
Convergent Plate Margins....................................................... 11
Transform Plate Margins ........................................................ 11
ZOOGEOGRAPHY
Zoogeography is the study of distribution of ani-
mals on the surface of earth. It is a sub-branch of
geography. Biogeography is the study of geographi-
cal aspects of animal and plants especially in terms
of their distribution. It has two sub-branches. Phyto-
geography is the study of geographical distribution
of plants while zoogeography is the study of geo-
graphical distribution of animals on the surface of
earth. Animals occupy those areas where their eco-
logical valency does not conflict with surrounding
environmental conditions. Ecological valency is the
sum total of all ecological conditions under which an
organism can live. Three branches of zoogeography
are:
Applied Zoogeography
It is the study of distribution of those animals
which are of medical importance or used for biologi-
cal control.
Causal Zoogeography
It has three sub-branches. Ecological zo-
ogeography is the study of sum total of all environ-
mental conditions in which the animal can live. Ex-
perimental zoogeography indicates the procedures
that have been used to study the origin, evolution
and dispersal of the animals. Historical zo-
ogeography is the study of present day area of the
animals in the light of their past area of origin, evolu-
tion and dispersal.
Descriptive zoogeography
It is the study of geographical organismatic diver-
sity in space. It has four sub branches. Biocoenotic
zoogeography is the study of geographical distribu-
tion and dynamics of life communities. Chorology
zoogeography explains as exactly and fully as pos-

sible the geographical range of animals. Faunistic
zoogeography deals with the discovery of new spe-
cies and its distribution on earth. Systematic zo-
ogeography is the study of geographical distribution
of large group of animals e.g. distribution of birds
and termites.
ANIMAL DISTRIBUTION
Animals constantly try to expand their habitat
(area of living). No space on earth is free of animals
if it can support life.
Patterns of Distribution
Five types of distribution patterns are found com-
monly in animals.
Cosmopolitan
Some animals on earth are said to have cosmo-
politan distribution if they have worldwide distribu-
tion. Such animals have certain adaptations to over-
come environmental barriers (e.g. birds). Such ani-
mals are called Eurytopic animals. Animals with
restricted distribution are called Stenotopic ani-
mals. Special characters prevent stenotopic animals
from expanding and they cannot cross the environ-
mental barriers because they are adopted and spe-
cialized for specific environmental conditions (e.g.
snail).
Discontinuous
They are present in certain areas but absent from
other areas without any continuity. Lungfishes are a
classical example. There are three genera of lung-
fishes. Protopterus is found in Africa. Lepidopterus is
found in South America. Neopterus is found in Aus-
tralia. Flightless birds also show discontinuous distri-
bution. Ostriches are found in Africa and Arabia.
Cassowaries and Emus are found in Australia. Kiwi
is found in New Zealand. Rheas are found in South
America. Elephants and Rhinoceroses also have
discontinuous distribution. They are found in Asia
and Africa. Marsupials are found in Australia (which
is their real home) and South America. Camels are
found in Asia, Africa and Europe while Lamas are
found in South America. Tapirs are found in Java,
Sumatra, and Central and South America.
There are number of arguments to explain the oc-
currence of discontinuous distribution. According to
Darlington, a group of animals can become discon-
tinuously distributed in three ways:
 By reaching the oceanic islands across the water
for example rabbits were introduced in Australia.
There are two types of Islands. Continental islands
are present near the land and were part of the conti-
nent in the past. Oceanic islands are in deep water
and are formed due to volcanic activity.
 By the extinction of species in between two
ranges or two areas.
 By submergence of land masses in between two
ranges.
It is a dynamic process with reference to animal
distribution because the new species develop from
2
old species and try to find favorable habitat to enjoy
their lives. It provides very good evidence for evolu-
tion. It indicates that in the past, various physical,
chemical and climatic changes occurred which af-
fected the distribution of animals.
Endemic Distribution
Some animals are confined in their distribution to
the areas in which they evolved; these are said to be
endemic to that region. Their confinement may be
due to physical barriers to dispersion or to the fact
that they have only recently evolved and have not
yet had time to spread from their centers of origin.
Examples include nilgai, giraffe, sloth and armadil-
los (found in neotropical region). Neotropical region
has maximum number of endemic vertebrates.
Isolated Distribution
Certain animals are found in certain isolated zoo-
logical regions of the world and are said to have iso-
lated distribution e.g. monotremes, Sphenodon (liz-
ards; New Zealand). They are small in number and
primitive. They survive due to absence of their ene-
mies (predators).
Bipolar Distribution
They are present at both poles but absent in tropi-
cal oceans. Since the animals are found in North
and South Poles distribution is known as bipolar.
BARRIERS & MEANS OF DISPER-
SAL
Animals constantly try to expand their habitat.
Three factors affect the distribution of animals.
These are barriers (major factors affecting animal
distribution), adaptation of animals in the environ-
ment, and means of dispersal.
Barriers
A barrier is any factor in the environment that af-
fects the distribution of animals. It is a physical,
chemical or climatic obstruction that the animals
cannot ordinarily cross. There are two types of barri-
ers.
Topographic barriers are the physical obstruc-
tions which the animals cannot cross like mountains,
rivers, canals, deserts etc. Himalayas are effective
barrier for animals of Palearctic and Oriental regions
and Sahara works as natural boundary between
Ethiopian and Palearctic region. Fauna on both
sides of these barriers is quite distinct.
Ecological barriers include temperature, humid-
ity, rainfall, pressure and vegetation etc. They are
also known as climatic barriers. These barriers are
different from place to place. For example, dense
forests make an effective barrier for the distribution
of pasture animals during migration. On the other
hand open areas are effective barriers for arboreal
animals during migration.
Dispersal
All organisms can, to varying degrees, move from
their birthplaces to new locations, this is called dis-

