Landform Evolution

Identifying the natural Processes

Slope/Fluvial

Glacial/Aeolian

Lacustral/Coastal

Post depositional features

Soils and sediments/Calcrete formation

Ferricretes /Weathering

‘Landforms’
 Landforms are the individual topographic features exposed on the Earth’s surface.
 Landforms vary in size and shape and include features such as small creeks or sand
dunes, or large features.
 Landforms develop over a range of different time-scales. Some landforms develop
rather quickly (over a few seconds, minutes, or hours), such as a landslide, while
others may involve many millions of years to form, such as a mountain range.
 Landform development can be relatively simple and involve only a few processes,
or very complex and involve a combination of multiple processes and agents.
 Landforms are dynamic features that are continually affected by a variety of earth-
surface processes including weathering, erosion, and deposition.
 Earth scientists who study landforms provide decision makers with information to
make natural resource, cultural management, and infrastructure decisions that
affect humans and the environment.

“Landforms and Scale: Crustal Orders of Relief ”

First Order of Relief:
The broadest landform scale is divided into continental landmasses, which include all of the
crust above sea-level (30% Earth’s surface), and ocean basins, which include the crustal areas
below sea-level (70% of Earth’s surface)
Second Order of Relief:
The second order of relief includes regional-scale continental features such as mountain
ranges, plateaus, plains, and lowlands. Examples include the Rocky Mountains, Atlantic
Coastal Plain, and Tibetan Plateau.
Major ocean basin features including continental shelves, slopes, abyssal plains, mid-ocean
ridges, and trenches are all second-order relief landforms.
Third Order of Relief:
The third order of relief includes individual landform features that collectively make up the
larger second-order relief landforms. Examples include individual volcanoes, glaciers,
valleys, rivers, flood plains, lakes, marine terraces, beaches, and dunes.
Each major landform categorized within the third order of relief may also contain many
smaller features or different types of a single feature. For example, although a flood plain is
an individual landform it may also contain a mosaic of smaller landforms including pointbars,
oxbow lakes, and natural levees. Rivers, although a single landform, may be classified by a
variety of channel types including straight, meandering, or braided.

“Geomorphology”
It is the process-based study of landforms.
o Geo-morph-ology originates from Greek: Geo meaning the “Earth”, morph meaning
its “shape”, and ology refers to “the study of”.
o Scientists who study landforms are Geomorphologists.
Geomorphology defines the processes and conditions that influence landform development,
and the physical, morphological, and structural characteristics of landforms.
Geomorphologists who study landforms often seek to answer fundamental questions that help
them study landforms, such as:
o What is the physical form or shape of the landform?
o What is the elevation and topographic relief of the landform?
o How did the landform originate?
o What is the distribution of the landform and where else does it occur?
o Are there any patterns associated with the landform or topography?
o What is the significance of the landform in relation to other elements of the landscape
or environment?
o Has the landform or geomorphology been altered by humans?
o Does the landform or geomorphology affect humans?
“Constructive and Destructive Processes”

o Constructive processes build landforms through tectonic and depositional

processes.
 Tectonic processes include movements at plate boundaries, earthquakes,
orogeny, deformation, and volcanic activity.
 Deposition is the accumulation or accretion of weathered and eroded materials.

o Destructive processes break down landforms through weathering, erosion,

and mass wasting.
 Weathering is the disintegration of rocks by mechanical, chemical, and
biological agents.
 Erosion is the removal and transportation of weathered material by water,
wind, ice, or gravity.
 Mass wasting is the rapid down-slope movement of materials by gravity.

o Other Agents and Processes that Affect Landform Development

 Climate: temperature, precipitation, water cycle, atmospheric conditions
 Time: fast and slow rates of change
 People: influences on natural resources and earth surface processes

Constructive processes:
o They are responsible for physically building or constructing certain landforms.
Constructive processes include tectonic and depositional processes and their
landforms.
o Tectonic Landforms are created by massive earth movements due to tectonic
and volcanic activity, and include landforms such as: mountains, rift valleys,
volcanoes, and intrusive igneous landforms
o Depositional Landforms are produced from the deposition of weathered and
eroded surface materials. Depositional landforms include features such as:
beaches, barrier islands, spits, deltas, flood plains, dunes, alluvial fans, and
glacial moraines.
Destructive processes:
o They create landforms through weathering and erosion of surface materials
facilitated by water, wind, ice, and gravity. Mass-wasting events occur in areas
where weathering and erosion is accelerated.
 o Weathering is the disintegration and decomposition of rock at or near the
Earth’s surface by mechanical, chemical, or biological weathering processes.
o Erosion is the removal and transportation of weathered or unweathered
materials by water, wind, ice, and gravity.
o Mass-Wasting is a rapid period of weathering and erosion that removes and
transports materials very quickly and is often triggered by an environmental
stimuli. Mass wasting includes rock falls, landslides, debris and mud flows,
slumps, and creep.

“Genetic Landform Classification”

The genetic landform classification system groups landforms by the dominant set of
geomorphic processes responsible for their formation. This includes the following
processes and associated landforms:
o Tectonic Landforms
o Extrusive Igneous Landforms
o Intrusive Igneous Landforms
o Fluvial Landforms
o Karst Landforms
o Aeolian Landforms
o Coastal Landforms
o Ocean Floor Topography
o Glacial Landforms

Within each of these genetic classifications, the resulting landforms are a product of
either constructive and destructive processes or a combination of both.
Landforms are also influenced by other agents or processes including time, climate,
and human activity.
‘SLOPE’

Landform:
A recognizable, naturally formed feature on the Earth's surface. Landforms have a
characteristic shape and can include such large features as plains, plateaus, mountains,
and valleys, as well as smaller features such as hills, eskers, and canyons.
Slope:
 A surface of which one end or side is at a higher level than another; a rising or
falling surface.
 A surface of which one end or side is at a higher level than another; a rising or
falling surface.
 The slope or gradient of a line is a number that describes both the direction and the
steepness of the line

Aim and objective of studying slope

o Understand basic slope processes and the causes of slope failure
o Understand how slope angle and topography, vegetation, water, and time affect
both slope processes and the incidence of landslides
o Know methods of identification, prevention, warning, and correction of landslides
o Understand processes related to land subsidence
o Understand how human use of the land has resulted in landslides
o To study the relation of slope and human settlements
o To study man land relationship

Slope=nxl/636.6 Where,
I=Contour Interval and
n=no. of contours crossing
per km.
Slope Processes
o Slopes, the most common landforms consists of cliff face (“free face”) and talus
slope or upper convex slope, a straight slope, and a lower concave slope.
o Dynamic evolving feature, depending upon topography, rock types, climate,
vegetation, water, and time.
o Materials constantly moving down the slope at varied rates.
Forces on Slopes
The stability of a slope expresses the relationship between resisting forces and driving
forces
 Driving forces – forces which move earth materials down slope. Down slope
component of weight of material including vegetation, fill material, or
buildings.
 Resisting forces – forces which oppose movement. Resisting forces include
strength of material.

