Materials Science and Engineering A 492 (2008) 283–292

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Materials Science and Engineering A

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/msea

Effects of strain rate on mechanical properties and failure mechanism

of structural Al–Mg alloys
M.J. Hadianfard a,∗ , R. Smerd b , S. Winkler b , M. Worswick b
a
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, School of Engineering, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue W., Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The effects of strain rate on the mechanical properties and failure mechanism of AA5754 and AA5182 sheets
Received 21 August 2007 were investigated. Tensile tests were conducted at quasi-static (less than 10−1 s−1 ) and dynamic (600, 1100
Received in revised form 18 March 2008 and 1500 s−1 ) strain rates at room and elevated temperature using an INSTRON machine and Tensile Split
Accepted 19 March 2008
Hopkinson Bar (TSHB) apparatus, respectively. Shear band decoration, interrupted tensile tests, electron
microscopy, and image analysis techniques were also utilized. The results obtained show that the studied
Keywords:
alloys exhibit negative strain rate sensitivity at quasi-static rates, but mild positive sensitivity at dynamic
Strain rate
rates. Different failure mechanisms were also observed. Strain localization and shear band formation was
Aluminum alloys
Failure mechanism
found to be a necessary pre-requisite for the development of damage and final failure under quasi-static
Shear band conditions. In the dynamic strain rate regime however, less shear banding was observed. Void nucleation,
Hopkinson bar growth and coalescence that is characteristic of dynamic tensile fracture appears to be the dominant mode
for failure under dynamic conditions.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
In the last decade, because of their enhanced formability and
high specific strength, aluminum alloys have been increasingly
utilized as structural components in automobiles and high-speed
ships. During service, these components can be subjected to
dynamic loading, such as during impact or collision with foreign
objects. Therefore, the material properties and failure behavior of
these alloys at low and high rates of deformation need to be well
understood.
Alloy composition, strain rate, service temperature and
microstructure may have an effect on mechanical properties and
failure mechanism of aluminum alloys [1–6]. Naka and Yoshida
[7] measured the strain rate sensitivity of a 5xxx aluminum alloy
at a 20–250 ◦ C, at strain rates of 5 × 10−5 to 50 s−1 . A negative
strain rate sensitivity was observed at room temperature while a
positive strain rate sensitivity was observed at temperatures over
200 ◦ C. Wagenhofer et al. [3] reported a negative and positive strain
rate sensitivity for AA5083 when deformed below and above 1 s−1 ,
respectively. Similarly, Clausen et al. [8] found that AA5083 exhibits
serrated stress–strain curves and negative strain rate sensitivity
when deformed at 10−4 to 1 s−1 . When the strain rate exceeds 1 s−1 ,
a large increase in fracture strain was measured. A severe reduction
in flow stress was reported for all strain rates (10−4 to 1 s−1 ) at 400
or 500 ◦ C. In several 5xxx aluminum alloys, Daoming and Ghosh
[9] found that the elongation to failure increased with increasing
temperature but decreased with increasing strain rates.
Ductile failure occurs as a result of nucleation, growth and coa-
lescence of micro-voids [10,11]. However, an important step in the
failure process is strain localization. During failure, strain localiza-
tion may be a consequence of the fracture process that occurs just
prior to, or long before, final fracture [12]. Strain rate hardening or
softening during deformation may contribute to strain localization
and the failure mechanisms involved. While strain rate hardening
can improve ductility [13], strain rate softening may lead to plastic
strain localization and reduce ductility [13,14]. Discontinuous yield-
ing [15] and negative strain rate sensitivity in 5xxx series aluminum
alloys [16] may also result in a reduction of the strain required
for void growth [17,18]. In general, the constitutive responses and
deformation behavior of aluminum alloys are not yet well under-
stood. Thus, it is the objective of this work to investigate the effects
of strain rate on the mechanical properties and failure mechanism
of automotive AA5754 and AA5182 sheets.
2. Experimental procedure
2.1. Materials

∗ Corresponding author. Fax: +0098 7116287294. The materials studied are 1.6-mm thick AA5754 and AA5182
E-mail address: hadianfa@shirazu.ac.ir (M.J. Hadianfard). sheets in the “O” condition, provided by Novelis Global Tech-

0921-5093/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.msea.2008.03.037
284 M.J. Hadianfard et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 492 (2008) 283–292

Table 1
Nominal composition of the AA5182 and AA5754 (weight percent)

Mg Mn Si Fe Ti Zn Cu Cr

AA5182 4.5 0.35 0.08 0.27 0.1 0.05 0.05 0.03

AA5754 3.2 0.2 0.06 0.3 0.01 – – –

nology Center. Table 1 shows the typical composition of these

alloys.