persal. All organisms, even sedentary ones, have a
propensity to disperse.
Dispersal may involve individuals or groups. Dis-
persal of eggs, adult and young individuals are in-
cluded in individual dispersal. Group dispersal is
the dispersal of entire group of animals from one
place to another.
Land masses, bridges, rafts (floating wood etc.),
favorable strong winds, isles, and oceanic currents
provide means of dispersal for most animals.
Barriers in Marine Environment
There are only a few barriers in marine environ-
ment that prevent dispersal. These include:
Land Masses
Land masses that project into the sea make an ef-
fective barrie
r even if they are very small. Sometimes the barrier
is small (e.g. Isthmus) and very fast moving marine
animals can cross it. Even in such cases, however,
the animals living on one side are different from the
animals on the other side.
Temperature
Those animals which can tolerate a change in
temperature are known as Eurythermal animals.
Animals on the other hand, which cannot tolerate a
change in temperature, are known as stenothermal
animals. Temperature is an effective barrier for
stenothermal animals while eurythermal animals can
migrate relatively easily. Stenothermal animals are
usually present only in shallow waters (littoral zone).
The Polar Regions are characterized by low tem-
perature and those of tropical regions are character-
ized by high temperature. Fishes and invertebrates
present in Indian and Pacific oceans are similar due
to continuity of two oceanic waters and similarity of
temperature. Mollusks are widely distributed in all
oceans as they are eurythermal animals. The mol-
luscan fauna of Atlantic and Pacific Ocean is how-
ever different.
Pressure
The animals which can tolerate a change in the
pressure are called eurybathic animals. On the
other hand, animals which cannot tolerate change in
pressure are known as stenobathic animals. The
pressure, therefore, acts as a limiting factor for the
distribution of marine animals. Pressure increases
with the depth of sea. Animals which can tolerate
change in pressure are widely distributed. Pressure
is an effective barrier for the distribution of shallow
water dwelling animals.
Salt Concentration
Salinity does not appear to change much in ma-
rine environment and hence is not an effective bar-
rier. It is important barrier in only those regions
where large rivers enter the sea. Animals that can
tolerate change in salinity are called euryhaline
animals e.g. neries. Those animals which cannot
tolerate change in salinity are called stenohaline
animals e.g. amphibians.
3
Dispersal in Marine Environment
There are two types of dispersal in marine envi-
ronment:
Active Dispersal
Most of the marine animals move very fast or
swim actively if there is no check of temperature. For
example, sea cows, whales, annelids, jelly fishes.
These animals can be widely distributed in sea.
Corals on the other hand are slow moving animals.
Passive Dispersal
Some animals in the marine environment do not
move very fast. They do not swim actively (sessile
animals). Their movement depends upon the current
of water. These sessile animals have free swimming
larval stages, which are longer and larger. There are
greater chances of survival of these animals. In
snails, larval stage is 10 days long. In echinoder-
mates, it is 23 days long.
Passive dispersal can be either by oceanic cur-
rents or through moving objects or animals. Oceanic
currents play a very effective role for the dispersal of
marine animals particularly for sessile animals.
Some animals attach themselves to the moving
objects like ships or to fast moving animals and are
distributed according to the route of these moving
objects. Some animals attach themselves to other
moving animals like fishes, turtles etc.
Barriers in Freshwater Environment
There are two types of barriers in freshwater envi-
ronment.
Land Masses
Land Masses are the major barrier for the disper-
sal of freshwater animals from one freshwater body
to another freshwater body like from Mangla Dam to
Tarbela Dam.
Sea Masses
Although all the rivers open into the sea, but the
migration of animals from freshwater body to the sea
is not possible because of difference in salinity of
these two regions.
Dispersal in Freshwater Environment
Dispersal may be either active or passive in fresh-
water.
Active Dispersal
Most of the freshwater animals, like fishes, can
swim actively and the speed of water does not affect
the dispersal.
Passive Dispersal
Some freshwater animals do not swim actively
and their dispersal depends upon other factors such
as moving objects, birds, or insects.
Some freshwater animals attach themselves to
some fast moving animals and disperse according to
their routes. Sometimes the birds visiting the fresh-
water bodies may carry eggs of animals like frogs
and mollusks. They may be carried from one fresh-
water body to the other. Migratory birds play a very