Slopes on Rocks
Weak and Soft Rock:
 Form slope with 3 segements
 Convex upper part
 Straight central segment
 Concave lower part
Hard Rock: Form free face with talus slope at base. Mass wasting: refers to a downslope
movement of rock or soil as a more or
less coherent mass. Comprehensive
term – all inclusive term for any down
Origin of slope slope movement of earth materials
(Important types of mass wasting)
o Slide – downslope movement of coherent block of earth material
o Slump – is sliding along a curved slip plane producing slump blocks
o Fall – rocks fall from vertical face
o Flow – Downslope movement of unconsolidated material in which particles
move about and mix within the mass.
o Subsidence – it is the sinking of a mass of earth material below the level of
surrounding material.
o Landslides – They are commonly complex combinations of sliding and
flowage.
Factors Affecting Slope Stability
o Type of earth material
o Slope Angle and Topography
o Climate
o Vegetation
o Water
o Time

“Slope formation”
Role of Earth Materials
 Slopes formed by weak rocks such as shale or have thick soil deposits typically fail by
rotational slides.
 Slopes formed by hard rocks typically fail by translational slides.
 Soil slips occur above bedrock and fail by translational slides.

Role of Slope and Topography

 Hill slope angle is a measure of the steepness of a slope = slope gradient.
 Steeper slope = increased driving forces.
 Steep slopes associated with rock-falls.
 Sub-arid to arid environments.

Role of Vegetation
 In sub-humid to humid environments, vegetation is thick and abundant
 Landslide activity includes deep complex landslides, earthflows, and soil creep.
 Vegetation influences slope stability by:
o Providing a cover that cushions the impact of rain falling on slopes and retards
erosion on surface.
o Vegetation has root systems that tend to provide an apparent cohesion which
increases resistance to land-sliding.
o Vegetation adds weight to the slope increasing the driving forces.

Role of Water
Water can affect slope stability by:
 Shallow soil slips can develop during rainstorms when slopes become saturated.
 Slumps or translational slides can develop months or years after slope is saturated.
 Water can erode the base or toe of a slope decreasing slope stability.

Role of Climate
 Climate influences the amount and timing of water in the form of water or snow.
 Influences type and amount of vegetation.
  “Fluvial”
o In geography and geology, fluvial processes are associated with rivers and streams
and the deposits and landforms created by them. When the stream or rivers are
associated with glaciers, ice sheets, or ice caps, the term glacio-fluvial or fluvio-
glacial is used.

o Fluvial process can be called as the physical interaction of flowing water and the
natural channels of rivers and streams. Such processes play an essential and
conspicuous role in the denudation of land surfaces and the transport of rock
detritus from higher to lower levels.

o Over much of the world, the erosion of landscape, including the reduction of
mountains and the building of plains, is brought about by the flow of water. As the
rain falls and collects in watercourses, the process of erosion not only degrades the
land, but the products of erosion themselves become the tools with which the
rivers carve the valleys in which they flow.

o Sediment materials eroded from one location are transported and deposited in
another, only to be eroded and re-deposited time and again before reaching the
ocean. At successive locations, the riverine plain and the river channel itself are
products of the interaction of a water channel’s flow with the sediments brought
down from the drainage basin above.

o The velocity of a river’s flow depends mainly upon the slope and the roughness of
its channel. A steeper slope causes higher flow velocity, but a rougher channel
decreases it. The slope of a river corresponds approximately to the fall of the
country it traverses.

o Near the source, frequently in hilly regions, the slope is usually steep, but it
gradually flattens out, with occasional irregularities, until, in traversing plains
along the latter part of the river’s course, it usually becomes quite mild.
Accordingly, large streams usually begin as torrents with highly turbulent flow and
end as gently flowing rivers.

o In flood-time, rivers bring down large quantities of sediment, derived mainly from
the disintegration of the surface layers of the hills and valley slopes by rain and
from the erosion of the riverbed by flowing water.
o Glaciers, frost, and wind also contribute to the disintegration of the Earth’s surface
and to the supply of sediment to rivers. The power of a river current to transport
materials depends to a large extent on its velocity, so that torrents with a rapid fall
near the sources of rivers can carry down rocks, boulders, and large stones.
______________________________

 Water flowing through a river perform three kinds of work:

 erosion
 transport
 Deposition
Which of this three processes are at any time predominant depends on the local
conditions. The river always tries to adjust on the existing conditions. In general,
erosion is predominant in the headwater areas, transport in the middle reaches and
deposition in the lower reaches of the respective watershed.
______________________________
 As with most geomorphic processes, Rivers operate as a function of a dynamic
equilibrium between Driving forces and Resisting forces
Driving Forces include
 Gravity
Resisting Forces include
 Geology: rock type, topography
 Friction: channel shape, particle size of channel, molecular
____________________________
 Types of Flow of river water
Laminar Flow
 flow lines are parallel
 water molecules don't disrupt flow paths of one another
 Not a common type of flow in natural settings
 channel is usually irregular which contributes to non-laminar flow
Turbulent flow
 flow lines are not parallel
 flow lines are semi-choatic
 flow velocity varies in all direction.
Components of sediment transport
o suspended load
 Held aloft by turbulent flow and in some cases colloidal electrostatic forces the
more turbulent the flow, the higher the likelihood that material will be
transported in suspension.
 usually restricted to fine grained particles coarse grains can travel in
suspension, infrequently and for short distances and times
o Bed load
 Sediment rolled, bounced, and scooted along the bottom of the channel.
Usually associated with coarser particle size fractions.
Other means of categorizing the load:
o Wash Load
 Particles so small that they are absent from the stream bed.
o Bed material load
 Particle sizes found in abundance on the stream bed.

“This categorization scheme is dynamic and can accommodate the natural variability
in stream flow because
o discharge only partly controls wash load (fines)
o sediment supply is a much more limiting factor
o most streams can naturally carry much more than they actually do

o Bed material load is much more closely related to discharge fluctuations.”

