Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Unit 2 Notes
Unit 2 Notes
Unit 2 Notes
Slope/Fluvial
Glacial/Aeolian
Lacustral/Coastal
Ferricretes /Weathering
‘Landforms’
Landforms are the individual topographic features exposed on the Earth’s surface.
Landforms vary in size and shape and include features such as small creeks or sand
dunes, or large features.
Landforms develop over a range of different time-scales. Some landforms develop
rather quickly (over a few seconds, minutes, or hours), such as a landslide, while
others may involve many millions of years to form, such as a mountain range.
Landform development can be relatively simple and involve only a few processes,
or very complex and involve a combination of multiple processes and agents.
Landforms are dynamic features that are continually affected by a variety of earth-
surface processes including weathering, erosion, and deposition.
Earth scientists who study landforms provide decision makers with information to
make natural resource, cultural management, and infrastructure decisions that
affect humans and the environment.
“Geomorphology”
It is the process-based study of landforms.
o Geo-morph-ology originates from Greek: Geo meaning the “Earth”, morph meaning
its “shape”, and ology refers to “the study of”.
o Scientists who study landforms are Geomorphologists.
Geomorphology defines the processes and conditions that influence landform development,
and the physical, morphological, and structural characteristics of landforms.
Geomorphologists who study landforms often seek to answer fundamental questions that help
them study landforms, such as:
o What is the physical form or shape of the landform?
o What is the elevation and topographic relief of the landform?
o How did the landform originate?
o What is the distribution of the landform and where else does it occur?
o Are there any patterns associated with the landform or topography?
o What is the significance of the landform in relation to other elements of the landscape
or environment?
o Has the landform or geomorphology been altered by humans?
o Does the landform or geomorphology affect humans?
“Constructive and Destructive Processes”
Constructive processes:
o They are responsible for physically building or constructing certain landforms.
Constructive processes include tectonic and depositional processes and their
landforms.
o Tectonic Landforms are created by massive earth movements due to tectonic
and volcanic activity, and include landforms such as: mountains, rift valleys,
volcanoes, and intrusive igneous landforms
o Depositional Landforms are produced from the deposition of weathered and
eroded surface materials. Depositional landforms include features such as:
beaches, barrier islands, spits, deltas, flood plains, dunes, alluvial fans, and
glacial moraines.
Destructive processes:
o They create landforms through weathering and erosion of surface materials
facilitated by water, wind, ice, and gravity. Mass-wasting events occur in areas
where weathering and erosion is accelerated.
o Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rock at or near the
Earth’s surface by mechanical, chemical, or biological weathering processes.
o Erosion is the removal and transportation of weathered or unweathered
materials by water, wind, ice, and gravity.
o Mass-Wasting is a rapid period of weathering and erosion that removes and
transports materials very quickly and is often triggered by an environmental
stimuli. Mass wasting includes rock falls, landslides, debris and mud flows,
slumps, and creep.
The genetic landform classification system groups landforms by the dominant set of
geomorphic processes responsible for their formation. This includes the following
processes and associated landforms:
o Tectonic Landforms
o Extrusive Igneous Landforms
o Intrusive Igneous Landforms
o Fluvial Landforms
o Karst Landforms
o Aeolian Landforms
o Coastal Landforms
o Ocean Floor Topography
o Glacial Landforms
Within each of these genetic classifications, the resulting landforms are a product of
either constructive and destructive processes or a combination of both.
Landforms are also influenced by other agents or processes including time, climate,
and human activity.
‘SLOPE’
Landform:
A recognizable, naturally formed feature on the Earth's surface. Landforms have a
characteristic shape and can include such large features as plains, plateaus, mountains,
and valleys, as well as smaller features such as hills, eskers, and canyons.
Slope:
A surface of which one end or side is at a higher level than another; a rising or
falling surface.
A surface of which one end or side is at a higher level than another; a rising or
falling surface.
The slope or gradient of a line is a number that describes both the direction and the
steepness of the line
Slope=nxl/636.6 Where,
I=Contour Interval and
n=no. of contours crossing
per km.