important role in this regard, and dispersal can be
from one continent to another. For example Siberian
Cranes migrate each year from Siberia to Asia or
Africa.
Some freshwater animals get attached to legs of
beetles and are dispersed from one water body to
another.
Barriers in Terrestrial Environment
Main barriers in the terrestrial environment are
oceans or seas. Some other very important barriers
include:
Oceans or Sea
Oceans act as barrier for the dispersal or distribu-
tion of land animals. For example, Mozambique
channels separate land mass of Africa from Mada-
gascar.
Large River Systems or River Channels
Large river systems on river channels act as major
barriers for the distribution of land animals. Exam-
ples include Amazon River system (in South Amer-
ica), Brahmaputras and Ganges. These river sys-
tems are barrier for land mammals, birds, and butter-
flies. However, some animals can cross these river
systems.
Mountains
Mountains are the main barriers on land which
prevent the distribution of large number of animals.
Temperature, pressure, humidity, altitude and vege-
tation are the factors that prevent animals from dis-
persing. Himalayan range is an effective barrier.
Animals living in north are different from the animals
living in southern part.
Deserts
Deserts make sharply defined boundaries be-
tween two land masses. There are two main deserts
in the world: Gobi (coldest desert) and Sahara (Hot-
test desert). Animals living in the north of Sahara are
different from those living in its South. It is a natural
boundary of Palearctic and Ethiopian region. Deserts
do not allow the animals to cross them due to sever
environmental conditions.
Regions of Rainfall
The regions in which there is very high annual
rainfall have their own specialized flora and fauna
and do not allow other animals to cross through. Ex-
ample is Amazonian Tropical Rainforest.
Biotic Barrier
Ecologically dominant animals when enter into a
new area, start exterminating the primitive and pas-
sive (weak) species from that area. Such animals
are known as biotic barriers. For example when rab-
bits were introduced in Australia by man, they
started to exterminate the small marsupial species
like Bilbies. Similarly Tasmanian wolf was extermi-
nated in competition with the Dingo (a placental
mammal resembling dog).
4
Dispersal in Terrestrial Environment
It can be by active or passive means.
Active Dispersal
It is done by fast moving animals which can run,
fly or swim long distances. They usually have world-
wide distribution as compared to those animals
which do not have effective locomotor organs.
For example horse has worldwide distribution. It
originated in North America by early Pleistocene and
soon became worldwide in distribution due to its fast
locomotion.
Hippopotamus are very good swimmers. Some-
times they can cross the sea. By crossing the sea
they have reached the island of Zanzibar near Af-
rica.
Migratory birds are distributed all over the world
due to their power of flight. Animals lacking this
power are usually restricted e.g. butterfly.
Passive Dispersal
Animals lacking efficient locomotory organs dis-
perse by various methods. Powerful currents or
strong winds are responsible for transportation of
eggs, cysts and resting stages of protozoa, snails,
spiders and many other insects.
Strong storms or unfavorable wind is responsi-
ble for the dispersal of sea-birds from their normal
habitat. It has been observed that sea-birds may drift
with wood logs. It becomes even more significant if
the wood carries opposite sexes or pregnant fe-
males of a species.
Terrestrial animals are usually transported by
logs or rafts (large flat piece of wood). When
flooded rivers undercut its banks, it brings down
whole hillsides and carries tangled masses of trees
out to sea. This happens most often in the wet trop-
ics where hillsides are steep. Rafts are variable in
size. A large raft was observed in Atlantic Ocean
2
near America which was about 100 ft in size, having
30ft tall trees. Animals such as amphibians, snakes,
crocodiles and even mammals, sitting on trees in an
attempt to escape flood are drifted in this manner.
Man has been largely responsible for transporting
the terrestrial animals in those areas where these
animals are not normally found. Rabbits and other
placental mammals were introduced in Australia by
man for example.
ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REGIONS
A zoogeographical region is a sub-division of the
earth having a unique fauna. Many attempts have
been made during last 75 years to classify or divide
the surface of the earth into different zoogeographi-
cal regions or realms.
The first person who made first attempt to divide
the surface of the earth was Dr. P. L. Sclater (1858).
He divided the surface of the earth into different zo-
ogeographical region on the basis of actual distribu-
tion of birds. He divided the surface of the earth into
six regions: Palearctic (Europe), Nearctic (North
America), Ethiopian (Africa), Indian (South Asia),