“Aeolian”

o Aeolian processes, involving erosion, transportation, and deposition of sediment

by wind, occur in a variety of environments, including the coastal zone, cold and
hot deserts, and agricultural fields.
o Aeolian processes redistribute soil particles and nutrients.
o Aeolian landforms are features produced by either the erosive or constructive
action of the wind. These features may be built up from sand or snow, or eroded
into rock, snow, or ice.
o Aeolian landforms are commonly observed in sandy deserts and on frozen lakes or
sea ice

On human settlement:
Aeolian processes affect the biosphere in a wide variety of contexts, including
landform evolution, biogeochemical cycles, regional climate, human health, and
desertification.
Researches reveals that aeolian processes have impacts, interactions, and feedbacks at
a variety of scales, including large‐scale dust transport and global biogeochemical
cycles, climate mediated interactions between atmospheric dust and ecosystems,
impacts on human health, impacts on agriculture, and interactions between aeolian
processes and dryland vegetation. Aeolian dust emissions are driven largely by, in
addition to climate, a combination of soil properties, soil moisture, vegetation and
roughness, biological and physical crusts, and disturbances.
“Glacial Landform”

o Glaciers are important agents of erosion of bedrock and mechanisms of transport

of detritus in mountain regions.

o Deposition of this material on land produces characteristic landforms and

distinctive sediment character, but these continental glacial deposits generally have
a low preservation potential in the long term and are rarely incorporated into the
stratigraphic record.

o Glacial processes which bring sediment into the marine environment generate
deposits that have a much higher chance of long-term preservation, and
recognition of the characteristics of these sediments can provide important clues
about past climates.

Distribution of Glacial Environment

o Ice accumulates in areas where the addition of snow each year exceeds the losses
due to melting, evaporation or wind deflation.

o The climate is clearly a controlling factor, as these conditions can be maintained

only in areas where there is either a large amount of winter snow that is not
matched by summer thaw, or in places that are cold most of the time, irrespective
of the amount of precipitation.

o There are areas of permanent ice at almost all latitudes, including within the
tropics, and there are two main types of glacial terrains
 temperate (or mountain) glaciers
 polar ice caps

Temperate or mountain glaciers:

Polar glaciers occur at the north and south poles, which are regions of low
precipitation (Antarctica is the driest continent): the addition to the glaciers from snow
is quite small each year, but the year-round low temperatures mean that little melting
occurs.
Permanent ice in the polar continental areas forms large ice sheets and domed ice caps
covering tens to hundreds of thousands of square kilometres.
Polar Glacial:
Polar glaciers occur at the north and south poles, which are regions of low
precipitation (Antarctica is the driest continent): the addition to the glaciers from snow
is quite small each year, but the year-round low temperatures mean that little melting
occurs.
Permanent ice in the polar continental areas forms large ice sheets and domed ice caps
covering tens to hundreds of thousands of square kilometres.

Erosional glacial features:

o Cirques, U-shaped valleys and hanging valleys are evidence of past glaciation,
which, in the framework of geological time, are ephemeral, lasting only until they
are themselves eroded away.
o Smaller scale evidence such as glacial striae produced by ice movement over
bedrock may be seen on exposed surfaces, including roche moutone.
o Pieces of bedrock incorporated into a glacier by plucking may retain striae, and
contact between clasts within the ice also results in scratch marks on the surfaces
of sand and gravel transported and deposited by ice.
o These clast surface features are important criteria for the recognition of pre-
Quaternary glacial deposits.

Characteristics of glacial deposits:

o Lithologies – conglomerate, sandstone and mudstone
o Mineralogy – variable, compositionally immature.
o Texture – extremely poorly sorted in till to poorly sorted in fluvio-glacial facies.
o Bed geometry – bedding absent to indistinct in many continental deposits,
glaciomarine deposits may be laminated.
o Sedimentary structures – usually none in tills, crossbedding in fluvio-glacial facies.
o Palaeocurrents – orientation of clasts can indicate ice flow direction
o Fossils – normally absent in continental deposits, may be present in glaciomarine
facies.
o Colour – variable, but deposits are not usually oxidised.
o Facies associations – may be associated with fluvial facies or with shallow-marine
deposits.
“Lacustral Landscape”

Lacustrine deposits are sedimentary rock formations which formed in the bottom of
ancient lakes.
A common characteristic of lacustrine deposits is that a river or stream channel has
carried sediment into the basin.
Lacustrine environments, like seas, are large bodies of water.
Lacustrine deposits can form in every variety of basins found in nature.
The difference between lacustrine deposit types comes from the origins of each basin.

o Rift graben lakes are formed from crustal stretching also known as rifting.
o Sediment influx is typically dominated by precipitation runoff and discharge
through channels migrating towards the depression.
o Oxbow lakes form lacustrine deposits from seasonal overbank flooding as well as
precipitation runoff which refills these isolated basins with fresh water and new
sediments.
o Glacial lakes form when terminal moraines block water from escaping the newly
carved valley from glacial erosion. As the glacier melts, the valley fills with melt
water that creates a glacial lake.
o Crater lakes can be meteoritic or of the caldera variety. Crater lakes sediments are
provided from precipitation runoff descending their steep slopes.

Still water in lakes permits very fine particles (fine sand, silt, and clay) to settle out
and to form lacustrine deposits. These deposits get exposed by elevation of old
lakebeds. Lacustrine deposits are very well sorted, devoid of coarse particles such as
coarse sand or gravels, and are characterized by thin layers that reflect annual
deposition of sediments.

Lake deposits are formed by complex chemical, physical, and biological processes.
 The physical processes are from rivers, waves, streams, and deposition.
 The chemical processes are from the chemical deposition, and
 The biology processes are from biological product and organic deposits.
The basin of lake can be formed by many mechanisms, such as:
 tectonic movements (rifting, faulting)
 glacial processes (ice scouring, ice damming, moraine damming),
 landslide or other mass movements
 volcanic activity
 deflation
 Fluvial activity