2.2. Quasi-static (qs) tensile tests

Dog-bone type tensile specimens with a gage length and width

of 12.5 and 1.75 mm, respectively; were utilized. Tensile tests were
conducted using an INSTRON machine at strain rates of 1.3 × 10−4 ,
1.3 × 10−3 , 1.3 × 10−2 , 6.6 × 10−2 and 1.3 × 10−1 s−1 at room tem-
perature with the applied load parallel to the rolling direction. A
minimum of three tensile tests was conducted for each test con-
dition. Tensile tests at 1.3 × 10−3 s−1 using standard-sized tensile
specimens (ASTM E8M-04) [19] were used as reference.
2.3. Interrupted tensile tests
Tensile specimens that were interrupted before final failure
occurred were used to study the damage evolution, crack path
and their interaction with second phase particles. The gage area
of these specimens were polished and examined by light and scan-
ning electron microscopy with the aid of a computer-controlled
image analysis (Image Pro Plus) system.
2.4. High strain rate tensile tests
A TSHB apparatus with an incident and transmitted bar of
15.87 mm in diameter and 1.44 m in length was utilized for the
dynamic tensile tests. Tests were carried out using the dog-bone
specimens at strain rates of 600, 1100 and 1500 s−1 ; at 23 (room
temperature), 150 and 300 ◦ C. A detailed description of this appa-
ratus and technique is presented in [20].
2.5. Microstructural and damage characterization
Microstructural and damage characterization were carried out
using metallographic and microscopy techniques. Fractography and
quantitative chemical analysis of the second phase particles present
was conducted using a Jeol JSM 6460 scanning electron microscope
(SEM) equipped with an Oxford Instrument energy dispersive spec-
troscopy (EDS) system. At least 30 different particles were analyzed
for each alloy. The failure mechanisms involved and damage evolu-
tion of the failed and interrupted specimens were analyzed using
SEM and an Olympus BX61 optical microscope equipped with an
Image-Pro Plus 5.0 image analysis software.
Fig. 1. Microstructure of AA5182.
localized plastic deformation and energy pile up is needed for pre-
cipitation. However, because magnesium is a key element in the
formation of Al–Mg precipitates, this method works better for the
higher Mg containing alloy AA5182 (4.5% Mg) than for AA5754 (3%
Mg).
Following heat treatment, the samples were etched in a solu-
tion of 10% phosphoric acid at 50 ◦ C for duration of 1–2 min. The
actual etching time is dependent on the level of magnesium and
the magnitude of localized plastic strain present. The higher the Mg
or strain levels, the shorter the etching time. This etching solution
reacts with the Al–Mg precipitates and creates contrast between
shear bands that contain higher amounts of precipitation and other
areas that are precipitate deficient. Following this shear band dec-
oration and etching process the specimens were analyzed using
microscopy techniques.
3. Results
Figs. 1 and 2 show the typical microstructure of AA5182 and
AA5754, respectively. The results of grain size and second phase
particles measurements are presented in Table 2.
Chemical analysis of the second phase particles indicates that
there are several different particle groups. In AA5182, three groups
were identified. The first group consisted of Al, Mg and Si; the sec-

2.6. Shear band decoration

A shear band decoration method [21] was used to study bands

of intense shear on the surface of the specimens following tensile
testing. The samples were aged for duration of 10–20 days at 100 ◦ C.
The longer ageing period was used for AA5754. This heat treatment
builds up precipitation of Al–Mg phase on high-energy areas such
as highly deformed bands and grain boundaries. Development of
incoherent precipitates is essential for obtaining enough contrast
between different areas on the surface of the specimens. A sufficient
energy pile up at highly strained areas is source for distinguishing
them from their neighbouring areas. Thus, a minimum amount of Fig. 2. Microstructure of AA5754.
 M.J. Hadianfard et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 492 (2008) 283–292 285