Neotropical (South America), and Australian (Austra-
lia, Tasmania, New Guinea).
According to him, Palearctic, Ethiopian, Indian,
Australian, have been grouped into a single region
known as Paleogaea. Nearctic and Neotropical re-
gions were grouped together into a single region
known as Neogaea.
The next scientist was Huxley (1868), who pro-
posed the surface of earth into two primary regions
called Arctogeae (northern region) and Notogaea
(southern region). Arctogaea was divided into
Palearctic, Nearctic, Ethiopian, and Indian regions.
Notogaea was further divided into Austro-Columbia
(Neotropical), Australasian (Southeast Asia), and
New Zealand. His scheme was regarded as invalid
and disproportionate and was later discarded.
Dr. Heliprin (1887) suggested the union of Nearc-
tic and Palearctic region into a huge Holarctic realm
due to similarity of the flora and fauna. In his system,
there were five divisions: Holarctic, Ethiopian, Orien-
tal, Australian, and Neotropical region.
Dr. A. R. Wallace (1876) published a classical
work on zoogeographical distribution of mammals of
the world. He chose mammals due to several rea-
sons. The abundance of mammalian fossils indicates
more features of the distribution in the past than any
other group of animals. Careful studies of the fossils
of mammals and the knowledge of the living mam-
mals give their identification and classification more
accurately. The limited means of dispersal in mam-
mals and their high power of adaptation and organi-
zation give less dependence upon a particular kind
of food or particular kind of environmental conditions.
Mammals are very prominent and can be easily col-
lected, monitored, observed and examined. He fol-
lowed the same classification as that of P. L. Sclater
but he introduced the oriental region instead of In-
dian region. Each region is further divided into four
sub-divisions.
K. P. Schmidt (1954) proposed his scheme which
is also accepted by De-Beaufort. He divided the
world into three regions: Arctogaea (Holarctic, Ethio-
pian, Oriental), Notogaea (Australian), Neogaea
(Neotropical).
PALEARCTIC REGION
Palearctic region is the largest geographical re-
gion among the six zoogeographical regions of the
world. It covers about 1,40,00,000 square miles. It
includes whole of Europe, Northern part of China,
Russia, Japan, Iran, Afghanistan, Balochistan, and
British isles.
The climate of the Palearctic region is more or
less temperate. It includes wet forest land, dry open
steppe land, and large coniferous forests. There is
great fluctuation of temperature and amount of rain-
fall in the region. There is great diversity of surface
features (mountains, water, clay, sand, limestone of
different composition) as well.
It is surrounded by the sea in North, West and
East. Ethiopian and Oriental regions are present in
5
the South. It is separated from Ethiopian region by
Sahara desert. Himalayan mountains make natural
boundary between Oriental and Palearctic region.
Zoological Characteristics
Fishes
Fish fauna includes Cat fishes, Anabantids, Cy-
prinids, and Paddle fishes. Cyprinids are the domi-
nant freshwater fishes.
Amphibians
Amphibian fauna includes frogs, toads, salaman-
ders, newts and caecilians (legless amphibians that
live on the upper loose surface of soil). It has a large
number of tailed amphibians (e.g., salamanders and
newts) as well as frogs, toads, tree frogs (Hyla and
Rhacophorus). Amphibians represented in Palearctic
region include Salamandridae, Ranidae, Bufonidae
and Hylidae.
Reptiles
Reptilian fauna is more or less developed and in-
cludes turtles, alligators, lizards, skinks, chame-
leons, Agamids, snakes (vipers: pit vipers and tree
vipers, cobras, pythons).
Birds
Bird fauna includes cuckoos (only male cries),
ducks, finches, grebes, loons, hawks, thrushes,
swifts, woodpeckers, kingfishers.
Mammals
Mammalian fauna includes insectivora, which is
the most primitive order of placental mammals
(hedge hogs, moles, shrews). Other mammals in-
clude rabbits, deer, oxen, sheep, camels, bears, and
cats. This region also contains two endemic families
Selevinidae and Spalacidae.
ETHIOPIAN REGION
It includes whole of Africa and some southern
parts of Arabia. Some authors include Madagascar
in Ethiopian region. However, its fauna is entirely
different. It may be treated as ancient Continental
Island. It separated from mainland in upper Creta-
ceous period.
According to some authors fauna of Oriental and
Ethiopian region is similar. So sometimes these two
are grouped together as Paleotropical region. It is
surrounded from all sides by sea except from North
where it connects with Palearctic region through Sa-
hara desert.
Since it is present in tropics, conditions for life are
more stable, uniform and favorable. Climate is tropi-
cal. There are large rivers, grasslands and moun-
tains. In winter temperature is 20–30ºC but still
higher in the interior of Ethiopian. The distribution of
animals is more influenced by moisture than tem-
perature.