There are 4 variables that determine the lake size and characters, they are:
Basin-floor’s depth / sill height / water supply / sediment supply

o Lakes are dynamic and complex systems, whose depositional processes and
sedimentation are affected by climatic and tectonic events (Scott et al. 2012 and
the references herein).
o In addition, the great physicochemical variability among lakes, in terms of origin,
size, morphology, catchment size, and water biochemistry influence the nature and
the rate of lacustrine deposits' formation (Schnurrenberger et al. 2003).
o The lake system, in comparison with other depositional environments such as
rivers, is characterized by low energy (Rust 1982).
o This depositional condition allows the fine particles to settle out with a variable
organic component, making lacus-trine sediments prevalently characterized by silt,
fine sand, and clay mixtures. Nevertheless, near the margin, the lake system
presents higher-energy depositional environments, such as alluvial and fluvial-
lacustrine features (i.e., alluvial fans, alluvial floodplain and deltas).
o For these reasons, sandy and gravelly inter-bedded deposits can occur within the
finer sediment bodies, especially in the proximal areas of a lake system, where the
abovementioned boundary conditions are present (Rust 1982; Scott et al. 2012).
o Due to the high variability of physicochemical properties of the lake systems
distributed worldwide, many lacustrine deposits vary from meters to hundreds of
meters in depth comprising fine soils that range from sand to clay including
organic clay.
o The mechanical properties of such soils are quite variable, depending on the
dominant soil fractions, the type of clay mineral content and the organic matter.
o Commonly, such soils show high compressibility and low mechanical resistance
that can induce subsidence under static loading (that is a plastic progressive
settlement) and liquefaction under dynamic loading when groundwater is shallow.
“Coastal Landform”

Coastal landforms, any of the relief features present along any coast, the result of a
combination of processes, sediments, and the geology of the coast itself.

Landforms created by erosion:

The coastline is constantly eroding. There are four key types of erosion:
Attrition: Materials carried by the waves bump into each other and so are smoothed
and broken down into smaller particles.
Hydraulic action: This process involves the force of water against the coast. The
waves enter cracks (faults) in the coastline and compress the air within the crack.
When the wave retreats, the air in the crack expands quickly, causing a minor
explosion. This process is repeated continuously.
Corrosion/Solution: This is the chemical action of sea water. The acids in the salt
water slowly dissolve rocks on the coast. Limestone and chalk are particularly prone
to this process.
Abrasion/Corrasion: This is the process by which the coast is worn down by material
carried by the waves. Waves throw these particles against the rock, sometimes at high
velocity.

Headlanda and Bays

Headlands are usually formed of more resistant rock types than bays. If there are
different bands of rock along a coastline, the weaker or softer rock, such as clay, is
eroded fastest. This leaves more resistant rock types, such as granite, sticking out.
Caves, arches, stacks and stumps
Headlands can be vulnerable to erosion because they stand out from the rest of the
coast. Over time, other features may develop on a headland:
Landforms created by deposition:
Deposition occurs when the sea has less energy, e.g. in sheltered bays. Material that
has been eroded from the coast is transported by the sea and later put down.
Long shore drift is a process of transportation that shifts eroded material along the
coastline.
 Waves approach the coast at an angle.
 Swash carries sediment up the beach at an angle.
 Backwash carries sediment down the beach with gravity – at right angles
to the beach.
 This creates a zigzag movement of sediment along the beach.
Spits
o Spits are also caused by deposition - they are features that are formed by the
process of long shore drift.
o A spit is an extended stretch of beach material that only joins the mainland at one
end. They start to form where there is a change in the direction of the coastline.
o An example of a spit is Spurn Head, north of the Humber Estuary in the north east
of England. It is fed by the movement of material from the erosion of the
Holderness Coast to the north. This is an area of weak boulder clay.
Salt marsh
Salt marshes may be formed behind a spit. The zone behind a spit becomes a sheltered
area. Water movement slows down and so more material is deposited. Deposition may
form a salt marsh.
Beaches
Source
Beaches are formed from deposits of sediment.
“Post Depositional Processes”

“All natural and anthropogenic processes that have occurred after the deposition of
archaeological materials, and which might have transformed them into their present
state.”
Our understanding of post-depositional processes is vital to assess the possible biases
they might have caused in the archaeological record.
Some of the most evident examples of post-depositional processes encountered in
survey archaeology are erosion and agricultural activities, such as ploughing.

Terminologies:
Basin of deposition
the area which defines the pattern of deposition of layers, e.g. the shape of a cave,
room, or pit.
Depositional process
any of the various processes by which artifacts move from active use to an
archaeological context, such as loss, disposal, abandonment, burial, etc. It is the
laying, placing, or throwing down of any material. In geology, it is the constructive
process of accumulation into beds, veins, or irregular masses of any kind of loose,
solid rock material by any kind of natural agent (wind, water, ice). The transformation
of materials from a systemic to an archaeological context are directly responsible for
the accumulation of archaeological sites and they constitute the dominant factor in
forming the archaeological record. Deposition is the last stage of behavioral processes,
in which artifacts are discarded.
Depositional environment
any stratum or unit making up a separate layer of material at an archaeological site;
the total of sedimentary and biological conditions, factors, and processes that result in
a deposit(s). A depositional history is the order in which objects are deposited at a site.
Post deposition
after deposit; what can and does happen to artifacts between the time they were
discarded by past people and archaeological excavation.
Structured deposition
Material entering the archaeological record through specific activities or behaviour
patterns, not randomly.
Soils

o Solid earth material that has been altered by physical, chemical and organic
processes so that it can support rooted plant life.
o The material on the surface of the ground in which plants grow
o Soil is end product of weathering
o Soil is an accumulation of loose material from mechanical and chemical
weathering of rocks (also relocated) and containing a large admixture of various
organic substances on the Earth's surface.
o Engineering definition: Anything that can be removed without blasting

Factors of Soil Formation:

Climate
 Temperature and precipitation
 Indirect controls (e.g., types of plants)
 Weathering rates
The greater the rainfall amount, the more rapid the rate of both weathering and
erosion.
Organisms
 Types of native vegetation
 Weathering is dependent of plant growth
 Plant and animal activity produces humic acids that are powerful weathering
agents.
 Plants can physically as well as chemically break down rocks.
 Plants stabilize soil profiles, Animals (including humans) tend to increase
erosion.
Parent Material
Chemistry / Mineralogy / Grain size
Topography
 Ground slope
 Elevation
 Aspect (e.g., north facing vs. south facing slopes)
Downslope transport of soil is a function of slope:
Erosion rate = f(S)
The steeper the surface slope, the more likely any eroded material is to be transported
out of the system.
Soils on hill slopes reach an equilibrium thickness, often about 1 m.
Soils on flat surfaces, such as floodplains or plateaus, tend to thicken through time due
to weathering rates being greater than sediment transport rates.
Time
 Development and destruction of soil profiles
 Typical reaction rates are slow, the longer a rock unit has been exposed, the
more likely it is to be weathered.
Addition
Inputs from outside ecosystem
 Atmospheric inputs
 Precipitation, dust, deposition
 Horizontal inputs
 Floods, tidal exchange, erosion, land-water movement
Inputs from within ecosystem
 Litterfall and root turnover