Table 2
Result of the detail measurement on polished and etched surfaces of the specimens

Material AA5182 AA5754

Grain size (␮m) 22.4 ± 7.63 25.3 ± 8.86

Grain aspect ratio 1.35 1.77
Volume of second phase particles (%) 1.1 ± 0.07 0.73 ± 0.05
Size range of the particles (␮m) 0.8–10.1 0.68–7.1
Average particle size (␮m) 4.4 ± 0.274 2.3 ± 0.0201
Average particle aspect ratio 2.1 1.6

ond of Al, Fe (about 10%), Mg and Mn; and the third of aluminum
oxide. The population of the two first groups is much higher than
the third. Four distinct groups of particles were found in AA5754.
The first group, which makes up about 55% of population, consisted
of aluminum oxide; the second of Al, Fe (2–3%) and Mn; the third of
Al, Fe (about 10%), Mn and Mg; and the fourth of Al, Mg and Si. The
population of the two last groups is much lower than the first two.
Porosity measurements conducted found that the porosity of
the as-received AA5182 and AA5754 sheets are 0.085% and 0.017%,
respectively. The microstructure of AA5754 appears to be cleaner
than AA5182 with less and smaller second phase particles.
Fig. 3a and b shows the shear bands revealed by the decora-
tion treatment in a quasi-static and a dynamic strain rate specimen,
respectively. Fig. 3c shows typical thickness of a shear band area on
a quasi-static strain rate specimen.

3.1. Quasi-static tensile tests

The engineering stress–strain curves obtained from quasi-static

tensile tests of AA5182 dog-bone specimens are presented in Fig. 4.
This figure shows that increasing quasi-static strain rates tend
to reduce the flow stress and strain to failure of the alloy. No
change in the shape of the stress–strain curves with strain rate
was observed. A similar trend is observed for AA5754. The serrated
yielding phenomena or discontinuous flow associated with Luders
band (Portevin-Le Chatelier instability) propagation is observed in
all specimens and is more pronounced in specimens tested at lower
strain rates. Each of these serrations is known to correspond to the
nucleation and propagation of deformation band along the ten-
sile specimen [1,22]. Similar results (at strain rate of 1.3 × 10−3 s−1 )
were obtained from ASTM standard sized specimens.
Fig. 5 shows the effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile
strength of AA5182 and AA5754. The change in yield strength with
stain rate is shown in Fig. 6. A reduction in both ultimate and yield
strength for both alloys is observed with increasing strain rate, indi-
cating a negative rate sensitivity. This reduction in strength is less
for AA5754 (9.3% for AA5754, 10.6% for AA5182). Only a slight reduc-
tion in elongation to failure (14% for AA5182 and 10% for AA5754)
is observed with increasing strain rates for both alloys.

3.2. High strain rate tensile tests

The change in elongation to failure of AA5182 and AA5754 with

strain rate at dynamic rates [20] is shown in Fig. 7. The elongation to
failure was found to increase with strain rate. A mild increase in the
flow stress was observed for AA5754 while no significant change is
seen for AA5182. These results suggest that these alloys have a small
positive rate sensitivity when deformed under dynamic conditions Fig. 3. (a) Shear band in a quasi-static specimen, (b) shear bands in a dynamic strain
[20]. rate specimen and (c) thickness of a shear band area on a quasi-static strain rate
At elevated temperature tests of 150 and 300 ◦ C, a drop in flow specimen.
stress was observed for both AA5182 and AA5754 when deformed
at dynamic rates [20]. Fig. 8 illustrates this change in strength with
temperature at 15% strain for both alloys at a strain rate of 1500 s−1 .
In addition to a reduction in strength, increasing temperatures was
found to be detrimental to the ductility of these alloys (Fig. 9).
286 M.J. Hadianfard et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 492 (2008) 283–292

Fig. 7. Change in the elongation to failure of AA5182 and AA5754 with strain rate at
dynamic rates.
Fig. 4. Engineering stress–strain curves obtained from quasi-static tensile tests of
AA5182 specimens.

Fig. 8. Effect of temperature on the flow stress of AA5182 and AA5754 at 15% strain
at strain rate of 1500 s−1 .