Zoological Characteristics
There are many similarities between fauna of
Ethiopian and Palearctic. It includes very primitive
fishes e.g. lungfishes (Protopterus), cat fishes and
many other cyprinids and cichlids.
Amphibians
Amphibian fauna is not rich. Frogs and toads are
very common. Tailed amphibians are absent. Cae-
cilians are present. Among toads, one family (Pipid
toad) is notably and exclusively found in Ethiopian
region. It is present in water and spends whole of life
in water. Its hind limbs are webbed. All other toads
live on land at moist places and enter water only for
breeding. Upper and lower jaws are without teeth.
Reptiles
Reptiles are represented by turtles, crocodiles,
agamids (lizards), skinks, chameleons, and snakes
(cobras, vipers, typhlops, pythons). There are 50
species of chameleons in world and 46 of these are
represented in Ethiopian region.
Birds
Bird fauna includes cuckoos, bee-eaters, goat-
suckers, owls, ostriches, orioles, sunbirds, storks,
thrushes, woodpeckers and weaver birds.
Mammals
Mammals are represented by Gorillas, Chimpan-
zees, monkeys, hedge hogs, moles (unique mole
known as golden mole), shrews (otter shrew and
elephant shrew), hippopotamus, giraffe, tenrecs (ro-
dents found in Ethiopian region only), aardvarks,
rhinoceros, elephants, and scaly ant eater. Many of
these are endemic like golden mole, elephant mole,
gorilla, chimpanzee and tenrecs. Other mammals
include Lions, leopards, hyena, and antelopes.
ORIENTAL REGION
It includes Asia and its tropical countries, Pakistan
(excluding Balochistan), India, Sri Lanka, Burma,
Indonesia, Bhutan, Islands of Borneo, Philippines,
Java, and Sumatra.
It has only one land connection with Palearctic
through Himalayan mountains. All the other sides
are covered by sea. There is no boundary in the east
where Archipelago (Malaya, Sumatra, and Java)
spread out and reach Australian region.
It shows great diversity in physical features.
Northern part is composed of grassy plains with
scattered bushes and trees. North and West sides
are composed of deserts. Southern part is rich in
vegetation. Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Indonesia are
composed of thick tropical rainforests.
Climate is tropical. Temperature in south is al-
most constant (about 30ºC) and rises in summer.
Zoological Characteristics
Fauna of Oriental region is similar to Ethiopian re-
gion. These are sometimes grouped as paleotropical
region.
6
Fishes
Many species of cat fishes and anabantids are
characteristic of freshwater fauna of Oriental region.
Freshwater fauna does not include any primitive
fishes.
Amphibians
It includes caecilians, frogs, and toads. Tree frogs
and tailed amphibians are absent.
Reptiles
Reptilian fauna is more or less developed and in-
cludes turtles. A unique turtle is the big-head turtle
(Family Platysternidae). Crocodiles are present in
tropics of Oriental region. Gavials (family Gavialidae;
long nosed crocodiles) are present. Geckos, chame-
leons, Varanus and skinks are four famous lizards.
Oriental region is famous for number of poisonous
snakes like vipers, kraits, cobras, pythons, and ty-
phlops (blind snakes). According to a rough estimate
30,000 people are killed by snake bites in Asia each
year especially in Burma. Uropeltidae (shield-tailed
snakes) and Xenopeltidae (egg-eating snakes) are
unique families of snakes.
Birds
Bulbul, bluebirds, bee-eaters, kingfishers, wood-
peckers, thrushes, owls, weaver birds, broad-bills
are unique and endemic.
Mammals
Orangutans and gibbons are found in rainforests
of Borneo. Monkeys, tarsiers (Tarsius; small arbo-
real, nocturnal mammal), Elephas maximus, Rhinoc-
eros unicornis, Tapir, Antilope cervicapra, Bubalus,
mole, shrew, hedge hog, tiger, sloth bear (found only
in India), four horned antelope, Bos are found in Ori-
ental region.
AUSTRALIAN REGION
It includes whole of Australia, New Guinea, Tas-
mania, a few of smaller islands of Indonesian Archi-
pelago. New Zealand and other Pacific Islands are
not included in this region by some authors. They
are also called as ancient continental / Pacific is-
lands. This is because they have their own fauna
and unique species. Australian region is the only
region without any land connection. It separated
from rest of the world in upper Cretaceous.
Climate is partly tropical, partly temperate. Areas
in South are temperate. New Guinea is tropical.
Tasmania is temperate. In interior of Australia, hot
arid plains and deserts are found. Thick tropical rain-
forests are also present.
Zoological Characteristics
There are many reasons to believe that Australia
separated from world in upper Cretaceous. During
this period there were marsupials and monotremes.
Bats, rats and other placental mammals were intro-
duced by man and there are no natural placental
mammals. It is characterized by absence of placen-
tal mammals and presence of very primitive animals.