Transformation
 Decomposition of organic matter
 Humification to form complex organic matter
 Weathering of rocks
– Physical weathering
• Fragmentation of rock
– Freeze-thaw; drying-wetting; fire
• Physical abrasion
– Abrasion by glaciers
– Chemical weathering
• Dissolves primary minerals
• Forms secondary minerals

Decomposition
 Breakdown of soil organic matter to form soluble compounds that can be absorbed
or leached.
 Depends on
– Quantity of input
– Location of input (roots vs. leaves)
– Environment
– Temperature
– Moisture
Soil Horizons
– Layers in Soil
– Not Deposited, but Zones of Chemical Action
Soil Profile
– Suite of Horizons at a Given Locality
– Over time different levels of a soil can differentiate into distinct horizons that
create soil profiles.
– Chemical reactions and formation of secondary minerals (clays).
– Leaching by infiltrating water.
– Deposition and accumulation of material leached from higher levels in the soil.
Sediments

Those materials deposited at the earth’s surface under low temperatures and pressures
(Pettijohn, 1975) – constitute the backbone of geoarchaeology.
The overwhelming majority of archaeological sites is found in sedimentary contexts,
and the material that is excavated – whether geogenic or anthropogenic is sedimentary
in character.
Some of the basic characteristics of sediments, many of which can also be applied to
soils.
Since sediments are so ubiquitous in archaeological sites, it is necessary to have at
least a working knowledge of some of these characteristics so as to be able to share
this descriptive information with others.

“SEDIMENTARY GEOARCHAEOLOGY =
Sedimentology (process) + Stratigraphy (response)
Sedimentology = study of PROCESSES (i.e. production, composition, transport, and
deposition of sediment)
Stratigraphy = study of RESPONSES (i.e. inferring the controls on the spatial and
temporal changes of strata) → exact processes that created the rocks can’t be know
because only the rocks are left, not the processes.”

Sediment = loose, solid particles and can be:

– Terrigenous = fragments from silicates (igneous and/or metamorphics)
– Biogenic = fossils (carbonate - reefs; silicates - forams)
– Chemical = precipates (halite, gypsum, anhydrite, etc…) - note: with
chemical sedimentary rocks, evaporation > precipitation and/or
supersaturation in closed basins (lakes or oceans)
Classified by particle size
– Boulder - >256 mm
– Cobble - 64 to 256 mm
– Pebble - 2 to 64 mm
– Sand - 1/16 to 2 mm
– Silt - 1/256 to 1/16 mm
– Clay - <1/256 mm

Introduction
The geologic processes operating on Earth’s surface produce only subtle changes in
the landscape during a human lifetime, but over a period of tens of thousands or
millions of years, the effect of these processes is considerable. Given enough time, the
erosive power of the hydrologic system can reduce an entire mountain range to a
featureless lowland. In the process, the eroded debris is transported by rivers and
deposited as new layers of sedimentary rock. A series of sedimentary rock layers may
be thousands of meters thick. When exposed at the surface, each rock layer provides
information about past events in Earth’s history. Such is the case in the Moenkopi
Formation of southern Utah shown in the panorama above.
The various shades of red and white occur in the thin beds of siltstone and mudstone
deposited on an ancient tidal flat about 220 million years ago. Thin layers of siltstone
and shale each containing ripple marks, mud cracks, and rain imprints combine to tell
the history recorded in the rock now exposed in this colourful cliff.

Importance in Archaeology
The record of Earth’s history preserved in sedimentary rocks is truly remarkable. Each
bedding plane is a remnant of what was once the surface of Earth. Each rock layer is
the product of a previous period of erosion and deposition. In addition, details of
texture, composition, and fossils are important records of global change, showing how
Earth evolved in the past and how it may change in the future.To interpret the
sedimentary record correctly, we must first understand something about modern
sedimentary systems, the sources of sediment, transportation pathways, and places
where sediment is accumulating today, such as deltas, beaches, and rivers.The study
of how modern sediment originates and is deposited provides insight into how ancient
sedimentary rocks formed. Fossils preserved in sedimentary rocks not only reveal the
environment of deposition but also the pace and course of evolution through Earth’s
long life.
Apart from their scientific significance, the sedimentary rocks have been a controlling
factor in the development of industry, society, and culture. Humans have used
materials from sedimentary rocks since the Neolithic Age; flint and chert played an
important role in the development of tools, arrowheads, and axes. The great cathedrals
of Europe are made from sedimentary rock, and the statues made by the artists of
ancient Greece and Rome and during the Renaissance would have been impossible
without limestone. Fully 85% to 90% of mineral products used by our society come
from sedimentary rocks. Virtually our entire store of petroleum, natural gas, coal, and
fertilizer come from sedimentary rocks.
Sand, gravel, and limestone are the raw materials for cement. Sedimentary rocks are
also important reservoirs for groundwater, and host important deposits of copper,
uranium, lead, zinc, as well as gold and diamonds.

1. Sedimentary rocks form at Earth’s surface by the hydrologic system.Their origin

involves the weathering of preexisting rock, transportation of the material away
from the original site, deposition of the eroded material in the sea or in some other
sedimentary environment, followed by compaction and cementation.

2. Two main types of sedimentary rocks are recognized:

a) Clastic rocks and
b) Chemically precipitated rocks, including biochemical rocks.

3. Stratification is the most significant sedimentary structure. Other important

structures include cross-bedding, graded bedding, ripple marks, and mud cracks.

4. The major sedimentary systems are (a) fluvial, (b) alluvial-fan, (c) eolian, (d)
glacier, (e) delta, (f) shoreline, (g) organic-reef (h) shallow-marine, (i) submarine
fan, and (j) deep-marine.

5. Sedimentary rock layers can be grouped into formations, and formations can be
grouped into sequences that are bound by erosion surfaces. These formations and
sequences form an important interpretive element in the rock record.