Fig. 5. Effect of strain rate on ultimate tensile strength of AA5182 and AA5754 at
quasi-static rates.
3.3. Failure analysis
3.3.1. Quasi-static regime
Examination of the surfaces of the specimens after quasi-static
tensile testing, heat treatment and etching showed several large
intense shear bands on the surface of all specimens. A large number
of damage including voids, microcracks and damaged second phase
particles were observed in these shear bands (Fig. 10). Although
some damaged particles were also observed out of these bands,
most of the damaged particles were found on, or near, these bands.
These shear bands with a high density of damaged particles are

Fig. 6. Change in the yield strength of AA5754 and AA5754 with strain rate at quasi- Fig. 9. Change in elongation to failure of AA5182 and AA5754 with temperature at
static rates. 1500 s−1 .
 M.J. Hadianfard et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 492 (2008) 283–292
Fig. 10. Shear bands and damaged area on the surface of a AA5182 specimen failed
at 1.3 × 10−3 s−1 .
present in close proximity to the main crack or fracture path.
Damage was observed to initiate at the second phase particles
by means of particle cracking and/or particle-matrix decohesion.
Fig. 11 shows typical optical micrographs of AA5754 specimens
after shear band decoration that was tested 1.3 × 10−3 s−1 . These
images indicate that shear band formation or localization occurs
prior to fracture. Detailed analysis of the crack path by optical and
electron microscopy show that most of the crack trail in the quasi-
static specimens lies either along or parallel the shear bands. This
phenomena is illustrated in Fig. 12, and is observed in both ASTM
and dog-bone type specimens.
Analysis of the interrupted AA5182 specimens showed that at
small plastic strains, damage was only visible at larger second phase
particles located at grain boundaries (Fig. 13). However, at interme-
diate plastic strain levels some are present at second phase particles
inside the grains (Fig. 14). At high plastic strain levels and shear
localization, intense damage located inside the shear bands are
present (Fig. 11). A similar observation is made with AA5754. How-
ever, AA5754 tends to show slightly less grain boundary effects.
Some large damaged particles are observed away from the grain
boundaries at low and intermediate plastic strain levels, but the vast
majority of them are located at the grain boundaries. Under iden-
tical test conditions, the area of localized plastic deformation and
thickness of the shear bands were found to be higher in AA5182 than
Fig. 11. An intense deformation area and shear bands in the AA5754 specimens
failed at 1.3 × 10−3 s−1 .
287
Fig. 12. A part of the crack path in a AA5182 specimen which was fractured at
1.3 × 10−2 s−1 .
in AA5754. Shear band thicknesses are also dependent on strain
rate. Fig. 15a shows that the thickness of shear bands increases
with increasing strain rate for both alloys in the quasi-static
regime.
Statistical analysis of the size of the damaged particles was per-
formed. The average size of damaged particles as a function of strain
rate is presented in Fig. 15b. A comparison of these results with
particles measured from specimens in the as-received condition
(average of 4.4 and 2.3 ␮m for AA5182 and AA5754, respectively)
indicates that the larger particles are more prone to damage than
the smaller particles. Furthermore, the average size of damaged
particles was found to increase with increasing strain rate. Fig. 15b
shows that while the average damaged particle size for AA5182
specimens that failed at 1.3 × 10−4 s−1 is 5.3 ␮m, it is 7.36 ␮m for
those that failed at 1.3 × 10−1 s−1 .
The fracture surfaces of all specimens contain dimples, a
typical feature of ductile fracture. Some differences between
the fracture surfaces of high and low strain rate specimens
were observed. The fracture morphology of specimens that
failed at lower strain rates (Fig. 16a) is characterized by well-
formed voids centered mostly around the damaged second
phase particles, with thin matrix ligaments between the pri-
Fig. 13. Damaged large second phase particles on the grain boundaries of an inter-
rupted AA5182 specimen at low levels of plastic strain.
288 M.J. Hadianfard et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 492 (2008) 283–292

Fig. 14. Damaged large second phase particles inside the grain of an interrupted
AA5182 specimen at intermediate strain levels after shear band decoration treat-
ment.

mary voids. In contrast, the fracture surfaces of specimens that

failed at higher quasi-static rates (Fig. 16b) were covered with
large and small shallow voids. The matrix between neighbour-
ing voids was almost ruptured by the formation of smaller
dimples. As illustrated in Fig. 17, image analysis of the frac-
ture surfaces shows that the diameter of the central deep
voids on the fractured surfaces decreases with increasing strain
rate.