It is known as “veritable museum of archaic ani-
mals”.
Fishes
Freshwater fish fauna is characterized by primitive
fish (Neoceratodus). It is found in rivers of New Zea-
land. Osteoglossids are also characteristic of Austra-
lian region.
Amphibians
It is the only region where common toad is absent.
Frogs and tree frogs are present. Tailed amphibians
are absent. Caecilians are also absent.
Reptiles
Two families of reptiles which are exclusive and
unique are Carettochelyidae (pitted shelled turtles)
and Pygopodidae (flap footed lizards). Flap footed
lizards have no forelimbs and the hind limbs are flap-
like. Third family of reptiles (Sphenodontidae) is
found in New Zealand. They are found in tropical
parts of Australia. Lizards include Varanus, geckos,
and agamids. There are 250 species of lizards in
world. Among these the largest lizard, Komodo
dragon, is found in Indonesian islands of Komodo
which is included in Australian region. Snakes in-
clude typhlops, pythons, cobras, and elapsids.
Birds
Australian region is rich in bird fauna. Parrots and
pigeons are present. It is famous for running birds
like emus, cassowaries and kiwi. King fishers,
honey-waters, bower birds, birds of paradise are
also common. There are no finches, woodpeckers,
and pheasants. Cassowaries are found in New
Guinea.
Mammals
Australian region is famous for primitive mam-
mals. Placental mammals are absent. Those present
were introduced by man.
Egg laying mammals have one order monotre-
mata which includes two families Tachyglossidae
and Ornithorhynchidae. Platypus is aquatic, has
short legs, webbed feet. Echidna is terrestrial. Upper
part of body is covered with spines. Tail is hairy.
They provide link between reptiles and mammals.
Australian region is the real home of marsupials
while they are also found in North and South Amer-
ica. The basic character is the presence of pouch in
females where the babies are carried and nourished
by a duct from mammary glands. Pouch opens ante-
riorly but sometimes also posteriorly. Sometimes
pouch is absent and two flaps of skin act as marsu-
pium. They are grouped into two small groups i.e.
Diprotodonta and Polyprotodonta. It has only one
order Marsupialia. Diprotodonta have two large inci-
sors like rodents. Polyprotodonta have more than
two incisors. Diprotodonta are generally herbivores
which Polyprotodonta are generally carnivores.
Australian region has rich forests of eucalyptus in
which wombats are present. They feed on leaves of
eucalyptus for 5 hours and sleep for 15 hours. Koala
bears are also present which are arboreal.
7
NEOTROPICAL REGION
This region includes whole of South and Central
America, West Indies and most of Mexico. Australian
and Neotropical regions are present in the Southern
hemisphere while all others are present in Northern
hemisphere. Neotropical region separated from rest
of world in Eocene.
Neotropical region is connected to Nearctic region
through Isthmus of Panama. Climate is mostly tropi-
cal. Southern region extends into temperate zone. It
has very rich tropical rainforest. It is the only zo-
ogeographical region without any desert. Andes
chain is a very high mountain range in this region.
Southern part of these mountains is covered with
grassy plains and no trees. Temperature is very low
in winter.
Zoological Characteristics
It has unique, diverse and very rich fauna.
Neotropical region has maximum number of en-
demic families because it separated from rest of the
world in Eocene.
Fishes
Very primitive fish (Lepidosiren) is found here.
Other fishes include Gymnotids, eels and garpikes.
Amphibians
Amphibian fauna is moderately rich having all
groups. Caecilians are present in tropics. Common
frogs, toads, tailed amphibians (only Oedipus having
no legs), and tree frogs are present.
Reptiles
Reptilian fauna is very rich. It includes turtles,
crocodiles, Caimans (South American alligators),
lizards, Geckos, Agamids, and Tegus.
Birds
It is also very rich, diverse and so strange that
sometimes Neotropical is called “bird continent”.
Rhea and Tinamou are flightless birds. Other birds are
kingfishers, cuckoos, Hoatizans, Macaws, and
hummingbirds.
Mammals
Maximum number of endemic mammals is found
in this region. Edentata (sloths, ant eaters, armadil-
los) are exclusively Neotropical and are commonly
called as ant/termite eaters. Armadillos are, how-
ever, also found in Nearctic region.
Sloths (Bradopodidae) are arboreal animals, com-
pletely adapted for arboreal life and cannot walk on
land. Ant eaters (Myrmecophagidae) eat termites
and have long tubular mouth. Armadillos (Dasypodi-
dae) also feed on ants and have bony plates cover-
ing the body, arranged in rings.
Two families of marsupials are present, namely
Didelphidae (opossum) and Caenolestidae (marsu-
pial rats).
Cebidae (New world monkeys, order Primates)
and Marmosets are present. These monkeys are