Slope Processes
o Slopes, the most common landforms consists of cliff face (“free face”) and talus
slope or upper convex slope, a straight slope, and a lower concave slope.
o Dynamic evolving feature, depending upon topography, rock types, climate,
vegetation, water, and time.
o Materials constantly moving down the slope at varied rates.
Forces on Slopes
The stability of a slope expresses the relationship between resisting forces and driving
forces
Driving forces – forces which move earth materials down slope. Down slope
component of weight of material including vegetation, fill material, or
buildings.
Resisting forces – forces which oppose movement. Resisting forces include
strength of material.
Slopes on Rocks
Weak and Soft Rock:
Form slope with 3 segements
Convex upper part
Straight central segment
Concave lower part
Hard Rock: Form free face with talus slope at base. Mass wasting: refers to a downslope
movement of rock or soil as a more or
less coherent mass. Comprehensive
term – all inclusive term for any down
Origin of slope slope movement of earth materials
(Important types of mass wasting)
o Slide – downslope movement of coherent block of earth material
o Slump – is sliding along a curved slip plane producing slump blocks
o Fall – rocks fall from vertical face
o Flow – Downslope movement of unconsolidated material in which particles
move about and mix within the mass.
o Subsidence – it is the sinking of a mass of earth material below the level of
surrounding material.
o Landslides – They are commonly complex combinations of sliding and
flowage.
Factors Affecting Slope Stability
o Type of earth material
o Slope Angle and Topography
o Climate
o Vegetation
o Water
o Time
“Slope formation”
Role of Earth Materials
Slopes formed by weak rocks such as shale or have thick soil deposits typically fail by
rotational slides.
Slopes formed by hard rocks typically fail by translational slides.
Soil slips occur above bedrock and fail by translational slides.
Role of Vegetation
In sub-humid to humid environments, vegetation is thick and abundant
Landslide activity includes deep complex landslides, earthflows, and soil creep.
Vegetation influences slope stability by:
o Providing a cover that cushions the impact of rain falling on slopes and retards
erosion on surface.
o Vegetation has root systems that tend to provide an apparent cohesion which
increases resistance to land-sliding.
o Vegetation adds weight to the slope increasing the driving forces.
Role of Water
Water can affect slope stability by:
Shallow soil slips can develop during rainstorms when slopes become saturated.
Slumps or translational slides can develop months or years after slope is saturated.
Water can erode the base or toe of a slope decreasing slope stability.
Role of Climate
Climate influences the amount and timing of water in the form of water or snow.
Influences type and amount of vegetation.
“Fluvial”
o In geography and geology, fluvial processes are associated with rivers and streams
and the deposits and landforms created by them. When the stream or rivers are
associated with glaciers, ice sheets, or ice caps, the term glacio-fluvial or fluvio-
glacial is used.
o Fluvial process can be called as the physical interaction of flowing water and the
natural channels of rivers and streams. Such processes play an essential and
conspicuous role in the denudation of land surfaces and the transport of rock
detritus from higher to lower levels.
o Over much of the world, the erosion of landscape, including the reduction of
mountains and the building of plains, is brought about by the flow of water. As the
rain falls and collects in watercourses, the process of erosion not only degrades the
land, but the products of erosion themselves become the tools with which the
rivers carve the valleys in which they flow.
o Sediment materials eroded from one location are transported and deposited in
another, only to be eroded and re-deposited time and again before reaching the
ocean. At successive locations, the riverine plain and the river channel itself are
products of the interaction of a water channel’s flow with the sediments brought
down from the drainage basin above.
o The velocity of a river’s flow depends mainly upon the slope and the roughness of
its channel. A steeper slope causes higher flow velocity, but a rougher channel
decreases it. The slope of a river corresponds approximately to the fall of the
country it traverses.
o Near the source, frequently in hilly regions, the slope is usually steep, but it
gradually flattens out, with occasional irregularities, until, in traversing plains
along the latter part of the river’s course, it usually becomes quite mild.