6. Plate tectonics controls sedimentary systems by creating uplifted source areas,

shaping depositional basins, and moving continents into different climate zones.
Sediments can be classified into three basic types,
 Clastic,
 Chemical, and
 Organic,
…of which the first two are generally the most pertinent to geoarchaeology.
Clastic sediments are the most abundant type. They are composed of fragments of
rock, other sediment, or soil material that reflect a history of erosion, transport, and
deposition. Most clastic sediments are terrigenous and deposited by agents such as
wind (e.g. sand dunes), running water (e.g. streams, beaches), and gravity (e.g.
landslides, slumps, colluvium).
Typical examples of clastic sediment (as based on decreasing sizes of the components)
are sand, silt, and clay.
In the geological record, when such materials become lithified, the resulting rock
types are sandstone, siltstone, and shale, respectively.
Volcaniclastic debris, consisting of volcanic ash, blocks, bombs, and pyroclastic flow
debris are also considered as clastic sediments.
Sedimentary Rock

o Sedimentary rocks result from mechanical and chemical weathering

o Comprise ~ 5% of Earth’s upper crust
o About 75% of exposed rocks
o Contain evidence of past environments
– Record how sediment is transported
– Often contain fossils

Mechanical and chemical weathering produces the raw materials for soil and
sedimentary rock
Sediment may be detrital or chemical, and sedimentary rocks may form by the
deposition of particles or by biologic activity
Detrital sedimentary particles and the rocks they form are classified according to size
 Gravel - >2mm in diameter
 Sand - 1/16mm to 2 mm
 Silt - 1/256mm to 1/16mm
 Clay - <1/256mm

Recrystallization – growth of stable minerals from less stable ones.

Lithification – loose sediment is transformed into solid rock by compaction and
cementation

From Sediment to Sedimentary Rock:

Transportation Movement of sediment away from its source, typically by water, wind,
or ice
Rounding of particles occurs due to abrasion during transport
Sorting occurs as sediment is separated according to grain size by transport agents,
especially running water
Sediment size decreases with increased transport distance
 Poor sorters of sediment = glaciers
 Well sorted = grains that are sorted are of similar size
Types of Sedimentary Rocks
Detrital sedimentary rocks / Chemical sedimentary rocks / Organic sedimentary rocks

Chemical rocks – sediment from ions that were once in solution

Detrital rocks –sediment transported as solid particles

“Calcrete formation”

Calcrete (or Caliche) is a Sedimentary rock, a hardened natural cement of CaCo3 that
binds other materials—such as gravel, sand, clay, and silt.
It occurs worldwide, in soil orders—generally in arid or semiarid regions, including
world famous deserts.
Caliche is also known as Hardpan, calcrete, kankar (in India), or duricrust. The
term caliche is Spanish and is originally from the Latin calx, meaning lime.
Caliche is generally light-coloured, but can range from white to light pink to reddish-
brown, depending on the impurities present.
It generally occurs on or near the surface, but can be found in deeper subsoil
deposits, as well. Layers vary from a few inches to feet thick, and multiple layers can
exist in a single location.
Origin:
Calcrete generally forms when minerals leach from the upper layer of the soil
(the Horizon A) and accumulate in the next layer (the Horizon B), at depths of
approximately three to 10 feet under the surface. It generally consists of carbonates
in semiarid regions—in arid regions, less-soluble minerals form Calcrete layers after
all the carbonates have been leached from the soil. The deposited calcium carbonate
accumulates—first forming grains, then small clumps, then a discernible layer, and
finally, a thicker, solid bed. As the Calcrete layer forms, the layer gradually becomes
deeper, and eventually moves into the Parent material, which lies under the upper
soil horizons.
However, Calcrete also forms in other ways. It can form when water rises through
capillary action. In an arid region, rainwater sinks into the ground very quickly. Later,
as the surface dries out, the water below the surface rises, carrying up dissolved
minerals from lower layers. This water movement forms a Calcrete that tends to
grow thinner and branch out as it nears the surface. Plants can contribute to the
formation of Calcrete, as well. Plant roots take up water through transpiration, and
leave behind the dissolved calcium carbonate, which precipitates to form Calcrete. It
can also form on outcrops of porous rocks or in rock fissures where water is trapped
and evaporates. In general, Calcrete deposition is a slow process, but if enough
moisture is present in an otherwise arid site, it can accumulate fast enough to block a
drain pipe.

The Calcrete is a form of cementation, caused by settling of carbonates in water into

a matrix of calcareous sand during two concurrent processes: (1) downward drainage
of rain water; and (2) upward-wicking during evaporation from the underlying water
table. The cementation must have occurred sometime later than the original
deposition of the calcareous sand itself, so understandably, artifacts and other
cultural materials may be found within or beneath a Calcrete zone.
The depth of occurrence in each case relates to both the overlying ground surface
and the underlying water table, wherein moisture settled into an elevation or
horizon via downward drainage and upward-wicking evaporation. The repeated
settling of moisture, especially when carbonate-rich, contributed to the hardening of
the sand at a consistent depth interval. The affected depth interval may be higher or
lower from one site setting to another, depending on the configuration of pertinent
controlling factors, such as depth of water table, amount of sand covering an area,
and exposure to sunlight causing evaporation.
Based on these latest findings, the cementation process tends to occur at
approximately the same depth in any specific locality, regardless of any difference in
the age of the original material deposition. Most definitively, the present case shows
that the cementation occurred around the same depth of 1.3–1.8 m at the
Charterhouse project in Guam, consistently in both landward (older, cal. 1003–726
B.C.) and seaward (younger, cal. A.D. 553–824) portions of a prograded coastal
landform.
The buried calcrete certainly does not represent a consistent chronological marker
throughout the region; rather, the original material varies in age from one setting to
another or even within a single site area. The date of the later cementation process
may have been more consistent, but at present it cannot be ascertained directly,
except that it must be of late Holocene age and evidently more recent than the first
archaeological deposits in the region, around 1500 B.C. (Butler, 1994;
Carson, 2008, 2010, in press; Clark et al., 2010).
The buried calcrete can be perceived not as a hindrance to excavation but rather as
an opportunity to recover rare information. The cementation process often encased
and preserved artifacts, midden, and other materials in place. Excavation can
proceed in large blocks or chunks to maintain the same level of preservation in total,
followed by a light acid wash to free the archaeological materials from the indurate
matrix. Commercially available distilled white vinegar, for example, is 5% acid. A
soaking time of 30 minutes generally is sufficient to dissolve the hardened material
without adversely affecting the archaeological contents, and the calcareous sand
tempers in pottery fragments appear unaffected by this treatment. The remaining
contents then can be rinsed with distilled water to halt the acid reaction, also filtered
through wire mesh to maximize recovery of archaeological materials. A very fine
mesh size of 0.5 mm was used in the present example, but other options, of course,
are available.
The foregoing work focused on buried calcrete in the Mariana Islands, but the
information relates to more general interest in at least two ways. First, in other
island and coastal sites, perhaps a similar calcrete formation now can be more clearly
identified in archaeological contexts. Second, the opportunity for detailed recovery
of rarely preserved archaeological material has yet to be pursued to its fullest
potential.
“Ferricretes”