variously colored and small sized. All apes are ab-
sent.
Ungulates are remarkable and unique like deer,
pigs, oxen, goat, sheep, llama (Camelidae), and ta-
pirs (having long prehensile nose).
Insectivores are absent from Neotropical region
while blood sucking bats are present.
NEARCTIC REGION
It includes whole of North America, some parts of
Mexico, Greenland (totally arctic, having unknown
thickness of ice). Eastern part is composed of de-
ciduous or mixed forest. Middle part has grasslands.
Northern portion is composed of coniferous forests.
Temperature is low in winter as compared to
same latitudes of Palearctic region. Life is very rare,
few animals are present.
Zoological Characteristics
There is resemblance in fauna of Nearctic and
Palearctic region so they are sometimes grouped as
Holarctic region.
Fishes
These include paddle fishes, cat fishes, cyprinids,
and bowfins.
Amphibians
It is moderately developed. Tailed amphibians are
abundant, represented by salamanders, axolotl, and
Siren. Frogs and toads are also present. There is a
unique endemic frog Aschaphus. Like other frogs it
has not tail but it has tail wagging muscles indicating
that this frog originated from some tailed ancestor.
Reptiles
It is rich and includes turtles, crocodiles, alligators,
coral snakes, typhlops (blind snakes), and pit vipers.
Lizards include geckos, anguids, skinks, and
Heloderma. All lizards are non poisonous except
Heloderma. Venom glands are present in lower jaw,
not in the upper jaw as in snakes.
Birds
It includes cranes, humming birds, hawks, herons,
vultures, thrushes, woodpeckers, and many other
birds. Among these turkeys and groups are unique.
Mammals
Mammals include Bison, opossum, moles, leaf
nosed bat, bear, deer, jumping mice, flying squirrels,
and armadillos.
Unique family of bovids is present known as Anti-
locapridae. Bovids have permanent unbranched
horns. Deers have branched horns that shed annu-
ally. Antilocapridae has both characters, i.e., horns
are unbranched and shed annually.
INSULAR FAUNA
Study of life on islands is called insular fauna.
There are two types of islands:
8
Oceanic islands had no land connection ever.
They are present in deep waters, very far away from
the continents. They may be formed by deposition of
volcanic material or deposits of coral reefs or by con-
tribution of both islands. Examples include Bermuda,
Azores, and Galapagos.
Continental islands were connected to mainland
at some time. They might have separated from the
mainland due to rise of sea level or sinking of land
mass. Borneo, Sumatra, Japan (having four islands),
Sri Lanka and Indonesia are examples of continental
islands. Continental islands are always very close to
mainland and resemble it geologically and zoologi-
cally. The sea separating the island and the
mainland is usually narrow. An example is Strait of
Dover which separates Britain from mainland Eura-
sia. In case of Formosa Island, the strait separating
it from China is very wide.
Ancient islands are continental islands having
fauna similar to mainland. Examples include Mada-
gascar and New Zealand.
Fauna of Continental Islands
The fauna of continental islands is more or less
identical to the mainland and always includes certain
proportions of mammals and amphibians. Mammals
are completely terrestrial and are not found in the
sea due to salinity and permeable membranes. They
cannot cross the sea without suitable and definite
means of dispersal. Therefore only those mammals
and amphibians are present on the continental is-
land that were present at the time of division of is-
land from the main land.
The terrestrial animals on the continental island
must have reached the island when the island was
still connected with the mainland.
Differences in fauna of the Continental Island and
mainland depend on the length of time since separa-
tion of the two. If the continental island is old, it will
lack those animals that have recently invaded the
mainland from other areas. If the continental island
is young, it is likely to have fauna that is only slightly
different from the mainland.
The species of animals on old continental islands
would have undergone extensive adaptive radiation,
resulting in the production of number of new species
which are absent on the mainland.
Continental islands usually have many unique
species due to insular (isolated) conditions.
Some of the continental islands have some re-
served species of animals which have become ex-
tinct on the mainland. This is due to the absence of
competition from more progressive species on the
island.
Fauna of Oceanic Islands
The fauna of oceanic islands is characterized by
absence of mammals and amphibians. Only those
birds or animals can cross the sea which have high
power of flight or swimming. They may also reach
oceanic islands by ships or other means of trans-
port.
 9

Certain evolutionary trends are seen in animals
living on oceanic islands. Birds or other animals like
insects tend to loose their power of flight or become
very large and flightless like “dodo birds”. The birds
living on oceanic islands tend to loose their bright
beautiful colors and usually become white
(bleached) due to high humidity. Reptiles on oceanic
islands become very large like tortoises and lizards.
only in Madagascar. Lemuria bridge was destroyed
in the sea, leaving behind lorises in India and orien-
tal region.
Many zoologists suggest that Madagascar has
been separated from the rest of the world during the
Cenozoic era due to some drastic climatic and envi-
ronmental conditions. So Lemuria land bridge is
unlikely to have existed.

Fauna of Ancient Islands Antarctica Land Bridge

It is not always easy to determine whether an is-
land is continental or oceanic. Such islands are
called ancient islands. Some islands are considered
ancient because the difference between the two fau-
nas has disappeared. The mainland animals may
have reached these islands by transportation.
It is thought to be present between Australia and
South America. Evidence in support of this idea is
the presence of marsupials, lung fishes, running
birds and tree frogs on both continents. Fossils and
other geological evidence suggest that there was no
such land bridge.

Continental Drift Theory

PALEOGEOGRAPHY This theory was proposed by a German meteor-
ologist Alfred Wegener in 1912. This theory pro-
There are four theories describing the formation of
poses that total land masses remain unchanged but
seas and continents. These are as follows.
change their relative positions.
Permanence of Continents
This theory proposes that the continents are fixed
portions of earth crust. They had the same position
in the past and present. There is no change in oce-
anic bodies.
The major drawback of this theory is that it does
not explain the distribution of similar animals on dif-
ferent continents which are far fleeing in between.