Accordingly, large streams usually begin as torrents with highly turbulent flow and
end as gently flowing rivers.
o In flood-time, rivers bring down large quantities of sediment, derived mainly from
the disintegration of the surface layers of the hills and valley slopes by rain and
from the erosion of the riverbed by flowing water.
o Glaciers, frost, and wind also contribute to the disintegration of the Earth’s surface
and to the supply of sediment to rivers. The power of a river current to transport
materials depends to a large extent on its velocity, so that torrents with a rapid fall
near the sources of rivers can carry down rocks, boulders, and large stones.
______________________________
“This categorization scheme is dynamic and can accommodate the natural variability
in stream flow because
o discharge only partly controls wash load (fines)
o sediment supply is a much more limiting factor
o most streams can naturally carry much more than they actually do
On human settlement:
Aeolian processes affect the biosphere in a wide variety of contexts, including
landform evolution, biogeochemical cycles, regional climate, human health, and
desertification.
Researches reveals that aeolian processes have impacts, interactions, and feedbacks at
a variety of scales, including large‐scale dust transport and global biogeochemical
cycles, climate mediated interactions between atmospheric dust and ecosystems,
impacts on human health, impacts on agriculture, and interactions between aeolian
processes and dryland vegetation. Aeolian dust emissions are driven largely by, in
addition to climate, a combination of soil properties, soil moisture, vegetation and
roughness, biological and physical crusts, and disturbances.
“Glacial Landform”
o Glacial processes which bring sediment into the marine environment generate
deposits that have a much higher chance of long-term preservation, and
recognition of the characteristics of these sediments can provide important clues
about past climates.
o Ice accumulates in areas where the addition of snow each year exceeds the losses
due to melting, evaporation or wind deflation.
o There are areas of permanent ice at almost all latitudes, including within the
tropics, and there are two main types of glacial terrains
temperate (or mountain) glaciers
polar ice caps
Lacustrine deposits are sedimentary rock formations which formed in the bottom of
ancient lakes.
A common characteristic of lacustrine deposits is that a river or stream channel has
carried sediment into the basin.
Lacustrine environments, like seas, are large bodies of water.
Lacustrine deposits can form in every variety of basins found in nature.
The difference between lacustrine deposit types comes from the origins of each basin.
o Rift graben lakes are formed from crustal stretching also known as rifting.
o Sediment influx is typically dominated by precipitation runoff and discharge
through channels migrating towards the depression.
o Oxbow lakes form lacustrine deposits from seasonal overbank flooding as well as
precipitation runoff which refills these isolated basins with fresh water and new
sediments.
o Glacial lakes form when terminal moraines block water from escaping the newly
carved valley from glacial erosion. As the glacier melts, the valley fills with melt
water that creates a glacial lake.
o Crater lakes can be meteoritic or of the caldera variety. Crater lakes sediments are
provided from precipitation runoff descending their steep slopes.
Still water in lakes permits very fine particles (fine sand, silt, and clay) to settle out
and to form lacustrine deposits. These deposits get exposed by elevation of old
lakebeds. Lacustrine deposits are very well sorted, devoid of coarse particles such as
coarse sand or gravels, and are characterized by thin layers that reflect annual
deposition of sediments.
Lake deposits are formed by complex chemical, physical, and biological processes.
The physical processes are from rivers, waves, streams, and deposition.
The chemical processes are from the chemical deposition, and
The biology processes are from biological product and organic deposits.
The basin of lake can be formed by many mechanisms, such as:
tectonic movements (rifting, faulting)
glacial processes (ice scouring, ice damming, moraine damming),
landslide or other mass movements
volcanic activity
deflation
Fluvial activity
There are 4 variables that determine the lake size and characters, they are:
Basin-floor’s depth / sill height / water supply / sediment supply
o Lakes are dynamic and complex systems, whose depositional processes and
sedimentation are affected by climatic and tectonic events (Scott et al. 2012 and
the references herein).
o In addition, the great physicochemical variability among lakes, in terms of origin,
size, morphology, catchment size, and water biochemistry influence the nature and
the rate of lacustrine deposits' formation (Schnurrenberger et al. 2003).