Ferricrete is a hard, erosion-resistant layer of sedimentary rock, usually conglomerate,

that has been cemented into a duricrust by iron oxides.
The iron oxide cements are derived from the oxidation of percolating solutions of iron
salts.
Ferricretes form at or near the land surface and may contain non-local sediments that
have been transported from outside the immediate area of the deposit.
The name is a combination of ferruginous and concrete.
The term laterite, in its general sense, is given to a range of iron-rich, sub-aerial
weathering products that develop as a result of intense, substrate alteration under
tropical or sub-tropical climates.
Physically, many laterites are rock-like, yet they cannot be easily placed into any of
the major petro logical groupings. Neither do they lend themselves readily to
description as ‘soils’, other from the fact that they are the products of Processes
operating at the atmosphere – substrate interface.
They are perhaps best considered to be met somatic rock materials; i.e. rocks with
chemical, mineralogical and physical characteristics that have been substantially
changed by low temperature and pressure alteration processes such as those operating
under sub aerial conditions.

Classification: Sub-division of Laterite:

Sub-division of Duricrust:
Ferricrete and laterite are ferruginous duricrusts cemented by iron oxides occurring as
indurated continuous crusts and soil horizons in the landscape (Lamplugh, 1902;
Bourman, 1993).
Since the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the terms ferricrete (‘an iron-rich
crust) and laterite (a highly weathered material rich in secondary forms of iron and/or
aluminium’) have been used interchangeably to describe iron-rich duricrusts of
various genetic origins. This has led to considerable confusion.
Fundamental to the formation of ferricrete and laterite is the formation and
accumulation of insoluble ferric iron in soils and regolith.
In its broadest sense, the term ferricrete can be used to describe any duricrust material
in which the dominant bulk components are iron-rich compounds.

Differences:
Ferricretes are those duricrusts which incorporate materials non-indigenous to the
immediate locality in which the duricrust formed. Importantly, the term ferricrete
should also be extended to those materials whose constituents have been substantially
augmented by the precipitation or capture of elements and compounds from
allochthonous fluids (i.e. those derived during the breakdown and mobilisation of
materials outside the immediate locality of ferricrete formation).
Laterites are iron-rich duricrusts which have formed directly from the breakdown of
materials in their immediate vicinity, and so do not contain any readily identifiable
allochthonous component. Lateritic duricrusts are typically manifest as the uppermost
layers of in-situ weathering profiles.
To summarise, ferricrete and laterite are not synonymous terms and should, wherever
possible, be used to distinguish between fundamentally different types of iron-rich
duricrust.
This distinction is particularly important since it places constraints upon the
type of processes operating during evolution of a duricrust, and the palaeoclimatic and
morphological conditions existing at the time of its development.
Laterite definition:
The term laterite, in its general sense, is given to a range of iron-rich, sub-aerial
weathering products that develop as a result of intense, substrate alteration under
tropical or sub-tropical climates. Physically, many laterites are rock-like, yet they
cannot be easily placed into any of the major petrological groupings. Neither do they
lend themselves readily to description as ‘soils’, other from the fact that they are the
products of Processes operating at the atmosphere – substrate interface. They are
perhaps best considered to be metasomatic rock materials; i.e. rocks with chemical,
mineralogical and physical characteristics that have been substantially changed by low
temperature and pressure alteration processes such as those operating under sub aerial
conditions.

Duricrust:
It is a hard layer on or near the surface of soil. Duricrusts can range in thickness from
a few millimeters or centimeters to several meters.
It is a general term (not to be confused with duripan) for a zone of
chemical precipitation and hardening formed at or near the surface of sedimentary
bodies through pedogenic and (or) non-pedogenic processes. It is typically formed by
the accumulation of soluble minerals deposited by mineral-bearing waters that move
upward, downward, or laterally by capillary action, commonly assisted in arid settings
by evaporation. Minerals often found in duricrust include silica, iron, calcium,
and gypsum.
A horizon, at the land surface, made up of the cementation of near surface materials
by iron oxides, and often forming a resistant *duricrust. Typically between 1 – 20 m
in thickness, it can form laterally extensive sheets which may extend over a few, to
hundreds, or even thousands of km2. Consequently, is perhaps the most widespread of
all the duricrust materials. At outcrop it comprises a massive, interlocking fretwork of
iron, and often aluminium compounds (i.e. sesquioxides) that bind together other
lithological and pedogenic components.
Origin:
o The conditions under which lateritic profiles form are primarily:
o A favourable climate, typified by seasonal, high annual rainfall (e.g. a monsoon-
like climate) – high humidity and high mean annual temperatures further promote
chemical weathering and mineral alteration;
o A favourable geomorphological environment, characterized by limited runoff and
lack of aggressive erosion – the ingress of rainfall and/or the establishment of a
water table may promote element enrichment and depletion processes; relative
tectonic stability, characterized by minimal uplift and crustal deformation.

The relationships of ferricretes to present-day topography are significant in

establishing their origins. If ferricretes occurs in a modem valley floor or a relatively
lowland position, the nature of physical and/or chemical transportation, and potential
former sources of iron oxides upslope or up-valley, must be considered.

Ferricrete has a long history of study by geologists, geo-morphologists, pedologists

and agronomists. Considerable effort has been directed toward determining the
conditions under which it forms, and this has proved crucial in advancing many
aspects of *tropical geomorphology
(Thomas 1994, Widdowson 1997).

Moreover, chemical and physical durability of ferricrete has meant that it has often
played a prominent role in evolution of tropical, and sub-tropical landscapes
(E.g. McFarlane 1971, Bowden 1987, Widdowson & Cox 1996).
“Weathering”

Weathering is the alteration and breakdown of rock minerals and rock masses when
they are exposed to the atmosphere. Weathering processes occur in situ, that is, in the
same place, with no major movement of rock materials involved.
Weathering is a fundamental Earth process. Weathering changes rocks from a hard
state, to become much softer and weaker, making them more easily eroded.
Weathering is the breaking down of rocks, soil and minerals as well as artificial
materials through contact with the Earth's atmosphere, biota and waters. Weathering
occurs in situ, roughly translated to: "with no movement", and thus should not be
confused with erosion, which involves the movement of rocks and minerals by agents
such as water, ice, snow, wind, waves and gravity and then being transported and
deposited in other locations.