Fig. 16. (a) Fracture surface of a AA5182 specimen failed at 1.3 × 10−4 s−1 and (b)
fractured surface of a AA5182 specimen failed at 1.3 × 10−1 s−1 .

3.4. High strain rate regime

3.4.1. Room temperature tests

Several small shear bands were observed on some TSHB spec-
imens that failed at room temperature. No shear bands or shear
localization are observed in the other specimens. Although some
damage was observed in the shear bands, most of the damaged

Fig. 15. (a) The average thickness of shear bands as a function of strain rate for
specimens failed in the quasi-static regime. (b) Average size of damaged particles as Fig. 17. Measured dimple size vs. strain rate of AA5182 and AA5754 specimens failed
a function of strain rate for specimens failed in the quasi-static regime. in the quasi-static regime.
 M.J. Hadianfard et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 492 (2008) 283–292 289

Fig. 20. Shear band thickness as a function of strain rate at dynamic rates.

Fig. 18. A AA5182 specimen failed at 1100 s−1 .

areas were found outside of these bands. An area with a high den-
sity of damage was observed a short distance from the main fracture
path in all specimens, most of which are associated with second
phase particles.
Micrographs of a AA5182 specimen tested at 1100 s−1 follow-
ing shear band decoration is shown in Fig. 18. Examinations of the
specimen show that at larger distances (more than 0.3 mm) from
the crack path, damage was only present on the larger second phase
particles. However, damage is observed at smaller particles near the
crack path. A similar behavior was observed from AA5754 material.
Fig. 19 shows the change in damage particle size with strain rate. It
is observed that under dynamic conditions, the average damaged
particle size decreases with increasing strain rate for both alloys.
The presence and thickness of shear bands were found to be Fig. 21. Measured dimple size vs. strain rate of AA5182 and AA5754 specimens failed
influenced by strain rate and alloy composition. Less shear localiza- in the dynamic regime.
tion was observed in AA5754 compared to AA5182. Fig. 20 shows
that shear band thickness tend to decrease with increasing strain 3.5. Elevated temperature tests
rate for both alloys. The crack profiles of failed TSHB specimens
show less evidence of crack path dependence with strain rate than Although the general characteristics of TSHB specimens tested
those failed under quasi-static rates. at 150 and 300 ◦ C are similar to those tested at room temperature,
The fracture surfaces of all specimens that failed at room tem- some evidence of shear band localization was found on the surface
perature exhibit ductile fracture morphology. The primary dimples of these specimens. A significant difference was observed for spec-
around the damaged particles are deep with some small secondary imens failed at 300 ◦ C. Specimens from both alloys show evidence
dimples surrounding them. The change in average primary dimple of particle fracture at grain boundaries. Fig. 22 shows a crack profile
size with strain rate is shown in Fig. 21. These results show that the
primary dimple size tend to decrease with increasing strain rates.