o The lake system, in comparison with other depositional environments such as
rivers, is characterized by low energy (Rust 1982).
o This depositional condition allows the fine particles to settle out with a variable
organic component, making lacus-trine sediments prevalently characterized by silt,
fine sand, and clay mixtures. Nevertheless, near the margin, the lake system
presents higher-energy depositional environments, such as alluvial and fluvial-
lacustrine features (i.e., alluvial fans, alluvial floodplain and deltas).
o For these reasons, sandy and gravelly inter-bedded deposits can occur within the
finer sediment bodies, especially in the proximal areas of a lake system, where the
abovementioned boundary conditions are present (Rust 1982; Scott et al. 2012).
o Due to the high variability of physicochemical properties of the lake systems
distributed worldwide, many lacustrine deposits vary from meters to hundreds of
meters in depth comprising fine soils that range from sand to clay including
organic clay.
o The mechanical properties of such soils are quite variable, depending on the
dominant soil fractions, the type of clay mineral content and the organic matter.
o Commonly, such soils show high compressibility and low mechanical resistance
that can induce subsidence under static loading (that is a plastic progressive
settlement) and liquefaction under dynamic loading when groundwater is shallow.
“Coastal Landform”
Coastal landforms, any of the relief features present along any coast, the result of a
combination of processes, sediments, and the geology of the coast itself.
“All natural and anthropogenic processes that have occurred after the deposition of
archaeological materials, and which might have transformed them into their present
state.”
Our understanding of post-depositional processes is vital to assess the possible biases
they might have caused in the archaeological record.
Some of the most evident examples of post-depositional processes encountered in
survey archaeology are erosion and agricultural activities, such as ploughing.
Terminologies:
Basin of deposition
the area which defines the pattern of deposition of layers, e.g. the shape of a cave,
room, or pit.
Depositional process
any of the various processes by which artifacts move from active use to an
archaeological context, such as loss, disposal, abandonment, burial, etc. It is the
laying, placing, or throwing down of any material. In geology, it is the constructive
process of accumulation into beds, veins, or irregular masses of any kind of loose,
solid rock material by any kind of natural agent (wind, water, ice). The transformation
of materials from a systemic to an archaeological context are directly responsible for
the accumulation of archaeological sites and they constitute the dominant factor in
forming the archaeological record. Deposition is the last stage of behavioral processes,
in which artifacts are discarded.
Depositional environment
any stratum or unit making up a separate layer of material at an archaeological site;
the total of sedimentary and biological conditions, factors, and processes that result in
a deposit(s). A depositional history is the order in which objects are deposited at a site.
Post deposition
after deposit; what can and does happen to artifacts between the time they were
discarded by past people and archaeological excavation.
Structured deposition
Material entering the archaeological record through specific activities or behaviour
patterns, not randomly.
Soils
o Solid earth material that has been altered by physical, chemical and organic
processes so that it can support rooted plant life.
o The material on the surface of the ground in which plants grow
o Soil is end product of weathering
o Soil is an accumulation of loose material from mechanical and chemical
weathering of rocks (also relocated) and containing a large admixture of various
organic substances on the Earth's surface.
o Engineering definition: Anything that can be removed without blasting
Transformation
Decomposition of organic matter
Humification to form complex organic matter
Weathering of rocks
– Physical weathering
• Fragmentation of rock
– Freeze-thaw; drying-wetting; fire
• Physical abrasion
– Abrasion by glaciers
– Chemical weathering
• Dissolves primary minerals
• Forms secondary minerals
Decomposition
Breakdown of soil organic matter to form soluble compounds that can be absorbed
or leached.
Depends on
– Quantity of input
– Location of input (roots vs. leaves)
– Environment
– Temperature
– Moisture
Soil Horizons
– Layers in Soil
– Not Deposited, but Zones of Chemical Action
Soil Profile
– Suite of Horizons at a Given Locality
– Over time different levels of a soil can differentiate into distinct horizons that
create soil profiles.
– Chemical reactions and formation of secondary minerals (clays).