Physical weathering: the group of processes, such as frost wedging and volume
changes of minerals that result in the mechanical disruption of rocks (e.g. granular
disintegration, exfoliation, joint block separation, shattering by changes in temperature
or pressure).
Chemical weathering: the decay of rock forming minerals caused by water,
temperature, oxygen, hydrogen and mild acids (e.g. solution, hydration, oxidation,
carbonation).
Biological weathering: the group of processes that are caused by, or assisted by, the
presence of vegetation, or to a lesser extent animals, including root wedging and the
production of organic acids.

The type of weathering processes that occur at any particular location depend
predominantly upon the climate:
o Physical weathering: mechanical processes dominate in cold and dry climates.
o Chemical weathering: processes of mineral decay dominate in warm and humid
climates.
o Biological weathering: vegetation, and animals, tend to be more active in warm
and humid climates.
Weathering Control
The type, rate and extent of weathering depends upon several controlling factors:
o Climate dictates the type of weathering processes that operate, largely by
determining the amount of water available and the temperature at which the
processes occur. Chemical reactions are faster at higher temperatures, while frost
wedging occurs in colder climates.
o Rock Type determines the resistance of the rock to the weathering processes that
operate in that particular environment. Each rock type is composed of a particular
set of minerals, which are joined together by crystallisation, chemical bonding or
cementing. When the forces of plate tectonics move these rocks from the
environment in which they formed and expose them to the atmosphere they begin
to weather.
o Rock Structure: highly jointed or faulted rocks present many planes of weakness
along which weathering agents (e.g. water) can penetrate into the rock mass.
o Topography: the slope angle determines the energy of the weathering system by
controlling the rate at which water passes through the rock mass. Generally,
higher, or tectonically active areas with steeper slopes have more dynamic
weathering systems, whereas flat plains have slower weathering systems.
o Erosion: the dynamism and efficiency of erosion determines how rapidly any
weathered material is removed, how frequently fresh rock is exposed to
weathering, and if deeply weathered profiles are preserved.
o Time: the duration of the period that the same type of weathering has been
operating, uninterrupted by climatic change, earth movements, and other factors,
determines the degree and depth to which the rocks have been weathered.

Weathering Products
o Weathering gradually weakens rocks, and eventually produces new geological
materials (rock fragments, sands, silts and clays) that are more stable in the new
environment. Weathering generally produces finer and less dense rock materials,
and weaker, more porous and permeable rock masses.
o In the tropics and subtropics, intense weathering in the hot and humid conditions
produces thick weathered profiles, which may be up to 100 metres, or more, thick.
o Weathering processes penetrate down discontinuities (planes of weakness), such as
faults and joints, in the rock mass and then attack the faces of the joint-bounded
blocks, penetrating the solid blocks (Figure 3).
o Weathering preferentially attacks the corners and edges of the joint blocks, causing
them to become rounded. This action is assisted by stress release, which causes the
rock to flake into curved shells in a process termed exfoliation.
Physical weathering:
It is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by physical forces. These
physical forces include temperature fluctuation, abrasion, frost action (freezing and
thawing), and salt crystal growth.
Temperature fluctuation can cause expansion or contraction of rock. When the
temperature of rock increases, the rock expands. When the temperature of rock
decreases, the rock contracts. This process of expansion and contraction is a physical
stress and can crack or break rock. Abrasion of rock is caused by the friction of water,
wind, or ice upon the rock. The continuous exposure to these elements slowly breaks
down the exposed surface of the rock.

Frost action is the repeated cycle of ice formation and ice melt in the pore spaces and
fractures of rocks causing disintegration of the rock. When water in rock pores
freezes, its volume increases by about 10%. This can create a significant amount of
pressure on rocks. The magnitude and extent of frost action is dependent on the
frequency, duration and intensity of the freezing and thawing cycles.

Chemical weathering:
It is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by chemical
reactions. These reactions include oxidation, hydrolysis, and carbonation. These
processes either form or destroy minerals, thus altering the nature of the rock’s
mineral composition. Temperature and, especially, moisture are critical for chemical
weathering; chemical weathering of rock minerals generally occurs more quickly in
hot, humid climatic regions.
Oxidation is the reaction of rock minerals with oxygen, thus changing the mineral
composition of the rock. When minerals in rock oxidize, they become less resistant to
weathering. Iron, a commonly known mineral, becomes red or rust colored when
oxidized.
Chemical weathering is caused by rain water reacting with the mineral grains in rocks
to form new minerals (clays) and soluble salts. These reactions occur particularly
when the water is slightly acidic.

Where does it occur?

These chemical processes need water, and occur more rapidly at higher temperature,
so warm, damp climates are best. Chemical weathering (especially hydrolysis and
oxidation) is the first stage in the production of soils.
There are different types of chemical weathering, the most important are:
 Solution - removal of rock in solution by acidic rainwater. In particular,
limestone is weathered by rainwater containing dissolved CO2, (this process is
sometimes called carbonation).
 Hydrolysis - the breakdown of rock by acidic water to produce clay and soluble
salts.
 Oxidation - the breakdown of rock by oxygen and water, often giving iron-rich
rocks a rusty-coloured weathered surface.

Biological Weathering:
Biological weathering is the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by
plants, animals and microbes.
Growing plant roots can exert stress or pressure on rock. Although the process is
physical, the pressure is exerted by a biological process (i.e., growing roots).
Biological processes can also produce chemical weathering, for example where plant
roots or microorganisms produce organic acids which help to dissolve minerals.
Microbial activity breaks down rock minerals by altering the rock’s chemical
composition, thus making it more susceptible to weathering. One example of
microbial activity is lichen; lichen is fungi and algae, living together in a symbiotic
relationship. Fungi release chemicals that break down rock minerals; the minerals thus
released from rock are consumed by the algae. As this process continues, holes and
gaps continue to develop on the rock, exposing the rock further to physical and
chemical weathering.
Burrowing animals can move rock fragments to the surface, exposing the rock to more
intense chemical, physical, and biological processes and so indirectly enhancing the
process of rock weathering.

Although physical, chemical, and biological weathering are separate processes, some
or all of the processes can act together in nature.
Living organisms contribute to the weathering process in many ways.
Trees put down roots through joints or cracks in the rock in order to find moisture. As
the tree grows, the roots gradually prize the rock apart.
Many animals, such as these Piddock shells, bore into rocks for protection either by
scraping away the grains or secreting acid to dissolve the rock. Even the tiniest
bacteria, algae and lichens produce chemicals that help break down the rock on which
they live, so they can get the nutrients they need.