Fig. 19. Average size of damaged particles of specimens failed at dynamic rates. Fig. 22. Crack profile in the AA5182 specimen tested at 300 ◦ C.
290 M.J. Hadianfard et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 492 (2008) 283–292
Fig. 23. Crack profile characterization of a AA5754 specimen tested at 300 ◦ C.
Fig. 24. Fractured surface of a AA5182 specimen failed at 300 ◦ C at a strain rate of
1500 s−1 .
of a AA5182 specimen which failed at 300 ◦ C. The crack profile char-
acterization for a AA5754 specimen is presented in Fig. 23. Fig. 24
shows the fracture surface of a AA5182 specimen failed at 1500 s−1
at 300 ◦ C. In contrast to the specimens tested at room tempera-
ture, regions containing small shallow dimples and, large flat areas
(evidence of local melting) on the fractured surfaces were observed.
4. Discussion
From the tensile test results and microstructural observations
obtained over a range of strain rates, the mechanical response and
failure mechanism of the aluminum alloys studied are found to be
influenced by the strain rate at which they are deformed.
4.1. Quasi-static regime
A slight negative strain rate effect was observed at quasi-
static rates at room temperature. Serrations or Portevien-Le
Chateler (PLC) instability is also present. These observations may
be attributed to the dynamic strain ageing (DSA) phenomena
[1,3,22,23], which are in agreement with the findings of other
researchers. During testing of AA5083, Clausen et al. [8] found ser-
rated stress–strain curves and negative strain rate sensitivity for
this alloy at strain rates below 1 s−1 . Negative strain rate sensitiv-
ity in Al–Mg alloys has also been reported by other investigators
[1,15,24–26]. DSA is described by the interaction of fast diffusing
solute atoms such as magnesium with moving dislocations [3,22].
Since DSA is diffusion controlled, it is a function of temperature
and strain rate. At very low strain rates, solute atoms interact
with obstacles preventing dislocation movements, resulting in
higher flow stresses. As the strain rate increases, the dampening
effect of the solutes on dislocation movement decreases and lower
flow stresses are obtained. When sufficiently high strain rates are
reached, DSA disappears as the deformation time is too short for
diffusion to occur [1,3,22,24].
Interrupted test specimens show that little damage is present
prior to the onset of flow instability. Shear banding and damage
are observed in all failed quasi-static specimens, with the majority
of the voids located within the shear bands regions. The thickness
of the shear bands present was found to increase with increasing
strain rates. Reviews by Wright [28] and Bassim and co-workers
[29] show that shear bands can act as a preferential crack nucle-
ation sites and fragmentation in Al alloys, Ti alloys and steels at
higher strain rates. The larger densities of damage observed on and
near the shear bands of the failed specimens suggest that plastic
localization and shear banding enhance the local damage process
prior to failure in the quasi-static regime.
Softening due to the PLC effect is a source of plastic flow insta-
bility or localization in Al–Mg alloys [17,27]. Localization occurs
due to the interaction between different factors such as material
hardening or softening, geometry and loading conditions [12,27].
It commences when the softer regions in a material deform more
rapidly than other regions and represents a drastic change in mate-
rial deformation from a relatively uniform to a non-uniform one
involving high strain gradients. The larger strains present in the
shear bands lead to degradation of the material’s strength and stiff-
ness [30]; nucleation, growth, and coalescence of microcracks or
voids [31,32]; and a reduction in the load-bearing area. The nega-
tive strain rate sensitivity of a material not only provides the right
conditions for localization, but can also reduce the magnitude of
the strain required for void growth within a shear band [17]. The
decrease in elongation to failure observed with increasing strain
rate can hence be attributed to the lower strains required for void
growth within the shear band regions.
Void nucleation usually occurs at inclusions and/or second
phase particles in a metallic matrix. Different criteria are available
to describe void nucleation; some based on critical stress while
others on critical strain [11,33,34]. The strain-controlled nucleation
criterion is often used to describe the formation of damage from
particles [11,33–36]. The strain for void nucleation has been esti-
mated through different models [37]. In the presence of plastic
strain, larger particles are more prone to damage and are favor-
able sites for void nucleation as less strain is required [35]. Thus,
the average size of damaged particles can be used to estimate
the amount of plastic strain required to produce localization and
damage in a specimen. Quantitative measurements of the size of
damaged particles found that the average damaged particle size
tend to increase with increasing strain rate (Fig. 15b). This suggests
that the critical strain required for strain localization decreases with
increasing strain rate in the QS regime. This is also in agreement
with the decrease in elongation to failure with increasing strain
rate observed.
4.2. Dynamic regime
In contrast to the tensile test results obtained in quasi-static
regime, a mild positive strain rate sensitivity was observed in the
alloys studied with increasing strain rates in the dynamic regime.
 M.J. Hadianfard et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A 492 (2008) 283–292