– Leaching by infiltrating water.
– Deposition and accumulation of material leached from higher levels in the soil.
Sediments
Those materials deposited at the earth’s surface under low temperatures and pressures
(Pettijohn, 1975) – constitute the backbone of geoarchaeology.
The overwhelming majority of archaeological sites is found in sedimentary contexts,
and the material that is excavated – whether geogenic or anthropogenic is sedimentary
in character.
Some of the basic characteristics of sediments, many of which can also be applied to
soils.
Since sediments are so ubiquitous in archaeological sites, it is necessary to have at
least a working knowledge of some of these characteristics so as to be able to share
this descriptive information with others.
“SEDIMENTARY GEOARCHAEOLOGY =
Sedimentology (process) + Stratigraphy (response)
Sedimentology = study of PROCESSES (i.e. production, composition, transport, and
deposition of sediment)
Stratigraphy = study of RESPONSES (i.e. inferring the controls on the spatial and
temporal changes of strata) → exact processes that created the rocks can’t be know
because only the rocks are left, not the processes.”
Introduction
The geologic processes operating on Earth’s surface produce only subtle changes in
the landscape during a human lifetime, but over a period of tens of thousands or
millions of years, the effect of these processes is considerable. Given enough time, the
erosive power of the hydrologic system can reduce an entire mountain range to a
featureless lowland. In the process, the eroded debris is transported by rivers and
deposited as new layers of sedimentary rock. A series of sedimentary rock layers may
be thousands of meters thick. When exposed at the surface, each rock layer provides
information about past events in Earth’s history. Such is the case in the Moenkopi
Formation of southern Utah shown in the panorama above.
The various shades of red and white occur in the thin beds of siltstone and mudstone
deposited on an ancient tidal flat about 220 million years ago. Thin layers of siltstone
and shale each containing ripple marks, mud cracks, and rain imprints combine to tell
the history recorded in the rock now exposed in this colourful cliff.
Importance in Archaeology
The record of Earth’s history preserved in sedimentary rocks is truly remarkable. Each
bedding plane is a remnant of what was once the surface of Earth. Each rock layer is
the product of a previous period of erosion and deposition. In addition, details of
texture, composition, and fossils are important records of global change, showing how
Earth evolved in the past and how it may change in the future.To interpret the
sedimentary record correctly, we must first understand something about modern
sedimentary systems, the sources of sediment, transportation pathways, and places
where sediment is accumulating today, such as deltas, beaches, and rivers.The study
of how modern sediment originates and is deposited provides insight into how ancient
sedimentary rocks formed. Fossils preserved in sedimentary rocks not only reveal the
environment of deposition but also the pace and course of evolution through Earth’s
long life.
Apart from their scientific significance, the sedimentary rocks have been a controlling
factor in the development of industry, society, and culture. Humans have used
materials from sedimentary rocks since the Neolithic Age; flint and chert played an
important role in the development of tools, arrowheads, and axes. The great cathedrals
of Europe are made from sedimentary rock, and the statues made by the artists of
ancient Greece and Rome and during the Renaissance would have been impossible
without limestone. Fully 85% to 90% of mineral products used by our society come
from sedimentary rocks. Virtually our entire store of petroleum, natural gas, coal, and
fertilizer come from sedimentary rocks.
Sand, gravel, and limestone are the raw materials for cement. Sedimentary rocks are
also important reservoirs for groundwater, and host important deposits of copper,
uranium, lead, zinc, as well as gold and diamonds.
4. The major sedimentary systems are (a) fluvial, (b) alluvial-fan, (c) eolian, (d)
glacier, (e) delta, (f) shoreline, (g) organic-reef (h) shallow-marine, (i) submarine
fan, and (j) deep-marine.
5. Sedimentary rock layers can be grouped into formations, and formations can be
grouped into sequences that are bound by erosion surfaces. These formations and
sequences form an important interpretive element in the rock record.