Theory of Land Bridges

In order to explain distribution of animals in the
past, many zoogeographers proposed that the land
bridges were present between the continents. This He proposed that continents are made up of
theory demands the presence of bridges of continen- lighter material known as “Sial (Aluminium Silicate)”
tal size spreading under deep water, serving as and the floor of the sea is made up of heavy material
means of communication from one continent to the known as “Sima (Magnesium Silicate)”. Continents
other. These land bridges were present in Cenozoic were floating like ice on water.
era leaving behind no trace of their existence. There According to this theory, all the continents were
are numerous land bridges of which major are: connected together in the Paleozoic era (544mya) to
Atlantic Land Bridge form a large land mass known as Pangaea. This
This land bridge was considered to be present be- large land mass was surrounded by a sea which is
known as Panthalassa.
tween Africa and South America. This explains the
At the end of Triassic period this large land mass
distribution of lungfishes, running birds, porcupines
etc. Although the species may be different (due to divided into two super continents, namely: Laurasia
different ecological niche), yet these animals belong and Gondwana land.
to same groups.
However, zoological evidence indicates that such
land bridge is unlikely to have existed. In South
America Edentata is endemic order of mammals
which includes armadillos, sloths and this order is
not present in Africa.
Lemuria Land Bridge
Lemuria land bridge was thought to have been
present between Madagascar and India. It was de-
signed to explain distribution of lemurs. These are
arboreal, nocturnal primates. The representatives of
lemurs are present in the oriental and African region.
Laurasia includes small continents of Northern
Lorises are lemur like animals present in the ori-
Hemisphere i.e. Europe, Greenland, and North
ental and Indian regions, but original lemurs were left
America. Gondwana land was named on an Indian

tribe; it includes four large continents, Africa, India,
South America, and Australia. These two super con-
tinents separated by a sea known as Tethys Sea.
By the end of cretaceous of Mesozoic era, these
continents were separated into land masses that
look like present day continents.
The separated part of continents fit very much if
they are put together. The drifting of the continents
started soon after carboniferous and continues even
today. Atlantic Ocean was fully formed during Eo-
cene epoch of Cenozoic era. It separates Africa and
South America.
Evidence of Continental Drift
Separated continents fit together remarkably when
put close together e.g. when India, South America
and Australia are grouped together, they have an
outline similar to Africa.
Many similar fossils like that of ferns are found in
India, Australia, South America, and Antarctica
which indicates that these continents were once
united.
Many sedimentary rocks are found in Greenland
having fossils of corals and deposits of coal from
plants. The climate is very cold today, while corals
are found in tropical climate. These rocks indicate
that the climate was tropical in the past.
Many deposits of coal and plants are found in In-
dia, South America, Australia and Antarctica. The
first study of these deposits was in district Orissa
occupied by a tribe Gond. So the name gondwana
land was extended to all continents having same
deposits. This shows the similarity in past geological
structure.
Drawbacks
Although it is very important and valid theory, it is
criticized for several reasons.
10
It does not explain the mechanism of continental
drift. It does not explain the main source of energy. It
does not explain the abundance of animals (mam-
mals and reptiles) in Africa and absence in South
America. It does not explain the fauna of South
America and Africa in Paleozoic era which seems to
be dissimilar.
Continental fit is very strong evidence but some
scientists say that outline of continents are continu-
ously modified by erosional process and does not
prove that it is an evidence.
Plate Tectonics
Plate is a fragment of lithosphere that can mount
in interior of earth of earth independently. Locomo-
tion and interaction of these plates is known as plate
tectonic theory.
The surface of earth is composed of lithospheric
(outermost shell of earth; crustal) plates that have
moved throughout geological time and have occu-
pied the present day position of continent. It indi-
cates the location of volcanic activity, earth quakes
and mountain building. The sea floor is constantly
moving and spreading at center and sinking at the
edges.
Convection currents, below the surface of earth
are responsible for movement of these plates. The
source of energy is probably the radioactivity in the
mantle.
Lithospheric plates consist of continental crust
and oceanic crust and upper part of mantle that
moves over weaker plastic shell known as Astheno-
sphere. Continental crust is 32 km deep while oce-
anic crust is 10 km. These two and mantle combine
to make Asthenosphere. There are six major plates:
Eurasian, America, African, Pacific, Indian, and Ant-
arctic plates. There are also several smaller plates.
Volcanic activity, earthquakes, and mountain build-
ing occur at the boundary of plates. There are three
main types of boundaries.
Divergent Plate Margins
When two plates move away from each other, di-
vergent plate margin is formed. It is marked by mid
oceanic ridges. New oceanic crust is formed during
divergence in a process known as sea-floor spread-
ing. The production of new oceanic crust at diver-
gent plate margins is compensated by destruction of
material along convergent plate margins.
 11

Transform Plate Margins

In this case, the two plates slip past each other.
The plates move parallel to each other but in oppo-
site direction.

Convergent Plate Margins

When the plates collide, the compression results
in volcanic activity. In this process one plate is forced
to move below the other making oceanic trench, in
which the crust of one plate is partially molten and
deposited on the upper plate parallel to oceanic
trench.