Small shear bands were observed in only some of the tested speci-
mens and damage was mostly present in regions outside the shear
bands. As the strain rate increases, the thickness of the shear bands
(when present) was found to decrease. These observations sug-
gest that, unlike the quasi-static regime, shear localization plays
a lesser role in the damage processes and final failure of the mate-
rials studied at dynamic rates. In this regime, shear localization
appears to be a consequence of the void nucleation, growth and
coalescence at second phase particles that are primarily generated
by homogeneous plastic deformation.
The two main failure modes observed in aluminum alloys when
deformed under dynamic rates are dimple fracture (dynamic ten-
sile fracture) and shear fracture (adiabatic shear banding) [32,38].
Dynamic tensile fracture involves void nucleation, growth and coa-
lescence processes. The growth and coalescence of the nucleated
micro-voids and the formation of shear bands occurs with increas-
ing plastic strain [32]. Dynamic shear localization or adiabatic shear
banding (ABS) on the other hand is governed by the competition
between strain hardening and thermal softening of the material.
Damage is often present in ABS bands due to the higher strains
present within them. It is the growth and coalescence of these voids
or ABS themselves that ultimately results in final failure at high
strain rates [28,32,38].
In this study, shear bands were not observed in all TSHB spec-
imens, and where present, they were small in size. Furthermore,
the majority of damage present was found in regions outside the
shear bands. This suggests that the dynamic tensile fracture mode
is the dominant failure mechanism for AA5182 and AA5754 when
deformed under the range of dynamic strain rates investigated.
The deformation mechanisms of a material can vary with the
rate of strain [39]. The different failure mechanisms and mechanical
behaviors of AA5754 and AA5182 at quasi-static and dynamic strain
rates can be accredited to the different dislocation mechanisms
involved. At lower quasi-static strain rates local stress concen-
trations are suppressed by local dislocation motion (thermally
activated obstacles). With increasing strain rates, more dislocations
are immobilized and the local stresses may rise above a nucleation
threshold so that damage can be nucleated from weak spots such
as grain boundaries and/or second-phase particles. The growth and
coalescence of these nucleated voids finally leads to the failure of
materials [32].
In the quasi-static regime, plastic strain localization leads to
higher strain rate and enhanced softening in the localized area. This
local softening effect creates larger localized zones with thicker
shear bands and higher damage density. Due to the positive rate
sensitivity of the alloys studied under dynamic conditions, increas-
ing strain rates resulted in higher flow stresses within the localized
area, stabilizing the deformation. Thus, the onset of strain local-
ization is delayed at dynamic rates, as indicated by the thinner
shear bands present in the TSHB specimens. An increase in elonga-
tion to failure with increasing strain rate measured under dynamic
conditions further supports this hypothesis [40].
4.3. High strain rate, elevated temperature
Results of TSHB tests at 300 ◦ C and strain rate of 1500 s−1 show
a considerable change in the flow stress, elongation to failure and
shape of the stress–strain [20]. Compared to the specimens tested
at room temperature, the 300 ◦ C specimens appear to have weak-
ened grain boundaries, with evidence of local melting (Figs. 22–24).
Adiabatic deformation of the material at high strain rate provides a
situation where the heat generated in a localized area does not have
adequate time to dissipate. Coupled this with the heat from the test
temperature (300 ◦ C) incipient melting may be present at the grain
boundaries. Deschamps et al. [41] have measured the solidus tem-
291
perature of AA5383 alloy as 563 ◦ C. This liquid phase produces an
inhomogeneity, which makes deformation unstable and produces
strain localization [42]. These localization areas act as nucleation
sites for cracks. The local liquid phase limits the maximum tolera-
ble plastic strain during deformation, and decreases the elongation
to failure and flow stress of the tested materials.
4.4. Concluding remarks
The AA5182 and AA5754 alloys studied were found to exhibit
a negative strain rate sensitivity when tested in the quasi-static
strain rate regime, but mild positive strain rate sensitivity in the
dynamic strain rate regime. Under quasi-static conditions, increas-
ing strain rates resulted in increased material softening and more
pronounced shear band formation. Strain localization appears to
be a necessary pre-requisite for damage and final failure to occur.
Under dynamic conditions, however; significantly less shear local-
ization is observed. The void nucleation, growth and coalescence
process at the second phase particles is the dominant failure
mechanism which develops prior to localization. Analysis of TSHB
specimens failed at elevated temperatures show the presence of
local melting zones at grain boundaries, which may contribute to
the lower ductility and flow stresses measured.
Acknowledgements
Authors thank the Novelist Global Technologies, Canada, for pro-
viding the Al alloys. M.J. Hadianfard would like to thank Shiraz
University, Shiraz, Iran for the financial support of sabbatical leave
of the author.
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