Mechanical and chemical weathering produces the raw materials for soil and
sedimentary rock
Sediment may be detrital or chemical, and sedimentary rocks may form by the
deposition of particles or by biologic activity
Detrital sedimentary particles and the rocks they form are classified according to size
Gravel - >2mm in diameter
Sand - 1/16mm to 2 mm
Silt - 1/256mm to 1/16mm
Clay - <1/256mm
“Calcrete formation”
Calcrete (or Caliche) is a Sedimentary rock, a hardened natural cement of CaCo3 that
binds other materials—such as gravel, sand, clay, and silt.
It occurs worldwide, in soil orders—generally in arid or semiarid regions, including
world famous deserts.
Caliche is also known as Hardpan, calcrete, kankar (in India), or duricrust. The
term caliche is Spanish and is originally from the Latin calx, meaning lime.
Caliche is generally light-coloured, but can range from white to light pink to reddish-
brown, depending on the impurities present.
It generally occurs on or near the surface, but can be found in deeper subsoil
deposits, as well. Layers vary from a few inches to feet thick, and multiple layers can
exist in a single location.
Origin:
Calcrete generally forms when minerals leach from the upper layer of the soil
(the Horizon A) and accumulate in the next layer (the Horizon B), at depths of
approximately three to 10 feet under the surface. It generally consists of carbonates
in semiarid regions—in arid regions, less-soluble minerals form Calcrete layers after
all the carbonates have been leached from the soil. The deposited calcium carbonate
accumulates—first forming grains, then small clumps, then a discernible layer, and
finally, a thicker, solid bed. As the Calcrete layer forms, the layer gradually becomes
deeper, and eventually moves into the Parent material, which lies under the upper
soil horizons.
However, Calcrete also forms in other ways. It can form when water rises through
capillary action. In an arid region, rainwater sinks into the ground very quickly. Later,
as the surface dries out, the water below the surface rises, carrying up dissolved
minerals from lower layers. This water movement forms a Calcrete that tends to
grow thinner and branch out as it nears the surface. Plants can contribute to the
formation of Calcrete, as well. Plant roots take up water through transpiration, and
leave behind the dissolved calcium carbonate, which precipitates to form Calcrete. It
can also form on outcrops of porous rocks or in rock fissures where water is trapped
and evaporates. In general, Calcrete deposition is a slow process, but if enough
moisture is present in an otherwise arid site, it can accumulate fast enough to block a
drain pipe.
Differences:
Ferricretes are those duricrusts which incorporate materials non-indigenous to the
immediate locality in which the duricrust formed. Importantly, the term ferricrete
should also be extended to those materials whose constituents have been substantially
augmented by the precipitation or capture of elements and compounds from
allochthonous fluids (i.e. those derived during the breakdown and mobilisation of
materials outside the immediate locality of ferricrete formation).
Laterites are iron-rich duricrusts which have formed directly from the breakdown of
materials in their immediate vicinity, and so do not contain any readily identifiable
allochthonous component. Lateritic duricrusts are typically manifest as the uppermost
layers of in-situ weathering profiles.
To summarise, ferricrete and laterite are not synonymous terms and should, wherever
possible, be used to distinguish between fundamentally different types of iron-rich
duricrust.
This distinction is particularly important since it places constraints upon the
type of processes operating during evolution of a duricrust, and the palaeoclimatic and
morphological conditions existing at the time of its development.
Laterite definition:
The term laterite, in its general sense, is given to a range of iron-rich, sub-aerial
weathering products that develop as a result of intense, substrate alteration under
tropical or sub-tropical climates. Physically, many laterites are rock-like, yet they
cannot be easily placed into any of the major petrological groupings. Neither do they
lend themselves readily to description as ‘soils’, other from the fact that they are the
products of Processes operating at the atmosphere – substrate interface. They are
perhaps best considered to be metasomatic rock materials; i.e. rocks with chemical,
mineralogical and physical characteristics that have been substantially changed by low
temperature and pressure alteration processes such as those operating under sub aerial
conditions.
Duricrust:
It is a hard layer on or near the surface of soil. Duricrusts can range in thickness from
a few millimeters or centimeters to several meters.
It is a general term (not to be confused with duripan) for a zone of
chemical precipitation and hardening formed at or near the surface of sedimentary
bodies through pedogenic and (or) non-pedogenic processes. It is typically formed by
the accumulation of soluble minerals deposited by mineral-bearing waters that move
upward, downward, or laterally by capillary action, commonly assisted in arid settings
by evaporation. Minerals often found in duricrust include silica, iron, calcium,
and gypsum.
A horizon, at the land surface, made up of the cementation of near surface materials
by iron oxides, and often forming a resistant *duricrust. Typically between 1 – 20 m
in thickness, it can form laterally extensive sheets which may extend over a few, to
hundreds, or even thousands of km2. Consequently, is perhaps the most widespread of
all the duricrust materials. At outcrop it comprises a massive, interlocking fretwork of
iron, and often aluminium compounds (i.e. sesquioxides) that bind together other
lithological and pedogenic components.
Origin:
o The conditions under which lateritic profiles form are primarily:
o A favourable climate, typified by seasonal, high annual rainfall (e.g. a monsoon-
like climate) – high humidity and high mean annual temperatures further promote
chemical weathering and mineral alteration;
o A favourable geomorphological environment, characterized by limited runoff and
lack of aggressive erosion – the ingress of rainfall and/or the establishment of a
water table may promote element enrichment and depletion processes; relative
tectonic stability, characterized by minimal uplift and crustal deformation.
Moreover, chemical and physical durability of ferricrete has meant that it has often
played a prominent role in evolution of tropical, and sub-tropical landscapes
(E.g. McFarlane 1971, Bowden 1987, Widdowson & Cox 1996).
“Weathering”
Weathering is the alteration and breakdown of rock minerals and rock masses when
they are exposed to the atmosphere. Weathering processes occur in situ, that is, in the
same place, with no major movement of rock materials involved.
Weathering is a fundamental Earth process. Weathering changes rocks from a hard
state, to become much softer and weaker, making them more easily eroded.
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil and minerals as well as artificial
materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters. Weathering
occurs in situ, roughly translated to: "with no movement", and thus should not be
confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents
such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity and then being transported and
deposited in other locations.
Physical weathering: the group of processes, such as frost wedging and volume
changes of minerals that result in the mechanical disruption of rocks (e.g. granular
disintegration, exfoliation, joint block separation, shattering by changes in temperature
or pressure).
Chemical weathering: the decay of rock forming minerals caused by water,
temperature, oxygen, hydrogen and mild acids (e.g. solution, hydration, oxidation,
carbonation).
Biological weathering: the group of processes that are caused by, or assisted by, the
presence of vegetation, or to a lesser extent animals, including root wedging and the
production of organic acids.
The type of weathering processes that occur at any particular location depend
predominantly upon the climate:
o Physical weathering: mechanical processes dominate in cold and dry climates.
o Chemical weathering: processes of mineral decay dominate in warm and humid
climates.
o Biological weathering: vegetation, and animals, tend to be more active in warm
and humid climates.
Weathering Control
The type, rate and extent of weathering depends upon several controlling factors:
o Climate dictates the type of weathering processes that operate, largely by
determining the amount of water available and the temperature at which the
processes occur. Chemical reactions are faster at higher temperatures, while frost
wedging occurs in colder climates.
o Rock Type determines the resistance of the rock to the weathering processes that
operate in that particular environment. Each rock type is composed of a particular
set of minerals, which are joined together by crystallisation, chemical bonding or
cementing. When the forces of plate tectonics move these rocks from the
environment in which they formed and expose them to the atmosphere they begin
to weather.
o Rock Structure: highly jointed or faulted rocks present many planes of weakness
along which weathering agents (e.g. water) can penetrate into the rock mass.
o Topography: the slope angle determines the energy of the weathering system by
controlling the rate at which water passes through the rock mass. Generally,
higher, or tectonically active areas with steeper slopes have more dynamic
weathering systems, whereas flat plains have slower weathering systems.
o Erosion: the dynamism and efficiency of erosion determines how rapidly any
weathered material is removed, how frequently fresh rock is exposed to
weathering, and if deeply weathered profiles are preserved.
o Time: the duration of the period that the same type of weathering has been
operating, uninterrupted by climatic change, earth movements, and other factors,
determines the degree and depth to which the rocks have been weathered.
Weathering Products
o Weathering gradually weakens rocks, and eventually produces new geological
materials (rock fragments, sands, silts and clays) that are more stable in the new
environment. Weathering generally produces finer and less dense rock materials,
and weaker, more porous and permeable rock masses.
o In the tropics and subtropics, intense weathering in the hot and humid conditions
produces thick weathered profiles, which may be up to 100 metres, or more, thick.
o Weathering processes penetrate down discontinuities (planes of weakness), such as
faults and joints, in the rock mass and then attack the faces of the joint-bounded
blocks, penetrating the solid blocks (Figure 3).
o Weathering preferentially attacks the corners and edges of the joint blocks, causing
them to become rounded. This action is assisted by stress release, which causes the
rock to flake into curved shells in a process termed exfoliation.
Physical weathering:
It is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by physical forces. These
physical forces include temperature fluctuation, abrasion, frost action (freezing and
thawing), and salt crystal growth.
Temperature fluctuation can cause expansion or contraction of rock. When the
temperature of rock increases, the rock expands. When the temperature of rock
decreases, the rock contracts. This process of expansion and contraction is a physical
stress and can crack or break rock. Abrasion of rock is caused by the friction of water,
wind, or ice upon the rock. The continuous exposure to these elements slowly breaks
down the exposed surface of the rock.
Frost action is the repeated cycle of ice formation and ice melt in the pore spaces and
fractures of rocks causing disintegration of the rock. When water in rock pores
freezes, its volume increases by about 10%. This can create a significant amount of
pressure on rocks. The magnitude and extent of frost action is dependent on the
frequency, duration and intensity of the freezing and thawing cycles.
Chemical weathering:
It is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by chemical
reactions. These reactions include oxidation, hydrolysis, and carbonation. These
processes either form or destroy minerals, thus altering the nature of the rock’s
mineral composition. Temperature and, especially, moisture are critical for chemical
weathering; chemical weathering of rock minerals generally occurs more quickly in
hot, humid climatic regions.
Oxidation is the reaction of rock minerals with oxygen, thus changing the mineral
composition of the rock. When minerals in rock oxidize, they become less resistant to
weathering. Iron, a commonly known mineral, becomes red or rust colored when
oxidized.
Chemical weathering is caused by rain water reacting with the mineral grains in rocks
to form new minerals (clays) and soluble salts. These reactions occur particularly
when the water is slightly acidic.
Biological Weathering:
Biological weathering is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by
plants, animals and microbes.
Growing plant roots can exert stress or pressure on rock. Although the process is
physical, the pressure is exerted by a biological process (i.e., growing roots).
Biological processes can also produce chemical weathering, for example where plant
roots or microorganisms produce organic acids which help to dissolve minerals.
Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by altering the rock’s chemical
composition, thus making it more susceptible to weathering. One example of
microbial activity is lichen; lichen is fungi and algae, living together in a symbiotic
relationship. Fungi release chemicals that break down rock minerals; the minerals thus
released from rock are consumed by the algae. As this process continues, holes and
gaps continue to develop on the rock, exposing the rock further to physical and
chemical weathering.
Burrowing animals can move rock fragments to the surface, exposing the rock to more
intense chemical, physical, and biological processes and so indirectly enhancing the
process of rock weathering.
Although physical, chemical, and biological weathering are separate processes, some
or all of the processes can act together in nature.
Living organisms contribute to the weathering process in many ways.
Trees put down roots through joints or cracks in the rock in order to find moisture. As
the tree grows, the roots gradually prize the rock apart.
Many animals, such as these Piddock shells, bore into rocks for protection either by
scraping away the grains or secreting acid to dissolve the rock. Even the tiniest
bacteria, algae and lichens produce chemicals that help break down the rock on which
they live, so they can get the nutrients they need.